NationMaster - Encyclopedia: First Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was the major technological, socioeconomic and cultural change in late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain and spread throughout the world. During that time, an economy based on manual labour was replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery. It began with the mechanisation of the textile industries and the development of iron-making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and then railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.^[1] The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Madrid is the capital and the largest city in Spain, as well as in the province and the autonomous community of the same name. ... A steam engine is an external combustion heat engine that makes use of the thermal energy that exists in steam, converting it to mechanical work. ... Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of geologic formations. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the surface of the planet for the first time and explore space. ... Socioeconomics is the study of the social and economic impacts of any product or service offering, market intervention or other activity on an economy as a whole and on the companies, organisation and individuals who are its main economic actors. ... The word culture, from the Latin colo, -ere, with its root meaning to cultivate, generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Manual labor is a term used for physical work done with the hands, especially in an unskilled manual job such as fruit and vegetable picking, road building, or any other field where the work may be considered hard or arduous, which has as its objective the production of goods. ... Manufacturing is the transformation of raw materials into finished goods for sale, by means of tools and a processing medium, and including all intermediate processes involving the production or finishing of component parts (semi-manufactures). It is a large branch of industry and of secondary production. ... Wind turbines A machine is any mechanical or organic device that transmits or modifies energy to perform or assist in the performance of tasks. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... The Canal du Midi in Toulouse, France. ... A typical rural county road in Indiana, USA, where traffic drives on the right. ... A steam engine is an external combustion heat engine that makes use of the thermal energy that exists in steam, converting it to mechanical work. ... Coal (previously referred to as pitcoal or seacoal) is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining). ... Textile manufacturing is one of the oldest of mans technologies. ... A machine tool is a powered mechanical device, typically used to fabricate metal components of machines by the selective removal of metal. ...

The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact. Eric Hobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in the 1780s and wasn't fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s^[2], while T.S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of George III, The Regency, and George IV)^[3]. Dr Eric John Blair Hobsbawm CH (born June 9, 1917) is a British Marxist historian and author, once the leading theorist of the defunct Communist Party of Great Britain. ... Professor T. S. Ashton was a historian and author (1889 - 1968), a professor of economic history at the University of London from 1944 until his death. ... George III (George William Frederick) (4 June 1738 â€“ 29 January 1820) was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until 1 January 1801, and thereafter King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. ... The English Regency, or simply the Regency, is a name given to the period from 1811 to 1820 in the history of England. ... George IV (George Augustus Frederick) (12 August 1762 â€“ 26 June 1830) was king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and Hanover from 29 January 1820 until his death. ...

The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous and is often compared to the Neolithic revolution, when mankind developed agriculture and gave up its nomadic lifestyle^[4]. A common understanding of Western Europe in modern times. ... World map showing North America A satellite composite image of North America. ... Human relationships within an ethnically diverse society. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Kazakh nomads in the steppes of the Russian Empire, ca. ...

The first Industrial Revolution merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships and railways, and later in the nineteenth century with the internal combustion engine and electrical power generation. The Second Industrial Revolution (1871â€“1914) involved significant developments for society and the world. ... Italian ship-rigged vessel Amerigo Vespucci in New York Harbor, 1976 A ship is a large, sea-going watercraft, usually with multiple decks. ... A colorized automobile engine The internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the burning of a fuel occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. ... Electric power is the amount of work done by an electric current in a unit time. ...

It has been argued that GDP per capita was much more stable and progressed at a much slower rate until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries.^[5] In economics, a capitalist is someone who owns capital, presumably within the economic system of capitalism. ...

The idea and the name

The term 'Industrial Revolution' applied to technological change was common in the 1830s. Louis-Auguste Blanqui in 1837 spoke of la révolution industrielle. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society". Louis Auguste Blanqui (February 8, 1805 - January 1, 1881) was a French political activist. ... Friedrich Engels (November 28, 1820, Wuppertal â€“ August 5, 1895, London) was a 19th-century German political philosopher. ... The Condition of the Working Class is the best-known work of Friedrich Engels, and in many ways still the best study of the working class in Victorian England. ...

The radical nature of the process had been noted before that in Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society by Raymond Williams, entry for Industry: Raymond Williams (31 August 1921 - 26 January 1988) was a highly influential Welsh academic, novelist and critic. ...

Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose lectures given in 1881 gave a detailed account of the process. This page is about the economic historian Arnold Toynbee; for the universal historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee see this article. ...

Causes

The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complex and remain a topic for debate, with some historians seeing the Revolution as an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, the spread of disease was lessened, therefore preventing the epidemics common in previous times. The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose significantly, leading to a larger workforce. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, encouraging the surplus population who could no longer find employment in agriculture into cottage industry, for example weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly-developed factories. The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century. Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste. ... The term English Civil War (or Wars) refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The British Agricultural Revolution describes a period of agricultural development in Britain between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, which saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Domestic system. ... Tweed loom, Harris, 2004 Weaving is an ancient textile art and craft that involves placing two sets of threads or yarn made of fiber called the warp and weft of the loom and turning them into cloth. ... A factory (previously manufactory) is a large industrial building where goods or products are manufactured. ... Colonialism is a system in which a state claims sovereignty over territory and people outside its own boundaries, often to facilitate economic domination over their resources, labor, and often markets. ... A fruit stand at a market. ... In finance, financial markets facilitate: The raising of capital (in the capital markets); The transfer of risk (in the derivatives markets); and International trade (in the currency markets). ... Capital has a number of related meanings in economics, finance and accounting. ... In the history of science, the scientific revolution was the period that roughly began with the discoveries of Kepler, Galileo, and others at the dawn of the 17th century, ended with the publication of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, and led into a new period...

Technological innovation protected by patents (by the Statute of Monopolies 1623) was, of course, at the heart of it and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine^[6]. By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the surface of the planet for the first time and explore space. ... Englands Statute of Monopolies of 1623 (21 Jac. ... A steam engine is an external combustion heat engine that makes use of the thermal energy that exists in steam, converting it to mechanical work. ...

The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important catalyst of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded amongst them.^[7] A tariff is a tax on imported goods. ...

Causes for occurrence in Europe

One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution started in 18th century Europe and not other times like in Ancient Greece [2], which already had developed a primitive steam engine, and other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China and India. Ancient Greece is the period in Greek history lasting for close to a millennium, until the rise of Christianity. ... A steam engine is an external combustion heat engine that makes use of the thermal energy that exists in steam, converting it to mechanical work. ...

