NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Field systems

Agriculture (a term which encompasses farming) is the art, science or practice of producing food, feed, fiber and many other desired goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals. Agri is from Latin ager ("a field"), and culture is from Latin cultura, meaning "cultivation" in the strict sense of tillage of the soil. Thus a literal reading of the English word yields tillage of the soil of a field. In actual usage, Agriculture denotes a broad array of activities essential to food and material production, including all techniques for raising and processing livestock (see Animal husbandry) no less than those essential to crop planting and harvesting. Image File history File links Portal. ... In agriculture, fodder or animal feed is any foodstuff that is used specifically to feed livestock, such as cattle, sheep, chickens and pigs. ... Fiber or fibre[1] is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Sheep are commonly bred as livestock. ... In a draw in a mountainous region, a shepherd guides a flock of about 20 sheep amidst scrub and olive trees. ... Domesticated animals, plants, and other organisms are those whose collective behavior, life cycle, or physiology has been altered as a result of their breeding and living conditions being under human control for multiple generations. ...

Continual improvement in agricultural methods from pre-history to the present has been the key factor in the extreme specialization of human activity during the historical epoch. Many of these specializations have nothing to do with food production, but when specialists such as scientists, inventors and mechanical and chemical engineers devote their efforts to the improvement of farming methods, resources and implements they too, along with those who work the fields and pens, are said to be "in agriculture". The word epoch can mean either an interval of time, or a particular point in time used as a reference point. ... The physicist Albert Einstein is probably historys most widely recognized scientist. ... An inventor is a person who creates new inventions, typically technical devices such as mechanical, electrical or software devices or methods. ... Look up engineer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

42% (2002 estimate) of the world's population is employed in agriculture, making it by far the most common occupation, yet it accounts for only 4.4% (2005 estimate) of the Gross World Product (an aggregate of all Gross Domestic Products).[1] Gross world product is the total Gross National Product of all the countries in the world. ... A regions gross domestic product, or GDP, is one of several measures of the size of its economy. ...

A farmer in Germany works the land in the traditional way with a horse and plough during a plowing competition. ... A farmer in Germany works the land in the traditional way with a horse and plough during a plowing competition. ... Bales of hay on a farm near Ames, Iowa A farm is the basic unit in agriculture. ... Binomial name Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758 nugget For other uses, see Horse (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that Mouldboard Plough be merged into this article or section. ...

Overview

Farming sometimes refers to subsistence agriculture, the production of enough food to meet just the needs of the farmer/agriculturalist and his/her family. It may also refer to industrial agriculture, (often referred to as factory farming) long prevalent in developed nations and increasingly so elsewhere, which consists of obtaining financial income from the cultivation of land to yield produce, the commercial raising of animals (animal husbandry), or both. Download high resolution version (1400x1050, 586 KB)Rice fields on Java, Indonesia. ... Download high resolution version (1400x1050, 586 KB)Rice fields on Java, Indonesia. ... Species Oryza glaberrima Oryza sativa Rice refers to two species (Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima) of grass, native to tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia and to Africa, which together provide more than one fifth of the calories consumed by humans[1]. Rice is an annual plant, growing to 1-1. ... Java (Indonesian, Javanese, and Sundanese: Jawa) is an island of Indonesia, and the site of its capital city, Jakarta. ... Like most farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa, this Cameroonian man cultivates at the subsistence level. ... Farmer spreading grasshopper bait in his alfalfa field. ... Beef cattle on a feedlot in the Texas Panhandle Factory farming is a term used to describe a set of controversial practices in large-scale, intensive agriculture. ... Supermarket produce section Produce is a general term for a group of farm-produced goods, generally limited to fruits and vegetables. ... In a draw in a mountainous region, a shepherd guides a flock of about 20 sheep amidst scrub and olive trees. ...

Agriculture is also short for the study of the practice of agriculture—more formally known as agricultural science. Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic, and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. ...