Numerous factors have been suggested, including ecology, government, and culture. Benjamin Elman argues that China was in a high level equilibrium trap in which the non-industrial methods were efficient enough to prevent use of industrial methods with high costs of capital. Kenneth Pomeranz, in the Great Divergence, argues that Europe and China were remarkably similar in 1700, and that the crucial differences which created the Industrial Revolution in Europe were sources of coal near manufacturing centres, and raw materials such as food and wood from the New World, which allowed Europe to expand economically in a way that China could not.^[8] Ernst Haeckel coined the term oekologie in 1866. ... The word culture, from the Latin colo, -ere, with its root meaning to cultivate, generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ... The high level equilibrium trap is a concept developed by Mark Elvin to explain why China never underwent an indigenous Industrial Revolution, despite its wealth, stability and scientific advancement. ... Kenneth Pomeranz is a professor and the chair of the history department at the University of California, Irvine in the US. He received his Ph. ... Coal (previously referred to as pitcoal or seacoal) is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining). ...

However, modern estimates of per capita income in Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in PPP (and England had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars [3]) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. Also, the average interest rate was about 5% in England and over 30% in China, which illustrates how capital was much more abundant in England; capital that was available for investment. An interest rate is the price a borrower pays for the use of money he does not own, and the return a lender receives for deferring his consumption, by lending to the borrower. ...

Some historians credit the different belief systems in China and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Christianity, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism). The key difference between these belief systems was that those from Europe focused on the individual, while Chinese beliefs centered around relationships between people. The family unit was more important than the individual for the large majority of Chinese history, and this may have played a role in why the industrial revolution took much longer to occur in China. There was the additional difference as to whether people looked backwards to a reputedly glorious past for answers to their questions or looked hopefully to the future. Furthermore, Western European peoples had experienced the Renaissance and Reformation; other parts of the world had not had a similar intellectual breakout, a condition that holds true even into the 21st century. Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recounted in the Gospels. ... Socrates (Greek: , invariably anglicized assÉ”kÉ¹É™tiËz, SÇ’cratÄ“s; 470?â€“399 BCE) was a ancient Greek philosopher who is widely credited for laying the foundation for Western philosophy. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Media:Example. ... Confucius (Chinese å”å¤«å, transliterated Kong Fuzi or Kung-fu-tzu, literally Master Kong, traditionally September 28, 551 â€“ 479 BC) was a famous Chinese thinker and social philosopher, whose teachings and philosophy deeply influenced East Asian life and thought. ... Mencius (most accepted dates: 372 BC â€“ 289 BC; other possible dates: 385 BC â€“ 303 BC or 302 BC) was born in the State of Zou (é„’åœ‹), now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng (é‚¹åŸŽå¸‚), Shandong province, only 30 km (18 miles) south of Qufu, the town of Confucius. ... Traditional Chinese: éŸ“éžå Simplified Chinese: éŸ©éžå Pinyin: HÃ¡n FÄ“izÇ Wade-Giles: Han Fei-tzu Han Feizi (éŸ“éžå) (d. ... Legalism has several meanings. ... Lao Zi (also spelled Laozi, Lao Tzu, or Lao Tse) was a famous Chinese philosopher who is believed to have lived in approximately the 4th century BC, during the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Periods. ... Taoism (sometimes written as Daoism) is the English name for: (a) a philosophical school based on the texts the Dao De Jing (ascribed to Laozi) and the Zhuangzi. ... A stone image of the Buddha. ... Buddhism is a religion and philosophy focusing on the teachings of the Buddha ÅšÄkyamuni (SiddhÄrtha Gautama). ... In the traditional view, the Renaissance is understood as a historical age that was preceded by the Middle Ages and followed by the Reformation. ... The Protestant Reformation was a movement which began in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church, but ended in division and the establishment of new institutions, most importantly Lutheranism, Reformed churches, and Anabaptists. ...

In India, the noted historian Rajni Palme Dutt has been quoted as saying, "The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in England." In direct contrast to China, India was split up into many different kingdoms all fighting for supremacy, with the three major ones being the Marathas, Sikhs and the Mughals. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors--agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and technical innovation was non-existent. The vast amounts of wealth were stored away in palace treasuries, and as such, were easily moved to England. Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the United Kingdom (light green), with the Republic of Ireland (blue) to its west Languages English Capital London Largest city London Area â€“ Total Ranked 1st UK 130,395 kmÂ² Population â€“mid-2004... Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. ... A Sikh man wearing a turban The adherents of Sikhism are called Sikhs. ... The Mughal Empire (alternative spelling Mogul, which is the origin of the word Mogul) of India was founded by Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the United Kingdom (light green), with the Republic of Ireland (blue) to its west Languages English Capital London Largest city London Area â€“ Total Ranked 1st UK 130,395 kmÂ² Population â€“mid-2004...

Causes for occurrence in Britain

The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the lead of 30 to 100 years that Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. It has been pointed out however that slavery provided only 5% of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution ^[9] Download high resolution version (2048x1309, 206 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (2048x1309, 206 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Map sources for Coalbrookdale at grid reference SJ668047 Coalbrookdale, a settlement in Ironbridge Gorge in Shropshire, England, was one of the birthplaces of the Industrial Revolution. ... Lord Howes action, or the Glorious First of June, painted 1795 Philip James de Loutherbourg, also seen as Philippe-Jacques and Philipp Jakob and with the appellation the Younger (31 October 1740 â€“ 11 March 1812) was an English artist of French origin. ... The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ... The Atlantic slave trade (Atlantic slave trading) was the purchase and transport of Africans into bondage and servitude in the New World. ...

Alternatively, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to utilise emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, such as China and Russia and other European countries. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and possessing the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets having been destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The nature of conflict in the period resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position— an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe. Combatants Allies: â€¢ Great Britain/United Kingdom, â€¢ Prussia, â€¢ Austria, â€¢ Sweden, â€¢ Russia, â€¢ France â€¢ Denmark-Norway â€¢ Poland Casualties Full list The Napoleonic Wars consisted of a series of wars fought during Napoleon Bonapartes rule over France. ... The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the senior service of the British armed services, being the oldest of its three branches. ...

Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. Enclosure of common land and the related Agricultural Revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England, the English Midlands, South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The British Agricultural Revolution describes a period of agricultural development in Britain between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, which saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. ... The three northern Regions Northern England is a rather ill-defined term, with no universally accepted definition. ... In general, the midlands of a territory are its central regions. ... Approximate extent of South Wales South Wales is an area of Wales bordered by England and the Bristol Channel to the East and South, and Mid Wales and West Wales to the North and West. ... The Scottish Lowlands ( an Galldachd in Gaelic ), although not officially a geographical area of the country, in normal usage is generally meant to include those parts of Scotland not referred to as the Highlands (or GÃ idhealtachd), that is, everywhere due south and east of a line (the Highland Boundary...