Increasingly, in addition to food for humans and animal feeds, agriculture produces goods such as cut flowers, ornamental and nursery plants, timber or lumber, fertilizers, animal hides, leather, industrial chemicals (starch, sugar, ethanol, alcohols and plastics), fibers (cotton, wool, hemp, and flax), fuels (methane from biomass, biodiesel) and both legal and illegal drugs (biopharmaceuticals, tobacco, marijuana, opium, cocaine). Genetically engineered plants and animals produce specialty drugs. In agriculture, fodder or animal feed is any foodstuff that is used specifically to feed livestock, such as cattle, sheep, chickens and pigs. ... Clivia miniata right hereflowers. ... A nursery is a place where plants are propagated, usually for sale as a business, though some gardeners and farmers keep private nurseries. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Lumber. ... spreading manure, an organic fertilizer Fertilizers or fertilisers are compounds given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar spraying, for uptake through leaves. ... Hides are skins obtained from animals that are used for human consumption. ... Modern leather-working tools Leather is a material created through the tanning of hides, pelts and skins of animals, primarily cows. ... Starch is a complex carbohydrate which is insoluble in water, it is used by plants as a way to store excess glucose. ... Magnified view of refined sugar crystals. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless chemical compound, one of the alcohols that is most often found in alcoholic beverages. ... In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is bound to a carbon atom of an alkyl or substituted alkyl group. ... Plastic covers a range of synthetic or semisynthetic polymerization products. ... Fiber or fibre[1] is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. ... Cotton ready for harvest. ... Wool in a shearing shed Long and short hair wool at the South Central Family Farm Research Center in Boonesville, AR Wool sheep, Royal Melbourne Show Wool is the fibre derived from the fur of animals of the Caprinae family, principally sheep and goats, but the hair of other mammals... This is one of several related articles about cannabis. ... Binomial name Linum usitatissimum Linnaeus. ... The simplest hydrocarbon, methane, is a gas with a chemical formula of CH4. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Biodiesel sample Biodiesel refers to a diesel-equivalent, processed fuel derived from biological sources. ... Biopharmaceuticals are medical drugs (see pharmacology) produced by biotechnology. ... Species Nicotiana acuminata Nicotiana alata Nicotiana attenuata Nicotiana benthamiana Nicotiana clevelandii Nicotiana excelsior Nicotiana forgetiana Nicotiana glauca Nicotiana glutinosa Nicotiana langsdorffii Nicotiana longiflora Nicotiana obtusifolia Nicotiana paniculata Nicotiana plumbagifolia Nicotiana quadrivalvis Nicotiana repanda Nicotiana rustica Nicotianasuaveolens Nicotiana sylvestris Nicotiana tabacum Nicotiana tomentosa Ref: ITIS 30562 as of August 26, 2005... Species Cannabis indica Cannabis ruderalis Cannabis sativa Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant that includes one or more species. ... Opium is a narcotic analgesic drug which is obtained from the unripe seed pods of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L. or the synonym paeoniflorum). ... This article is about the drug cocaine. ... GMO is an abbreviation with several meanings: Genetically modified organism, an organism the genetic material of which has been altered using recombinant DNA technology Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad (AAR reporting mark GMO), an American railroad carrier This page concerning a three-letter acronym or abbreviation is a disambiguation page...

In the Western world, the use of gene manipulation, better management of soil nutrients, and improved weed control have greatly increased yields per unit area. At the same time, the use of mechanization has decreased labour requirements. The developing world generally produces lower yields, having less access to the latest technology. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3072x2304, 4274 KB) Description: Tractor on the way from Oslo to GÃ¶teborg just before Pingle, Sweden. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3072x2304, 4274 KB) Description: Tractor on the way from Oslo to GÃ¶teborg just before Pingle, Sweden. ... The term Western world or the West can have multiple meanings depending on its context. ... Genetic engineering, genetic modification (GM), and gene splicing (once in widespread use but now deprecated) are terms for the process of manipulating genes in an organism, usually outside of the organisms normal reproductive process. ... Weed control, a botanical component of pest control, stops weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to domesticated plants, sometimes livestocks, by using manual techniques including soil cultivation, mulching and herbicides. ...

Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences. Irrigation, drainage, conservation and sanitary engineering, each of which is important in successful farming, are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers. High-altitude aerial view of irrigation in the Heart of the Sahara (, ) Irrigation (in agriculture) is the replacement or supplementation of rainfall with water from another source in order to grow crops. ... Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area. ... The conservation ethic is an ethic of resource use, allocation, exploitation, and protection. ...

Agricultural chemistry deals with other vital farming concerns, such as the application of fertilizer, insecticides (see Pest control), and fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals.Plant breeding and genetics contribute additionally to farm productivity. Advanced seed engineering has allowed strains of seed to become perfect in every farming situation. Seeds can now germinate faster and adapt to shorter growing seasons in different climates. Present-day seed can resist the spraying of pesticides that kill all green-leaf plants. Hydroponics, a method of soilless gardening in which plants are grown in chemical nutrient solutions, may help meet the need for greater food production as the world's population increases. Pest control refers to the regulation or management of another species defined as a pest, usually because it is detrimental to a persons health, the ecology or the economy. ... Fungicides are pesticides for destruction or development prevention of fungi. ... Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

The packing, processing, and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science. Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have increased the markets for farm products (see Food preservation; Meat packing industry). Various preserved foods Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in such a way as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent foodborne illness while maintaining nutritional value, texture and flavor. ... The meat packing industry is an industry that handles the slaughtering, processing and distribution of animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock. ...

Mechanization, the outstanding characteristic of late 19th and 20th century agricultural evolution, has eased much of the backbreaking toil of the farmer. More significantly, mechanization has enormously increased farm efficiency and productivity (see Agricultural machinery). Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs; however, are still used to cultivate fields, harvest crops and transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world. Agricultural machinery is one of the most revolutionary and impactful applications of modern technology. ... Field (agriculture) refers generally to an area of land enclosed or otherwise and used for agricultural purposes such as: Cultivating crops Usage as a paddock or generally an enclosure of livestock Land left to lie fallow or as arable land See also Field (disambiguation) Pasture Meadow Categories: | ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

Airplanes, helicopters, trucks and tractors are used in agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and disease control, Aerial topdressing, transporting perishable products, and fighting forest fires. Radio and television disseminate vital weather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers. Computers have become an essential tool for farm management. Aerial Topdressing is the spreading of fertilisers such as Superphosphate over farm land. ...