The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (when compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution.

Protestant work ethic

Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.¹ The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber) and the particular status of dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers, Baptists and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England, contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures. The Protestant work ethic â€” also known as the Puritan work ethic â€” is a biblically based teaching on the necessity of hard work, perfection and the goodness of labor. ... Maximilian Weber (IPA: []) (April 21, 1864 â€“ June 14, 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. ... The Religious Society of Friends (commonly known as Quakers or Friends) was founded in England in the 17th century by people who were dissatisfied with the existing denominations and sects of Christianity. ... Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. ... Presbyterianism is part of the Reformed churches family of denominations of Christian Protestantism based on the teachings of John Calvin which traces its institutional roots to the Scottish Reformation, especially as led by John Knox. ... The term English Civil War (or Wars) refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651. ... The term Glorious Revolution refers to the generally popular overthrow of James II of England in 1688 by a conspiracy between some Parliamentarians and the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). ... Government debt (public debt, national debt) is money owed by government, at any level (central government, federal government, national government, municipal government, local government, regional government). ... The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom, sometimes known as The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street or The Old Lady. The nearest London Underground station is Bank station. ...

Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two Universities at the time, Oxford and Cambridge, when the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican church became mandatory due to the Test Act. They thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences--areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies. The Anglican Communion is a world-wide organisation of Anglican Churches. ... The several Test Acts were a series of English penal laws that imposed various civil disabilities on Roman Catholics and Nonconformists. ... Historic Unitarianism believed in the oneness of God as opposed to traditional Christian belief in the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). ...

Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class, such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the Scientific revolution of the 17th century. The middle class (or middle classes) comprises a social group once defined by exception as an intermediate social class between the nobility and the peasantry. ... In the history of science, the scientific revolution was the period that roughly began with the discoveries of Kepler, Galileo, and others at the dawn of the 17th century, ended with the publication of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, and led into a new period...

Lunar Society

The work ethic argument has, on the whole, tended to neglect the fact that several inventors and entrepreneurs were rational free thinkers or "Philosophers" typical of a certain class of British intellectuals in the late 18th century, and were by no means normal church goers or members of religious sects. Examples of these free thinkers were the Lunar Society of Birmingham which flourished from 1765 to 1809. Its members were exceptional in that they were among the very few who were conscious that an industrial revolution was then taking place in Britain. They actively worked as a group to encourage it, not least by investing in it and conducting scientific experiments which led to innovative products. The Lunar Society was a discussion club of prominent industrialists and scientists, who met regularly between 1765 and 1813 in Birmingham, England. ... The city from above Centenary Square. ...

Innovations

The invention of the steam engine was one of the most important innovations of the industrial revolution. This was made possible by earlier improvements in iron smelting and metal working based on the use of coke rather than charcoal. Earlier in the 18th century the textile industry had harnessed water power to drive improved spinning machines and looms. These textile mills became the model for the organisation of human labour in factories. A steam engine is an external combustion heat engine that makes use of the thermal energy that exists in steam, converting it to mechanical work. ... Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. ... Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal, Germany The spinning jenny is a multi-spool spinning wheel. ... The flying shuttle was developed by John Kay in 1733, and was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution. ...

Besides the innovation of machinery in factories, the assembly line greatly improved efficiency too. With a series of men trained to do a single task on a product, then having it moved along to the next worker, the number of finished goods also rose significantly.

Transmission of innovation

Knowledge of new innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer, or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers anxious to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.

Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies like the Lunar Society of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss science and often its application to manufacturing. Some of these societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions, and the London-based Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce or, more commonly, Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions. The Lunar Society was a discussion club of prominent industrialists and scientists, who met regularly between 1765 and 1813 in Birmingham, England. ... The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (RSA) is a British multi-disciplinary institution, based in London. ... The Royal Society of Arts, whose correct name is the Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce but which is more commonly known as the RSA, is a British multi-disciplinary institution, based in London, which exists to deliver five Manifesto Challenges: encouraging enterprise, moving towards a zero...

There were publications describing technology. Encyclopedias such as Harris's Lexicon technicum (1704) and Dr Abraham Rees's Cyclopaedia (1802-1819) contain much of value. Rees's Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot's Encyclopédie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates. Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon, 1902 An encyclopedia or encyclopaedia, also (rarely) encyclopÃ¦dia,[1] is a comprehensive written compendium that contains information on all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge. ... Lexicon technicum, or an universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences The first alphabetical encyclopaedia written in English, it was the work of a London clergyman, John Harris. ... 1913 advertisement for Encyclopædia Britannica. ... Descriptions des Arts et MÃ©tiers, faites ou approuvÃ©es par messieurs de lAcadÃ©mie Royale des Sciences was published by the AcadÃ©mie Royale des Sciences of Paris between 1761 and 1788. ... Fig. ...

Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and a number regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines, published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.

Industry

Mining

Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales is of great age. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface and being abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough, a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine. In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam engine greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more mineral to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the industrial revolution, but the adoption of James Watt's more efficient steam engine with its separate condenser from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable particularly in areas (such as Cornwall), where coal does not occur. The Economy of Wales ranks as the smallest of the four economies of the United Kingdom in terms of GDP(2002). ... The El Chino mine located near Silver City, New Mexico is an open-pit copper mine Open-pit mining refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow. ... Gated entrance of an abandoned adit An adit is a type of entrance to an underground mining operation in which the entrance shaft is horizontal or nearly horizontal. ... Shaft mining is a type of underground mining done by use of a mine shaft. ... A Sough is an underground channel for draining water out of a mine. ... A steam engine is an external combustion heat engine that makes use of the thermal energy that exists in steam, converting it to mechanical work. ... James Watt James Watt (19 January 1736 â€“ 19 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor and engineer whose improvements to the steam engine were fundamental to the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution. ... The term condenser has the following meanings: In electronics, it is another (old-fashioned) word for capacitor. ... Cornwall (Cornish: Kernow) is a county at the extreme South-West of England on the peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar. ... Coal (previously referred to as pitcoal or seacoal) is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining). ...

Metallurgy

The major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial revolution was the replacement of organic fuels based on wood with fossil fuel based on coal. Much of this happened somewhat before the industrial revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These operated by the flames, which contained carbon monoxide, playing on the ore and reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulfur) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. The foundry cupola is a different (and later) innovation. Image File history File links Reverberatory_furnace_diagram. ... Image File history File links Reverberatory_furnace_diagram. ... WOOD is a pair of radio stations in Grand Rapids, Michigan owned by Clear Channel on the frequencies of 1300 AM and 105. ... Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio Fossil fuels, also known as mineral fuels, are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, oil and natural gas. ... A reverbatory furnace is a metallurgical or process furnace which characteristically isolates the material being processed from contact with the fuel, but not from contact with the combustion gases. ... Carbon monoxide, chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, flammable and highly toxic gas. ... Iron ore (Banded iron formation) Manganese ore Lead ore Gold ore An ore is a volume of rock containing components or minerals in a mode of occurrence which renders it valuable for mining. ... Redox reactions include all chemical processes in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. ... An oxide is a chemical compound of oxygen with other chemical elements. ... Events February 13 - Massacre of Glencoe March 1 - The Salem witch trials begin in Salem Village, Massachusetts Bay Colony with the charging of three women with witchcraft. ...

This was followed by the first Abraham Darby, who made great strides using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale (1709). However the coke pig iron he made was largely only used for the production of cast iron goods such as pots and kettles. In this he had an advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and hence cheaper than those of his rivals. Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce bar iron in forges until the mid 1750s when his son Abraham Darby II built Horsehay and Ketley furnaces (not far from Coalbrookdale). By this time coke pig iron was cheaper than charcoal pig iron. Abraham Darby (c. ... It has been suggested that Old Furnace, Ironbridge be merged into this article or section. ... Map sources for Coalbrookdale at grid reference SJ668047 Coalbrookdale, a settlement in Ironbridge Gorge in Shropshire, England, was one of the birthplaces of the Industrial Revolution. ... Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. ... Pig iron is raw iron, the immediate product of smelting iron ore with coke and limestone in a blast furnace. ... Pig iron is raw iron, the immediate product of smelting iron ore with coke and limestone in a blast furnace. ... Abraham Darby II (1711-1763) was the second of that name of three generations of an English Quaker family that was key to the development of the Industrial Revolution. ... Map sources for Horsehay at grid reference SJ675075 Horsehay is a small village located in the ceremonial county of Shropshire in England. ... Map sources for Ketley at grid reference SJ676109 Ketley is a suburb of the new town of Telford in Shropshire, England. ...

Throughout this period, bar iron for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still made in finery forges, as it long had been. However, new processes were adopted in the ensuing years. The first is referred to today as potting and stamping, but this was superseded by Henry Cort's puddling process. From 1785, perhaps because the improved version of potting and stamping was about to come out of patent, a great expansion in the output of the British iron industry began. The new processes did not depend on the use of charcoal at all, and were therefore not limited by the speed at which trees grow. Iron tapped from the blast furnace is pig iron, and contains significant amounts of carbon and silicon. ... During the Industrial Revolution in England, Henry Cort began refining iron from pig iron to wrought iron using innovative production systems. ... Puddle may refer to: Puddle, an acculmulation of water on a surface. ...

Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of imported iron to supplement native supplies. This came principally from Sweden from the mid 17th century and later also from Russia from the end of the 1720s. However, from 1785, imports decreased, leading to Britain becoming an exporter of bar iron as well as manufactured wrought iron consumer goods. Events Astronomical aberration discovered by the astronomer James Bradley Swedish academy of sciences founded at Uppsala The founding of the University of Havana (Universidad de la Habana), Cubas most well-established university. ... A wrought iron railing in Troy, New York. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

As a result of these developments, the reliance on overseas supplies was diminished. The use of iron and steel in the development of the railways became possible, and (later) improvements in machine tools further boosted the industrial growth of Britain. Following the building of the Iron Bridge in 1778 by Abraham Darby III, iron also became a major structural material. A machine tool is a powered mechanical device, typically used to fabricate metal components of machines by the selective removal of metal. ... The Iron Bridge Map sources for Ironbridge at grid reference SJ672033 Ironbridge is a settlement beside the River Severn in Shropshire, England that grew up beside the 100 foot (30 meter) cast-iron bridge that was built across the river there in 1779. ... Abraham Darby III (1750-1791) was an English ironmaster and Quaker. ...

An improvement was made in the production of steel, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for the cutting edge of tools and for springs. Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process, whose raw material was largely imported Swedish iron. The old steel cable of a colliery winding tower Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, with carbon being the primary alloying material. ... Benjamin Huntsman (1704 - 1776), English inventor and steel-manufacturer, was born in Lincolnshire. ... Crucible steel describes a number of different techniques for making steel alloy by slowly heating and cooling iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible. ... The cementation process is a obsolete technique for making steel. ...

Steam power

The development of the stationary steam engine was an essential early element of the Industrial Revolution, however it should be remembered that for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution the majority of industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines. During the Industrial Revolution, steam power displaced water power and muscle power (which often came from horses) as the primary source of power in use in industry. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Stationary steam engines are fixed steam engines used for pumping or driving mills and factories, and for power generation. ...

The industrial use of steam power started with Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London the first engine, which he called the "Miner's Friend" as he intended it to pump water from mines. This machine used steam at 8 to 10 atmospheres and didn't use a piston and cylinder but applied the steam pressure directly on to the surface of water in a cylinder to force it along an outlet pipe. It also used condensed steam to produce a partial vacuum to suck water into the cylinder. It generated about one horsepower (hp). It was used as a low-lift water pump in a few mines and a number of water works, but was not a success, being limited in the height it could raise water and was prone to boiler explosions. Thomas Savery (c. ... SHP redirects here. ...

The first successful machine was the atmospheric engine, a low performance steam engine invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Newcomen apparently conceived his machine quite independently of Savery. His engines used a piston and cylinder, and operated with steam just above atmospheric pressure which was used to produce a partial vacuum in the cylinder when condensed by jets of cold water. The vacuum sucked a piston into the cylinder which moved under pressure from the atmosphere. The engine produced a succession of power strokes which could work a pump, but could not drive a rotating wheel. They were successfully put to use, for pumping out mines in England with the engine on the surface working a pump at the bottom of the mine by a long connecting rod. These were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, but produced of the order of 5 hp. They were inefficient but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads they were usefully employed in pumping water from mines. They opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite being fuel hungry, Newcomen engines continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the nineteenth century as they were reliable and easy to maintain. Diagram of the Newcomen steam engine Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine, today referred to as a Newcomen steam engine, was the first practical device to harness the power of steam to produce mechanical work. ... Thomas Newcomen (baptised February 24, 1664; died August 5, 1729) was a blacksmith, plumber, and tinsmith by trade, and a baptist lay preacher by calling. ...

By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread to France, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the patent expired of which 14 were abroad. According to Rolt and Allen, p 145, (see below) a grand total of 1454 engines had been built by 1800.