According to the National Academy of Engineering in the US, agricultural mechanization is one of the 20 greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century. Early in the century, it took one American farmer to produce food for 2.5 people, where today, due to engineering technology (also, plant breeding and agrichemicals), a single farmer can feed over 130 people [2]. This comes at a cost, however, of large amounts of energy input, from unsustainable, mostly fossil fuel, sources. Download high resolution version (1400x1050, 430 KB)Farming on Indonesia. ... Download high resolution version (1400x1050, 430 KB)Farming on Indonesia. ... Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years. ... In agriculture, agrichemical (or agrochemical) is a generic term for the various synthetic chemical products manufactured and sold for use in growing crops. ... Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio Fossil fuels, also known as mineral fuels, are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, oil and natural gas. ...

Animal husbandry means breeding and raising animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis.

In recent years some aspects of industrial intensive agriculture have been the subject of increasing discussion. The widening sphere of influence held by large seed and chemical companies, meat packers and food processors has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public. There has been increased activity of some people against some farming practices, raising chickens for food being one example. Another issue is the type of feed given to some animals that can cause Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy in cattle. There has also been concern because of the disastrous effect that intensive agriculture has on the environment. In the US, for example, fertilizer has been running off into the Mississippi for years and has caused a dead spot in the Gulf of Mexico, where the Mississippi empties. Intensive agriculture also depletes the fertility of the land over time and the end effect is that which happened in the Middle East, where some of the most fertile farmland in the world was turned into a desert by intensive agriculture. Intensive agriculture is an agricultural production system characterized by the significant use of inputs, and seeking to maximize the production. ... A sphere of influence (SOI) is an area or region over which an organization or state exerts some kind of indirect cultural, economic, military or political domination. ... Look up Bovine spongiform encephalopathy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic engineering has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users. This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unheard of. Some argue these companies are guilty of biopiracy. A ripe red jalapeno cut open to show the seeds For other uses, see Seed (disambiguation). ... An autoluminograph from 1986 of a glowing transgenic tobacco plant bearing the luciferase gene of the firefly, illustrating the possibilities of genetic engineering. ... Biopiracy refers to the privatization and unauthorized use of biological resources by entities (including corporations, universities and governments) outside of a country which has pre-existing knowledge. ...

Soil conservation and nutrient management have been important concerns since the 1950s, with the best farmers taking a stewardship role with the land they operate. However, increasing contamination of waterways and wetlands by nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus are of concern in many countries. Soil is the material on the surface of a lithosphere subject to weathering, and especially the earthy portion of that material. ... The conservation ethic is an ethic of resource use, allocation, exploitation, and protection. ... As defined by the Environmental Protection Agency[1], nutrient management is managing the amount, form, placement, and timing of application of nutrients (whether as animal waste, commercial fertilizer, or other form of nutrients) to plants. ... In general stewardship is responsibility for taking good care of resources entrusted to one. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 14. ... This article is about the chemical element. ...

Increasing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of community-supported agriculture, local food movement, Slow Food, and commercial organic farming, though these yet remain fledgling industries. Community-supported agriculture (CSA) is a relatively new socio-economic model of food production, sales and distribution aimed at both increasing the quality of food and the quality of care given the land, plants and animals â€“ while substantially reducing potential food losses and financial risks for the producers. ... Local food (also regional food) is a principle of sustainability relying on consumption of food products that are locally grown. ... The Slow Food movement, coined in response to fast food, claims to preserve the cultural cuisine and the associated food plants and seeds, domestic animals, and farming within an ecoregion. ... Organic cultivation of mixed vegetables in Capay, California. ...