Its working was fundamentally unchanged until James Watt succeeded in 1769 in making his Watt steam engine incorporating a series of improvements, especially the separate steam condenser chamber and the use of steam under pressure acting directly on the piston. These improved engine efficiency by about a factor of five saving 75% on coal costs. The Watt steam engine's ability to drive rotary machinery also meant it could be used to drive a factory or mill directly. They were commercially very successful and by 1800 the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 acting as pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 to power mill machinery. this was due to the extended patent that was obtained for Watt's steam engine with the help of Boulton's influencial contacts. Most of the engines generated between 5 to 10 horsepower. James Watt James Watt (19 January 1736 â€“ 19 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor and engineer whose improvements to the steam engine were fundamental to the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution. ... Diagram of the Watt Steam Engine in its most basic form showing the improvement of the separate condenser, which was not found on the Newcomen steam engine. ... The firm of Boulton & Watt, was initially a partnership between Matthew Boulton and James Watt, formed in 1775 to make steam engines at their Soho Foundry in Smethwick, near Birmingham, England. ... It has been suggested that Old Furnace, Ironbridge be merged into this article or section. ...

The development of machine tools such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines. A machine tool is a powered mechanical device, typically used to fabricate metal components of machines by the selective removal of metal. ...

Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, which was built within a stone or brick engine-house but around that time various patterns of portable (i.e. readily removable engines, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. A beam engine is a design of stationary steam engine. ... A table engine is a variety of stationary steam engine where the cylinder is placed on top of a table-shaped base, the legs of which stand on the baseplate which locates the crankshaft bearings. ...

Richard Trevithick, a Cornish blacksmith, was the first to use high pressure steam 1799. This improved efficiency still further and made engines compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats. Richard Trevithick. ... A locomotive (from Latin loco motivus) is a railway vehicle that provides the motive power for a train, and has no payload capacity of its own; its sole purpose is to move the train along the tracks. ... Paddle steamers - Lucerne-Switzerland Left: original paddlewheel from a paddle steamer on the lake of Lucerne. ...

The further development of the steam engine in the early 19th century after the expiration of Watt's patent saw many improvements by a host of inventors and engineers.

Textile manufacture

In the early 18th century, British textile manufacture was based on wool which was processed by individual artisans, doing the spinning and weaving on their own premises. This system is called a cottage industry. Flax and cotton were also used for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing needed, and thus goods in these materials made only a small proportion of the output. With the establishment of overseas colonies, the British Empire at the end of the 17th century/beginning of the 18th century had a vast source of raw materials and a vast market for goods. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Manufacturing is the transformation of raw materials into finished goods for sale, or intermediate processes involving the production or finishing of semi-manufactures. ... Wool in a shearing shed Long and short hair wool at the South Central Family Farm Research Center in Boonesville, AR Wool sheep, Royal Melbourne Show Wool is the fibre derived from the fur of animals of the Caprinae family, principally sheep and goats, but the hair of other mammals... An artisan, also called a craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who uses tools and machinery in a particular craft. ... A hand-turned spinning wheel in action Cones of yarn for industrial use Spinning is the process of creating yarn (or thread, rope, cable) from various raw fiber materials. ... Tweed loom, Harris, 2004 Weaving is an ancient textile art and craft that involves placing two sets of threads or yarn made of fiber called the warp and weft of the loom and turning them into cloth. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Domestic system. ... Binomial name Linum usitatissimum Linnaeus. ... Cotton ready for harvest. ...

Use of the spinning wheel and hand loom restricted the production capacity of the industry, but a number of incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century. India was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods. A spinning wheel is a device for making thread or yarn from fibrous material such as wool or cotton. ... This page is about the LucasArts computer game. ...

Step by step, individual inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and subsequently rolling) so that the supply of yarn fed a weaving industry that itself was advancing with improvements to shuttles and the loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with the effect that these new machines were seen as a threat to employment, and early innovators were attacked and their inventions were destroyed. The inventors often failed to exploit their inventions, and fell on hard times. Carding Llama hair Carding is the processing of brushing raw or washed fibers to prepare them as textiles. ... Twisting, for textile manufacture, is synonymous with plying. ... Rolling is a fabricating process in which the metal, plastic, paper, glass, etc. ... This article is about yarn fiber. ... A shuttle, in general, is something which travels back and forth between places in a regular and relatively frequent manner. ... Wind turbines A machine is any mechanical or organic device that transmits or modifies energy to perform or assist in the performance of tasks. ...

To capitalize upon these advances it took a class of entrepreneurs, of which the most famous is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by people such as Thomas Highs and John Kay; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power – first horse power, then water power and finally steam power – which made cotton manufacture a mechanized industry. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Richard Arkwright Sir Richard Arkwright (23 December 1732 â€“ 3 August 1792) was an Englishman credited with the spinning frame â€” later renamed the water frame following the transition to water power. ... John Kay was a homo in the 1790s he created the man dildo. ... The cotton mill is a type of factory that was created to house spinning and weaving machinery. ... A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is a large industrial building where workers manufacture goods or supervise machines processing one product into another. ... The horsepower (hp) is the name of several non-metric units of power. ... Hydropower (or waterpower) harnesses the energy of moving or falling water. ... A steam engine is a heat engine that makes use of the potential energy that exists as pressure in steam, converting it to mechanical work. ...

Factories

Industrialisation also led to the creation of the factory. John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby was operational by 1721. In 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass, and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on-site. Over London by Rail - Gutav Dore c 1870, Lumos3 13:14, 25 Jun 2005 (UTC) File links The following pages link to this file: Industrial Revolution Categories: Public domain art ... Over London by Rail - Gutav Dore c 1870, Lumos3 13:14, 25 Jun 2005 (UTC) File links The following pages link to this file: Industrial Revolution Categories: Public domain art ... DorÃ© photographed by Felix Nadar. ... A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is a large industrial building where workers manufacture goods or supervise machines processing one product into another. ... John Lombe (1693 - 1722) was an inventor who patented 3 types of Silk machines, for winding, spinning and twisting. ... The Derby Industrial Museum is housed in a former Silk Mill in Derby, England. ... Derby (pronounced dar-bee ) is a city in the East Midlands of England. ... Warmley is a village in South Gloucestershire, England. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Greater Bristol. ...

Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton were other prominent early industrialists. Josiah Wedgwood Josiah Wedgwood (July 12, 1730 â€“ January 3, 1795) was an English potter, credited with the industrialization of the manufacture of pottery. ... Matthew Boulton. ...

The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern city, as workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically powered by water and built to serve local needs. Night view of Taipei City. ...

The transition to industrialisation was not wholly smooth. For example, a group of English workers known as Luddites formed to protest against industrialisation and sometimes sabotaged factories. The Luddites were a social movement of English workers in the early 1800s who protested â€“ often by destroying textile machines â€“ against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution that they felt threatened their jobs. ... Sabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening an enemy through subversion, obstruction, disruption, and/or destruction. ...

One of the earliest reformers of factory conditions was Robert Owen. Robert Owen Robert Owen continues to be looked up to in this Manchester statue Robert Owen (May 14, 1771 â€“ November 17, 1858) was a Welsh socialist and social reformer. ...

Machine tools

The Industrial Revolution could not have developed without machine tools, for they enabled manufacturing machines to be made. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches, and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. The mechanical parts of early textile machines were sometimes called 'clock work' due to the metal spindles and gears they incorporated. The manufacture of textile machines drew craftsmen from these trades and is the origin of the modern engineering industry. Machine makers early developed special purpose machines for making parts. A machine tool is a powered mechanical device, typically used to fabricate metal components of machines by the selective removal of metal. ...

Machines were built by various craftsmen--carpenters made wooden framings, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Because of the difficulty of manipulating metal, and the lack of machine tools, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Wood framing had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal frames became more common, but required machine tools to make them economically. Before the advent of machine tools metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Small metal parts were readily made by this means, but for large machine parts, such as castings for a lathe bed, where components had to slide together, the production of flat surfaces by means of the hammer and chisel followed by filing, scraping and perhaps grinding with emery paste, was very labourious and costly. tools of a medieval carpenter, c. ...

Apart from workshop lathes used by craftsmen, the first large machine tool was the cylinder boring machine, used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. They were to be found at all steam-engine manufacturers. The planing machine, the slotting machine and the shaping machine were developed in the first decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until during the Second Industrial Revolution. A machine tool is a powered mechanical device, typically used to fabricate metal components of machines by the selective removal of metal. ... A tunnel boring machine that was used at Yucca Mountain. ... Cutters for a milling machine. ...

Military production had a hand in the development of machine tools. Henry Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was employed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, as a young man where he would have seen the large horse-driven wooden machines for cannon boring made and worked by the Verbruggans. He later worked for Joseph Bramah on the production of metal locks, and soon after he began working on his own he was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills. These were all metal, and the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth. Henry Maudslay. ... The Royal Arsenal, originally known as the Woolwich Arsenal, carried out armaments manufacture, ammunition proofing and explosives research. ... Woolwich is a town in south-east London, England in the London Borough of Greenwich, on the south side of the River Thames, though the tiny exclave of North Woolwich (which is now part of the London Borough of Newham) is on the north side of the river. ... Joseph Bramah (1748 - December 9, 1814), born Stainborough,Yorkshire, England. ... The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the senior service of the British armed services, being the oldest of its three branches. ... The Portsmouth Block Mills form part of the Portsmouth Dockyard at Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, and were built during the Napoleonic Wars to supply the British Royal Navy with pulley blocks. ... Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardised products on production lines. ... In telecommunication, an interchangeability is a condition which exists when two or more items possess such functional and physical characteristics as to be equivalent in performance and durability, and are capable of being exchanged one for the other without alteration of the items themselves, or of adjoining items, except for... Richard Roberts Richard Roberts (22 April 1789 â€“ 11 March 1864) was a British engineer whose development of high-precision machine tools contributed to the birth of production engineering and mass production. ... Joseph Clement was a British engineer and industrialist. ... Sir Joseph Whitworth Sir Joseph Whitworth, Baronet (December 21, 1803 - January 22, 1887) was an English engineer and entrepreneur. ...

Maudslay made his name for his lathes and precision measurement. James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did Matthew Murray of Leeds. Roberts made his name as a maker of high-quality machine tools, and as a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement. James Fox (born 19 May 1939) is an English actor. ... Derby (pronounced dar-bee ) is a city in the East Midlands of England. ... Matthew Murray (1765-1826) was born in Newcastle but spent much of his working life in Leeds. ...

Transportation

At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastwise vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Railways or wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, and canals were beginning to be cut for moving goods between larger towns and cities. Transportation of raw materials to the manufacture sites, and of the finished clothing and linen from the centres of production in the Pennines in central England, was limited by the lack of large scale rivers. ...

During the Industrial Revolution, these different methods were improved and developed.

Navigable rivers

All the major rivers were made navigable to a greater or lesser degree. The Severn in particular was used for the movement of goods to the Midlands which had been imported into Bristol from abroad, and the export of goods from centres of production in Shropshire such as iron goods from Coalbrookdale. Transport was by way of Trows - small sailing vessels which could pass the various shallows and bridges in the river. These could navigate the Bristol Channel to the South Wales ports and Somerset ports, such as Bridgwater and even as far as France. Britain’s transport was improving which meant that the raw materials came quicker and cheaper and allowed the new ideas to spread quickly. This is a list of rivers of Great Britain. ... The Severn is the name of a river in the United Kingdom. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Greater Bristol. ... Shropshire (abbreviated Salop or Shrops) is a traditional, ceremonial and administrative county in the West Midlands region of England. ... Map sources for Coalbrookdale at grid reference SJ668047 Coalbrookdale, a settlement in Ironbridge Gorge in Shropshire, England, was one of the birthplaces of the Industrial Revolution. ... See also Trowe, a type of troll. ... The statue of Admiral Robert Blake at Cornhill, Bridgwater, with St Marys Church in the background (1998). ...

Coastal sail

Sailing vessels had long been used for moving goods round the British coast. The trade transporting coal to London from Newcastle had begun in medieval times. The major international seaports such as London, Bristol and Liverpool were the means by which raw materials such as cotton might be imported and finished goods exported. Transporting goods onwards within Britain by sea was common during the whole of the Industrial Revolution and only fell away with the growth of the railways at the end of the period.

Canals

Canals began to be built in the late eighteenth century to link the major manufacturing centres in the Midlands and north with seaports and with London, at that time the largest manufacturing centre in the country. Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be easily transported across country. A single canal horse could pull a load dozens of times larger than a cart at a faster pace. By the 1820s, a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. Traditional working canal boats // Early history Evidence suggests that the first British canals were built in Roman times, as irrigation canals or short connecting spurs between navigable rivers, such as Foss Dyke. ...

Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.