History

Pinpointing the absolute beginnings of agriculture is problematic because the transition away from purely hunter-gatherer societies, in some areas, began many thousands of years before the invention of writing. Nonetheless, Archaeobotanists/Paleoethnobotanists have traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant characteristics, such as a semi-tough rachis and larger seeds, to just after the Younger Dryas (about 9,500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Limited anthropological and archaeological evidence both indicate a grain-grinding culture farming along the Nile in the 10th millennium BC using the world's earliest known type of sickle blades. There is even earlier evidence for conscious cultivation and seasonal harvest: grains of rye with domestic traits have been recovered from Epi-Palaeolithic (10,000+ BC) contexts at Abu Hureyra in Syria, but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication. By 8000 BC, farming was in practice in Anatolia. By 7000 BC it reached Mesopotamia, by 6000 BC the Nile River, and by 5000 BC, it had spread to India. Around the same time, agriculture was developed independently in China. Maize was first domesticated from teosinte in the Americas around 3000-2700 BC. In these contexts lie the origins of the eight so-called founder crops of agriculture: firstly emmer and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on PPNB sites in this region, although the consensus is that wheat was the first to be sown and harvested on a significant scale. There are many sites that date to between ca. 8,500 BC and 7,500 BC where the systematic farming of these crops contributed the major part of the inhabitants' diet. From the Fertile Crescent agriculture spread eastwards to Central Asia and westwards into Cyprus, Anatolia and, by 7,000 BC, Greece. Farming, principally of emmer and einkorn, reached northwestern Europe via southeastern and central Europe by ca. 4,800 BC (see, among others, Price, D. [ed.] 2000. Europe's First Farmers. Cambridge University Press; Harris, D. [ed.] 1996 The Origins and Spread of Agriculture in Eurasia. UCL Press). Ancient Egyptian Farmer, from KingTutOne. ... Ancient Egyptian Farmer, from KingTutOne. ... See also Creative writing. ... Paleoethnobotany, also known as archaeobotany in European (particularly British) academic circles, is the archaeological sub-field that studies plant remains from archaeological sites. ... Paleoethnobotany, also known as archaeobotany in European (particularly British) academic circles, is the archaeological sub-field that studies plant remains from archaeological sites. ... Rachis was also king of the Lombards, 744-749. ... This writeup is about biological seeds; for other meanings see Seed (disambiguation). ... Three temperature records, the GRIP one clearly showing the Younger Dryas event at around 11 kyr BP The Younger Dryas stadial, named after the alpine / tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala, and also referred to as the Big Freeze [1], was a brief (approximately 1300 Â± 70 years [1]) cold climate period following... The Holocene epoch is a geological period that extends from the present back about 10,000 radiocarbon years. ... The Levant Levant is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ... The Fertile Crescent is a historical region in the Middle East incorporating Ancient Egypt, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word Î¬Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Archaeology, archeology, or archÃ¦ology (from the Greek words Î±ÏÏ‡Î±Î¯Î¿Ï‚ = ancient and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... This article is about grains in general. ... The word grinding can mean many things: Grinding is a manufacturing process that uses friction with a rough surface to wear away or smooth the surface of a work piece - see grinding machine. ... The word culture, from the Latin colo, -ere, with its root meaning to cultivate, generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ... Farming, ploughing rice paddy, in Indonesia Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other desired products by cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals (livestock). ... The Nile (Arabic: Ø§Ù„Ù†ÙŠÙ„ an-nÄ«l), in Africa, is the longest river on Earth. ... (Pleistocene, Upper Paleolithic â€“ 10th millennium BC â€“ 9th millennium BC â€“ other millennia) Beginning of the Mesolithic, or Epipaleolithic time period, which is the first part of the Holocene epoch. ... Using a sickle A sickle is a curved, hand-held agricultural tool typically used for harvesting grain crops before the advent of modern harvesting machinery. ... A blade is the flat part of a bladed tool or weapon that (usually) has a cutting edge and/or pointed end typically made of a metal, such as steel used to cut, stab, slice, throw, thrust, or strike. ... Binomial name Secale cereale M.Bieb. ... The Epipalaeolithic (or Epi-Palaeolithic, Epipaleolithic, or Epi-Paleolithic) was a period in the development of human technology that immediately precedes the neolithic period, as an alternative to mesolithic. ... Tell Abu Hureyra (tell is arabic for mound) was a site of an ancient settlement in the northern Levant or western Mesopotamia. ... Asia Minor lies east of the Bosporus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. ... Binomial name Zea mays L. Maize (Zea mays ssp. ... species ssp. ... The Neolithic founder crops (or primary domesticates) are the eight species of plant that were domesticated by early Holocene (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and B) farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia. ... Binomial name triticum dicoccoides Emmer Grain is an ancient grain officially known as Triticum dicoccoides. ... Binomial name Triticum boeoticum Boss. ... Binomial name Hordeum vulgare L. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is a major food and animal feed crop, a member of the grass family Poaceae. ... Binomial name Pisum sativum L. A pea is the small, edible round green bean which grows in a pod on the leguminous vine Pisum sativum. ... Binomial name Lens culinaris Medikus The lentil (Lens culinaris) is a bushy annual plant of the legume family, grown for its lens-shaped seeds. ... The Bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia) is a an ancient grain legume crop of the Mediterranean region (common names are: bitter vetch (English), kersannah (Arabic), yero (Spanish), rovi (Greek), burcak (Turkish)). The nutritional value of the grain for ruminant production has guaranteed the continued cultivation of V. ervilia in Morocco, Spain... Binomial name Cicer arietinum L. The chickpea, garbanzo bean or bengal gram (Cicer arietinum) is an edible pulse of the Leguminosae or Fabaceae family, subfamily India. ... Binomial name Linum usitatissimum Linnaeus. ... Pre-Pottery Neolithic B is a division of the Neolithic developed by Dame Kathleen Kenyon during her archaeological excavations at Jericho in Palestine. ... Species T. boeoticum T. compactum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum References: ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat (Triticum spp. ... The Fertile Crescent is a historical region in the Middle East incorporating Ancient Egypt, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Asia Minor lies east of the Bosporus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. ... Europe is conventionally considered one of the seven continents of Earth which, in this case, is more a cultural and political distinction than a physiographic one, leading to various perspectives about Europes borders. ...