Roads

Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of some turnpike trust. New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and John Macadam. The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow broad wheeled carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horses. Stage coaches transported rich people. The less wealthy walked or paid to ride on a carriers cart. A toll road, turnpike or tollpike is a road on which a toll authority collects a fee for use. ... John Metcalf, or as he was more popularly known, Blind Jack Metcalf (August 15, 1717 â€“ April 26, 1810) was the first of the professional road builders to emerge during the Industrial Revolution. ... Thomas Telford (August 9, 1757 - September 2, 1834) was born in Westerkirk, Scotland. ... John Loudon McAdam (September 21, 1756 - November 26, 1836) was a Scottish engineer and road-builder. ...

Further reading

W. Albert, The Turnpike Road System in England 1663-1840 (1972). E. Pawson, Transport and Economy: the turnpike roads of 18th century England (1977).

Railways

Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century, and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on waggon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Liverpool and Manchester and Stockton and Darlington Railways of the late 1820s. The construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. The Midland Railways London terminus at St Pancras. ... A locomotive (from Latin loco motivus) is a railway vehicle that provides the motive power for a train, and has no payload capacity of its own; its sole purpose is to move the train along the tracks. ... The Liverpool and Manchester Railway (LMR) was the worlds first intercity passenger railway operated solely by steam locomotives. ... The Stockton and Darlington railway (S&DR) was the worlds first railway to successfully use steam locomotives and carry passengers, and is considered the worlds first modern railway. ...

After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles, but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.

Railways helped England's trade enormously, as they provided a quick, easy method of transport. A fruit stand at a market. ...

Social effects

In terms of social structure, the industrial revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility & gentry.

Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines.

Child labour

Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution, and in fact dates back to prehistoric times. Politicians tried to limit child labour by law. Factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833, the first law against child labour, the Factory Act of 1833, was passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of this law. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws decreased the number of child labourers; however child labour remained in Europe up to the 20th century. Child labour or labor is the phenomenon of children in employment. ... Prehistory (Greek words προ = before and ιστορία = history) is the period of human history prior to the advent of writing (which marks the beginning of recorded history). ... A female child during the Nigerian-Biafran war of the late 1960s, shown suffering the effects of severe hunger and malnutrition. ... The stela of King Hammurabi depicts the god Shamash revealing a code of laws to the king. ... The Factory Act of 1833 was an act of the parliament of the United Kingdom, which limited the workday for children in factories. ... Inspector is a rank in many police forces. ... World map showing Europe Political map Europe is one of the seven continents of Earth which, in this case, is more a cultural and political distinction than a physiographic one, leading to various perspectives about Europes borders. ...

Luddites

The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The textile industry in particular industrialized early, and many weavers found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd, a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government had to take drastic measures to protect industry. The Luddites were a social movement of English workers in the early 1800s who protested â€“ often by destroying textile machines â€“ against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution that they felt threatened their jobs. ... Ned Lud is the person that forms the basis for the character of King (or Captain) Ludd who was supposedly the leader and founder of the Luddites. ...

Organization of Labour

Conditions for the working class had been bad for millennia. The industrial revolution, however, concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines and this facilitated the organisation of trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and cause a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffer the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining. The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... The term working class is used to denote a social class. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action. Strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. The management was upset because strikes took their precious working force away for a large period of time, and the unions had to deal with riot police and various middle class prejudices that striking workers were the same as criminals, as well as loss of income. The strikes often led to violent and bloody clashes between police and workers. Factory managers usually reluctantly gave in to various demands made by strikers, but the conflict was generally long standing. The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

In England, the Combination Act forbade workers to form any kind of trade union from 1799 until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted. The Combination Act of 1799, titled An Act to prevent Unlawful Combinations of Workmen, prohibited trade unions and collective bargaining by British workers. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

In 1842, a General Strike involving cotton workers and colliers and organised through the Chartist movement stopped production across Great Britain. ^[10] See General Strike of 1842. A general strike is a strike action by an entire labour force in a city, region or country. ... A movement for social and political reform in the United Kingdom during the mid_19th century, Chartism gains its name from the Peoples Charter of 1838, which set out the main aims of the movement. ...

Other effects

The application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass political participation. Created by uploader using a popular Office program. ... Created by uploader using a popular Office program. ... Description Global annual fossil fuel carbon dioxide emissions, in million metric tons of carbon, as reported by the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center [1]. Original data: Marland, G., T.A. Boden, and R. J. Andres. ... Description Global annual fossil fuel carbon dioxide emissions, in million metric tons of carbon, as reported by the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center [1]. Original data: Marland, G., T.A. Boden, and R. J. Andres. ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Look up book in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is concerned with the production of books, magazines, and other literary material (whether in printed or electronic formats). ... World literacy rates by country The traditional definition of Literacy is the ability to use language ie to read, write, listen and speak. ...

The mass migration of rural families into urban areas saw the growth of bad living conditions in cities^{[citation needed]}, long work hours without the traditional agricultural breaks (such as after harvest or in mid winter)^{[citation needed]}, a rise in child labour (the children received less pay and benefits than adults)^{[citation needed]} and the rise of nationalism in most of Europe^{[citation needed]}The increase in coal usage saw a massive increase in atmospheric pollution^{[citation needed]}.

The Industrial Revolution had significant impacts on the structure of society. Prior to its rise, the public and private spheres held strong overlaps; work was often conducted through the home, and thus was shared in many cases by both a wife and her husband. However, during this period the two began to separate, with work and home life considered quite distinct from one another. This shift made it necessary for one partner to maintain the home and care for children. Women, holding the distinction of being able to breastfeed, thus more often maintained the home, with men making up a sizeable fraction of the workforce. With much of the family income coming from men, then, their power in relation to women increased further, with the latter often dependent on men's income.^{[citation needed]}This had enormous impacts on the defining of gender roles and was effectively the model for what was later termed the traditional family. A concept in continental philosophy and critical theory, the public sphere contrasts with the private sphere, and is the part of life in which one is interacting with others and with society at large. ... The private sphere is the complement or opposite of the public sphere. ... A breastfeeding infant Breastfeeding is the process of a woman feeding an infant or young child with milk from her breasts, usually directly from the nipples. ... A bagpiper in Scottish military clan-uniform. ...

However, the need for a large workforce and resulting wages also enticed many women into industrial work, where they were often paid much less in relation to men. This was in large part due to a lack of organised labour among women to push for benefits and wage increases, and in part to ensure women's continued dependence on a man's income to survive.^{[citation needed]}

Intellectual paradigms

Capitalist

The advent of The Enlightenment provided an intellectual framework which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientific knowledge — a factor evidenced in the systematic development of the steam engine, guided by scientific analysis, and the development of the political and sociological analyses, culminating in Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations. The term capitalism was popularized by Marx. For other uses, see Capitalism (disambiguation). ... ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... Adam Smith, FRSE, (baptised June 5, 1723 â€“ July 17, 1790) was a Scottish political economist and moral philosopher. ... An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the magnum opus of Adam Smith, published in 1776. ...