The reasons for the earliest introduction of farming may have included climate change, but possibly there were also social reasons (e.g. accumulation of food surplus for competitive gift-giving). Most certainly there was a gradual transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural economies after a lengthy period when some crops were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered from the wild. Although localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant, the fact that farming was 'invented' at least three times, possibly more, suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental. Download high resolution version (1379x969, 643 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (1379x969, 643 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... It has been suggested that Mouldboard Plough be merged into this article or section. ... Binomial name Medicago sativa L. Subspecies subsp. ... In anthropology, the hunter-gatherer way of life is that led by certain societies of the Neolithic Era based on the exploitation of wild plants and animals. ... The Levant Levant is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ...

Full dependency on domestic crops and animals did not occur until the Bronze Age, by which time wild resources contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the diet. If the operative definition of agriculture includes large scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organized irrigation, and use of a specialized labour force, the title "inventors of agriculture" would fall to the Sumerians, starting ca. 5,500 BC. Intensive farming allows a much greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering and allows for the accumulation of excess product to keep for winter use or to sell for profit. The ability of farmers to feed large numbers of people whose activities have nothing to do with material production was the crucial factor in the rise of standing armies. The agriculturalism of the Sumerians allowed them to embark on an unprecedented territorial expansion, making them the first empire builders. Not long after, the Egyptians, powered by effective farming of the Nile valley, achieved a population density from which enough warriors could be drawn for a territorial expansion more than tripling the Sumerian empire in area.^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2304x1728, 568 KB)Sumerian Harvesters sickle, 3000 BCE. Baked clay. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2304x1728, 568 KB)Sumerian Harvesters sickle, 3000 BCE. Baked clay. ... It has been suggested that Edubba be merged into this article or section. ... Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago The Field Museum of Natural History, in Chicago, Illinois, USA, sits on Lake Shore Drive next to Lake Michigan, part of a scenic complex called known as the Museum Campus which includes Soldier Field, the football stadium that is the home of the Chicago... The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ... Mono-cropping is the agricultural practice of growing the same crop year after year on the same land, without crop rotation through other crops. ... High-altitude aerial view of irrigation in the Heart of the Sahara (, ) Irrigation (in agriculture) is the replacement or supplementation of rainfall with water from another source in order to grow crops. ... In classical economics and all micro-economics labour is a measure of the work done by human beings and is one of three factors of production, the others being land and capital. ... It has been suggested that Edubba be merged into this article or section. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Nile (Arabic: Ø§Ù„Ù†ÙŠÙ„ an-nÄ«l), in Africa, is the longest river on Earth. ...

The invention of a three field system of crop rotation during the Middle Ages vastly improved agricultural efficiency. Crop rotation is the practice of growing two (or more) dissimilar type of crops in the same space in sequence. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

After 1492 the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespread exchange of plants and animals known as the Columbian Exchange. Crops and animals that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted to the New and vice versa. Perhaps most notably, the tomato became a favorite in European cuisine, with maize and the potato widely grown, while certain wheat strains quickly took to western hemisphere soils and became a dietary staple even for native North, Central and South Americans. The Columbian Exchange (also sometimes known as The Grand Exchange) has been one of the significant events in the history of world ecology, agriculture, and culture. ... Binomial name Solanum lycopersicum L. The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family, native to Central and South America, from Mexico to Peru. ... Binomial name Zea mays L. Maize (Zea mays ssp. ... Binomial name Solanum tuberosum L. The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a perennial plant of the Solanaceae, or nightshade, family, commonly grown for its starchy tuber. ...

By the early 1800s agricultural practices, particularly careful selection of hardy strains and cultivars, had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages and before, especially in the largely virgin lands of North and South America. With the rapid rise of mechanization in the 20th century, especially in the form of the tractor, the demanding tasks of sowing, harvesting and threshing could be performed with a speed and on a scale barely imaginable before. These advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit. Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery in order to massivly increase output. ... Sowing is the process of planting seeds. ... This article is about gathering crops. ... Threshing is the process of beating cereal plants in order to separate the seeds or grains from the straw. ...

Crops

World production of major crops in 2004

In millions of metric tons, based on FAO estimates. FAO emblem With its headquarters in Rome, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that works to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living; to improve the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of food and agricultural products; to promote rural development; and...

class="preview" id="pv194"> This article is about grains in general. ... Vegetables in a market Venn diagram representing the relationship between (botanical) fruits and vegetables. ... Binomial name Cucumis melo L. The melon is the fruit and plant of a typically vine-like (climber and trailer) herb that was first cultivated more than 4000 years ago (~ 2000 BC) in Persia and Africa. ... Primary and secondary roots in a cotton plant In vascular plants, the root is that organ of a plant body that typically lies below the surface of the soil (compare with stem). ... Oca tubers For the fungal genus, see Truffle. ... A glass of cow milk Milk most often means the nutrient fluid produced by the mammary glands of female mammals. ... Fruit stall in Barcelona, Catalonia. ... Various meats Cold Meat Salad Meat, in its broadest modern definition, is all animal tissue intended to be used as food. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with cooking oil. ... Orders See text. ... A carton of free-range chicken eggs Ostrich egg Bird eggs are a common food source. ... Pulses are defined by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as annual leguminous crops yielding from one to twelve grains or seeds of variable size, shape and color within a pod. ... Fiber crops are field crops grown for their fibers, which are used to make paper, cloth, or rope. ... FAO emblem With its headquarters in Rome, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that works to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living; to improve the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of food and agricultural products; to promote rural development; and... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... Binomial name Zea mays L. Maize (Zea mays ssp. ... Species T. boeoticum T. compactum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum References: ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat (Triticum spp. ... Species Oryza glaberrima Oryza sativa Rice refers to two species (Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima) of grass, native to tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia and to Africa, which together provide more than one fifth of the calories consumed by humans[1]. Rice is an annual plant, growing to 1-1. ... Binomial name Solanum tuberosum L. The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a perennial plant of the Solanaceae, or nightshade, family, commonly grown for its starchy tuber. ... Two sugar beets - the one on the left has been cultivated to be smoother than the traditional beet, so that it traps less soil. ... Binomial name Glycine max (L.) Merr. ... Species Elaeis guineensis Elaeis oleifera The oil palms (Elaeis) coomprise two species of the Arecaceae, or palm family. ... Binomial name Hordeum vulgare L. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is a major food and animal feed crop, a member of the grass family Poaceae. ... Binomial name Solanum lycopersicum L. The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family, native to Central and South America, from Mexico to Peru. ... FAO emblem With its headquarters in Rome, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that works to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living; to improve the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of food and agricultural products; to promote rural development; and...

Crop improvement

Domestication of plants is done in order to increase yield, improve disease resistance and drought tolerance, ease harvest and to improve the taste and nutritional value and many other characteristics. Centuries of careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant breeders use greenhouses and other techniques to get as many as three generations of plants per year so that they can make improvements all the more quickly. Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1152x864, 600 KB) Summer 2004 File links The following pages link to this file: Agriculture Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1152x864, 600 KB) Summer 2004 File links The following pages link to this file: Agriculture Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Soil scientist measures corn growth and other processes [1] File links The following pages link to this file: Agriculture Category:Technology Categories: Agricultural Research Service images ... Soil scientist measures corn growth and other processes [1] File links The following pages link to this file: Agriculture Category:Technology Categories: Agricultural Research Service images ... Download high resolution version (1600x1067, 300 KB)Bird netting on wine grapes File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Download high resolution version (1600x1067, 300 KB)Bird netting on wine grapes File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... The updated USDA food pyramid, published in 2005, is a general nutrition guide for recommended food consumption. ...

Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and '30s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive radiation mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn and barley.^{[citation needed]} Pastureland Pasture is land with lush herbaceous vegetation cover used for grazing of ungulates as part of a farm or ranch. ...

For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the USA have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001, primarily due to improvements in genetics. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Higher yields are due to improvements in genetics, as well as use of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).^{[citation needed]} [Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat = 60 pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215 kg. 1 bushel of corn = 56 pounds ≈ 25.401 kg] Binomial name Zea mays L. Maize (Zea mays ssp. ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia. ... Pest control refers to the regulation or management of another species defined as a pest, usually because it is detrimental to a persons health, the ecology or the economy. ...

In industrialized agriculture, crop "improvement" has often reduced nutritional and other qualities of food plants to serve the interests of producers. After mechanical tomato-harvesters were developed in the early 1960s, agricultural scientists bred tomatoes that were harder and less nutritious (Friedland and Barton 1975). In fact, a major longitudinal study of nutrient levels in numerous vegetables showed significant declines in the last 50 years; garden vegetables in the U.S. today contain on average 38 percent less vitamin B2 and 15 percent less vitamin C (Davis and Riordan 2004). Vegetables on a market Vegetable is a nutritional and culinary term denoting any part of a plant that is commonly consumed by humans as food, but is not regarded as a culinary fruit, nut, herb, spice, or grain. ...

Very recently, genetic engineering has begun to be employed in some parts of the world to speed up the selection and breeding process. The most widely used modification is a herbicide resistance gene that allows plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate, which is used to control weeds in the crop. A less frequently used but more controversial modification causes the plant to produce a toxin to reduce damage from insects (c.f. Starlink). An autoluminograph from 1986 of a glowing transgenic tobacco plant bearing the luciferase gene of the firefly, illustrating the possibilities of genetic engineering. ... Transgenic maize (corn) has been deliberately genetically modified to have agronomically desirable traits. ...

There are specialty producers who raise less common types of livestock or plants.

Aquaculture, the farming of fish, shrimp, and algae, is closely associated with agriculture. The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view. ... Orders See text. ... Superfamilies and families Alpheoidea Alpheidae - snapping shrimps Barbouriidae Hippolytidae Ogyrididae Atyoidea Atyidae Bresilioidea Agostocarididae Alvinocarididae Bresiliidae Disciadidae Mirocarididae Campylonotoidea Bathypalaemonellidae Campylonotoidae Crangonoidea Crangonidae Glyphocrangonidea Galatheacaridoidea Galatheacarididae Nematocarcinoidea Eugonatonotidae Nematocarcinidae Rhynchocinetidae Xiphocarididae Oplophoroidea Oplophoridae Palaemonoidea Anchistioididae Desmocarididae Euryrhynchidae Gnathophyllidae Hymenoceridae Kakaducarididae Palaemonidae Typhlocarididae Pandaloidea Pandalidae Thalassocarididae Pasiphaeoidea Pasiphaeidae Procaridoidea Procarididae Processoidea... A seaweed (Laurencia) up close: the branches are multicellular and only about 1 mm thick. ...