Criticism

Marxism

Karl Marx saw the industrialisation process as the logical dialectical progression of feudal economic modes, necessary for the full development of capitalism, which he saw as in itself a necessary precursor to the development of socialism and eventually communism. According to Marx, industrialisation polarizes societies into the bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production, e.g., the factories and land) and the much larger proletariat (the working class who actually perform the labour necessary to extract something valuable from the means of production). Marx asserts that the relationship between the two classes is fundamentally parasitic, insofar as the proletariat are always undercompensated for the true value of their labour by the bourgeoisie (according to the labour theory of value), which allows the bourgeoisie to grow absurdly wealthy through nothing more than the wholesale exploitation of the proletarians' labour. Marxism is the philosophy, social theory and political practice based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German socialist philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary. ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 â€“ March 14, 1883) was an immensely influential German philosopher, political economist, and socialist revolutionary. ... Broadly speaking, a dialectic (Greek: διαλεκτική) is an exchange of propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses) resulting in a disagreement. ... For other uses, see Capitalism (disambiguation). ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... bourgeoisie is basically a trem that meens middle class. ... The means of production are physical, non-human, inputs used in production. ... The proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is proletarian. ... In classical economics and all micro-economics labour is a measure of the work done by human beings and is one of three factors of production, the others being land and capital. ... The labor theory of value (LTV) is a theory in economics and political economy concerning a market-oriented society: the theory equates the value of an exchangeable good or service (i. ...

Rapid advancements in technology left many formerly skilled workers unemployed, as one agricultural and manufacturing task after another was mechanized. At the same time, the bourgeois class, at only a small fraction of the proletariat's size, became exceedingly wealthy.^{[citation needed]}

Marx believed that the industrial proletariat would eventually develop class consciousness and revolt against the bourgeoisie, leading to a more egalitarian socialist and eventually Communist state where the workers themselves would own the means of industrial production. Class consciousness is a category of Marxist theory, referring to the self-awareness of a social class, its capacity to act in its own rational interests, or measuring the extent to which an individual is conscious of the historical tasks their class (or class allegiance) sets for them. ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. ... Communism - Wikipedia /**/ @import /w/skins-1. ...

Romantic Movement

Concurrent with the industrial revolution there developed an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation known as the Romantic Movement. Its major exponents included the artist and poet William Blake, and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats and Shelley. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in contrast to the 'monstrous' machines and factories. In Blake's words they were the, "Dark satanic mills" of his poem And did those feet in ancient time. Romanticism was a secular and intellectual movement in the history of ideas that originated in late 18th century Western Europe. ... Romanticism was a secular and intellectual movement in the history of ideas that originated in late 18th century Western Europe. ... William Blake (1807) William Blake (November 28, 1757â€“August 12, 1827) was an English poet, painter, and printmaker. ... William Wordsworth, English poet William Wordsworth (April 7, 1770 â€“ April 23, 1850) was a major English romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their 1798 joint publication, Lyrical Ballads. ... Samuel Taylor Coleridge, English poet, 1795 Samuel Taylor Coleridge (October 21, 1772 â€“ July 25, 1834) was an English poet, critic, and philosopher who was, along with his friend William Wordsworth, one of the founders of the Romantic Movement in England and one of the Lake Poets. ... John Keats John Keats (October 31, 1795 â€“ February 23, 1821) was one of the principal poets of the English Romantic movement. ... Percy Bysshe Shelley Percy Bysshe Shelley (August 4, 1792 â€“ July 8, 1822) was one of the major English Romantic poets and is widely considered to be among the finest lyric poets who wrote in the English language. ... And did those feet in ancient time is a poem by William Blake from the preface to his work Milton: a Poem (1804). ...

The Second Industrial Revolution

The insatiable demand of the railways for more durable rail led to the development of the means to cheaply mass-produce steel. Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterize a "Second Industrial Revolution", beginning around 1850. This "second" Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include the chemical industries, petroleum refining and distribution, electrical industries, and, in the twentieth century, the automotive industries, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany. The Second Industrial Revolution (1871â€“1914) involved significant developments for society and the world. ... The old steel cable of a colliery winding tower Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, with carbon being the primary alloying material. ... The Second Industrial Revolution (1871â€“1914) involved significant developments for society and the world. ... Chemical tanks in Lillebonne, France Chemical industry includes those industries involved in the production of petrochemicals, agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, polymers, paints, oleochemicals etc. ... Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, Ontario Petroleum (from Greek petra â€“ rock and elaion â€“ oil or Latin oleum â€“ oil ) or crude oil is a thick, dark brown or greenish liquid. ... The article on electrical energy is located elsewhere. ... Automakers are companies that produce automobiles. ...

The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal-starved northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. The increasing availability of economic petroleum products also reduced the relation of coal to the potential for industrialisation. Hydroelectric dam diagram The waters of Llyn Stwlan, the upper reservoir of the Ffestiniog Pumped-Storage Scheme in north Wales, can just be glimpsed on the right. ... The West face of the Petit Dru above the Chamonix valley near the Mer de Glace. ... Industrialisation (sometimes industrialization in American English) or an industrial revolution (in general, with lowercase letters) is a process of social and economic change whereby a human society is transformed from a pre-industrial (an economy where the amount of capital accumulated is low) to an industrial state (see Pre-industrial...

By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with often nearly global international operations and interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, and Bayer AG joined the railroads on the world's stock markets and among huge organisations. The United States Steel Corporation (NYSE: X) is an integrated steel producer with major production operations in the United States and Central Europe. ... GE redirects here; for other uses, see GE (disambiguation). ... Bayer AG (German pronunciation BYE-er, in US usually pronounced BAY-er) (NYSE: BAY, TYO: 4863 ) is a German chemical and pharmaceutical company founded in 1863. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

Contents

The idea and the name GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Causes

Causes for occurrence in Europe

Causes for occurrence in Britain

Protestant work ethic

Lunar Society

Innovations

Transmission of innovation

Industry

Mining

Metallurgy

Steam power

Textile manufacture

Factories

Machine tools

Transportation

Navigable rivers

Coastal sail

Canals

Roads

Further reading

Railways

Social effects

Child labour

Luddites

Organization of Labour

Other effects

Intellectual paradigms

Capitalist

Criticism

Marxism

Romantic Movement

The Second Industrial Revolution

See also

Notes and References

Further reading

General

Causes

Metallurgy

Machine tools

Steam power

External links

The idea and the name