Apiculture, the culture of bees, traditionally for honey—increasingly for crop pollination. It has been suggested that Honey flow be merged into this article or section. ... Honey honey comb A capped frame of honeycomb Honey is a sweet and viscous fluid produced by honeybees and other insects from the nectar of flowers. ... A flower-fly pollinating a Common Daisy (Bellis perennis) Pollination is an important step in the reproduction of seed plants: the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) to the plant carpel, the structure that contains the ovule (female gamete). ...

See also : botany, List of domesticated plants, List of vegetables, List of herbs, List of fruit Pinguicula grandiflora Botany is the scientific study of plantlife. ... This is a list of plants that have been domesticated by humans. ... Vegetables // Western Brassicas Broccoli (Brassica oleracea Italica group) Brussels sprout (Brassica oleracea Gemmifera group) Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea Botrytis group) Cabbage (Brassica oleracea Capitata group) Kale (Brassica oleracea Acephala group)) Rapini (Brassica rapa)) Oriental Brassicas Chinese broccoli (Brassica rapa var. ... By far the most commonly used seasoning for food is table salt; however, it is a mineral, not a spice. ... Here are lists of all the fruits considered edible in some cuisine. ...

Environmental problems

Agriculture may often cause environmental problems because it changes natural environments and produces harmful by-products. Some of the negative effects are: Image File history File links Download high resolution version (400x604, 82 KB) Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (400x604, 82 KB) Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University. ... Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA. Erosion is the displacement of solids (soil, mud, rock, and so forth) by the agents of wind, water, ice, or movement in response to gravity. ... Species T. boeoticum T. compactum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum References: ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat (Triticum spp. ... For the state of Washington in the United States, please see Washington. ...

Others are currently including the current global climate change General Name, Symbol, Number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 14. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... The Murray River in Australia. ... A lake is a body of water surrounded by land. ... A herbicide is a pesticide used to kill unwanted plants. ... A Fungicide is one of three main methods of pest control- chemical control of fungi in this case. ... A insecticide is a pesticide used against insects in all development forms. ... A biocide is a chemical substance, such as pesticides, which can be fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, miticides, or rodenticides, etc. ... In ecology, an ecosystem is a combination of all the living and non-living elements of an area. ... Modern arable agriculture typically uses large fields like this one in Dorset, England. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA. Erosion is the displacement of solids (soil, mud, rock, and other particles) by the agents of wind, water, ice, movement in response to gravity, or living organisms (in the case of bioerosion). ... Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes. ... Soil is the material on the surface of a lithosphere subject to weathering, and especially the earthy portion of that material. ... Particulates, alternately referred to as Particulate Matter (PM) , aerosols or fine particles are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in the air. ... Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. ... Fumes from hydrochloric acid and ammonia forming a white cloud of ammonium chloride Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa oasis in western Egypt. ... This power plant in New Mexico releases sulfur dioxide and particulate matter into the air. ... A weed is an unwanted plant. ... Wyoming Mustang (feral) courtesy of U.S. BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program A feral animal or plant is one that has escaped from domestication and returned, partly or wholly, to its wild state. ... Waste inside a rubbish bin Waste, rubbish, or garbage is unwanted or undesired material. ... [[also greatly increased by poor drainage and use of saline water for watering agricultural crops. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1856 to 2005; this map shows mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming refers to the observed increases in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans in recent...

Policy

Agricultural policy focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. At the policy level, common goals of agriculture include: This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...

A foodborne illness or food poisoning is any illness resulting from the consumption of food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, toxins, viruses, prions or parasites. ... Food security is a term used in development and humanitarian aid. ... Food quality is an important food manufacturing requirement, because consumers are vulnerable to any form of contamination. ...

Agricultural Revolutions

The British Agricultural Revolution describes a period of agricultural development in Britain between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, which saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. ... The Green Revolution is the increase in food production stemming from the improved strains of wheat, rice, maize and other cereals in the 1960s developed by Dr Norman Borlaug and others under the sponsorship of the Rockefeller Foundation and other organizations. ... The Neolithic Revolution was the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture, as first adopted by various independent prehistoric human societies. ...

Methods

There are various methods of agricultural production: Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2589x2481, 1365 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Agriculture Crop rotation Center pivot irrigation Haskell County, Kansas Ogallala Aquifer Agriculture in the United States Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Image:Crops Kansas... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2589x2481, 1365 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Agriculture Crop rotation Center pivot irrigation Haskell County, Kansas Ogallala Aquifer Agriculture in the United States Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Image:Crops Kansas... Sahara Irrigation (in agriculture) is the replacement or supplementation of rainfall with water from another source in order to grow crops. ... Haskell County (standard abbreviation: HS) is a county located in the state of Kansas. ... Look up corn in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Species About 30 species, see text Sorghum is a genus of about 20 species of grasses, native to tropical and subtropical regions of Eastern Africa, with one species native to Mexico. ... Species T. boeoticum T. compactum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum References: ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat (Triticum spp. ... Growing the same crop repeatedly in the same place eventually depletes the soil of various nutrients. ...

Aeroponics is a hydroponic technique involving the use of sprayers, nebulizers, foggers, or other devices to create a fine mist of solution to deliver nutrients to plant roots. ... Aerial Topdressing is the spreading of fertilisers such as Superphosphate over farm land. ... Agricultural machinery is one of the most revolutionary and impactful applications of modern technology. ... In a draw in a mountainous region, a shepherd guides a flock of about 20 sheep amidst scrub and olive trees. ... The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view. ... It has been suggested that Honey flow be merged into this article or section. ... Crop rotation: grain crop, fallow land, legumes Crop rotation is the practice of growing two (or more) dissimilar type of crops in the same space in sequence. ... In agriculture, a Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO) is a farm that raises livestock and seeks to maximize production by making highly efficient use of space and other resources. ... In agriculture, a Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO) is a farm that raises livestock and seeks to maximize production by making highly efficient use of space and other resources. ... Beef cattle on a feedlot in the Texas Panhandle Factory farming is a term used to describe a set of controversial practices in large-scale, intensive agriculture. ... Compost is the decomposed remnants of organic materials (those with plant and animal origins). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Detasseling is the act of removing the pollen-producing (or male) tassel from a corn (maize) plant. ... Domesticated animals, plants, and other organisms are those whose collective behavior, life cycle, or physiology has been altered as a result of their breeding and living conditions being under human control for multiple generations. ... Fence dividing paddocks. ... spreading manure, an organic fertilizer Fertilizers or fertilisers are compounds given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar spraying, for uptake through leaves. ... A greenhouse in Saint Paul, Minnesota. ... Hay bales after harvest in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany In agriculture, harvesting is the process of gathering mature crops from the fields. ... This page is a candidate to be copied to Wiktionary. ... In agriculture and gardening, hybrid seed is seed produced by artificially cross-pollinated plants. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... IPM bollworm trap Cotton field Manning, South Carolina In agriculture, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods: natural predators and parasites, pest-resistant varieties (see GMO), cultural practices, biological controls, various physical techniques, and pesticides as a last resort. ... IPM bollworm trap Cotton field Manning, South Carolina In agriculture, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods: natural predators and parasites, pest-resistant varieties (see GMO), cultural practices, biological controls, various physical techniques, and pesticides as a last resort. ... High-altitude aerial view of irrigation in the Heart of the Sahara (, ) Irrigation (in agriculture) is the replacement or supplementation of rainfall with water from another source in order to grow crops. ... Sheep are commonly bred as livestock. ... In agriculture, market gardening is the relatively small-scale production of fruits, vegetables and flowers as cash crops, frequently sold directly to consumers and restaurants. ... Monoculture describes systems that have very low diversity. ... No-till farming, also known as conservation tillage or zero tillage, is a way of growing crops from year to year without disturbing the soil through tillage. ... Organic cultivation of mixed vegetables in Capay, California. ... Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years. ... Permaculture Mandala summarising the ethics and principles of permaculture design. ... Pollination Management is the label for horticultural practices that accomplish or enhance pollination of a crop, to improve yield or quality, by understanding of the particular crops pollination needs, and by knowledgeable management of pollenizers, pollinators, and pollination conditions. ... Precision farming or precision agriculture is an agricultural concept relying on the existence of in-field variability. ... Ranching is the raising of cattle or sheep on rangeland, although one might also speak of ranching with regard to less common livestock such as elk, bison or emu. ... In agriculture, season extension refers to anything that allows a crop to be cultivated beyond its normal outdoor growing season. ... In agriculture and gardening, seed saving is the practice of saving seeds from open-pollinated vegetables and flowers for use from year to year. ... Seed testing is performed in dedicated laboratories by trained and usually certified analysts. ... In a draw in a mountainous region, a shepherd guides a flock of about 20 sheep amidst scrub and olive trees. ... Like most farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa, this Cameroonian man cultivates at the subsistence level. ... In agriculture, succession planting refers to several planting methods that increase crop availability during a growing season by making efficient use of space and timing. ... Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals: environmental stewardship, farm profitability, and prosperous farming communities. ... Terraced vineyards near Lausanne The Incan terraces at PÃsac are still used today. ... Vegetable farming has traditionally been done in long rows. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Weed control, a botanical component of pest control, stops weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to domesticated plants, sometimes livestocks, by using manual techniques including soil cultivation, mulching and herbicides. ...

References

Wells, Spencer: The Journey of Man : A Genetic Odyssey. Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN 069111532X
Crosby, Alfred W.: The Columbian Exchange : Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Praeger Publishers, 2003 (30th Anniversary Edition). ISBN 0275980731
Collinson, M. (editor): A History of Farming Systems Research. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0851994059
Davis, Donald R., and Hugh D. Riordan (2004) Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 23, No. 6, 669-682.
Friedland, William H. and Amy Barton (1975) Destalking the Wily Tomato: A Case Study of Social Consequences in California Agricultural Research. Univ. California at Sta. Cruz, Research Monograph 15.·

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