Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, and milk as examples. It is similar to biochemistry in its main components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, but it also includes areas such as water, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors, and colors. This discipline also encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening. An example of enhancing a process would be to encourage fermentation of dairy products with lactic acid; an example of a preventing process would be stopping the Maillard reaction on the surface of freshly cut Red Delicious apples whether by hand or mechanical methods. A chemical substance is any material substance used in or obtained by a process in chemistry: A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more chemical elements that are chemically combined in fixed proportions. ... For other uses, see Meat (disambiguation). ... Ducks amongst other poultry The Poultry-dealer, after Cesare Vecellio Poultry is the category of domesticated birds kept for meat, eggs, and feathers. ... Binomial name L. Vit. ... For other uses, see Beer (disambiguation). ... A glass of cows milk. ... Biochemistry (from Greek: , bios, life and Egyptian kēme, earth[1]) is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. ... Carbohydrates (literally hydrates of carbon) are chemical compounds that act as the primary biological means of storing or consuming energy, other forms being fat and protein. ... Figure 1: Basic lipid structure. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin showing coloured alpha helices. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Retinol (Vitamin A) Vitamins are nutrients required in very small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body [1]. The term vitamin does not encompass other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids. ... mccall is cooool Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are present in common organic molecules. ... Neuraminidase ribbon diagram An enzyme (in Greek en = in and zyme = blend) is a protein, or protein complex, that catalyzes a chemical reaction and also controls the 3D orientation of the catalyzed substrates. ... Food additives are substances added to food to preserve it, or to improve its flavour and appearance. ... Flavors is the programming language that first included mixins. ... Food coloring spreading on a thin water film. ... Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for consumption by humans or animals. ... A dairy farm near Oxford, New York in the United States. ... For the production of milk by mammals, see Lactation. ... The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between an amino acid and a reducing sugar, usually requiring the addition of heat. ... The Red Delicious is a cultivar of apple. ... For other uses, see Apple (disambiguation). ...

History of food chemistry

Food chemistry's history dates back as far as the late 1700s when many famous chemists were involved in discovering chemicals important in foods, including Carl Wilhelm Scheele (isolated malic acid from apples in 1785), and Sir Humphry Davy (published the first ever book on agricultural and food chemistry in 1813 titled Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the Board of Agriculture in the United Kingdom which would serve as a foundation for the profession worldwide, going into a fifth edition. Carl Wilhelm Scheele Scheeles house with his pharmacy in Köping. ... Malate redirects here. ... 1785 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet FRS (17 December 1778 – 29 May 1829) was a British chemist and physicist. ... Year 1813 (MDCCCXIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

In 1874 the Society of Public Analysts was formed, with the aim of applying analytical methods to the benefit of the public^[1]. It's early experiments were based on bread, milk and wine.

It was also out of concern for the quality of the food supply, mainly food adulteration and contamination issues that would first stem from intentional contamination to later with chemical food additives by the 1950s. The development of colleges and universities worldwide, most notably in the United States, would expand food chemistry as well with research of the dietary substances, most notably the Single-grain experiment during 1907-11. Additional research by Harvey W. Wiley at the United States Department of Agriculture during the late 19th century would play a key factor in the creation of the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1906. The American Chemical Society would establish their Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division in 1908 while the Institute of Food Technologists would establish their Food Chemistry Division in 1995.lool Food additives are substances added to food to preserve it, or to improve its flavour and appearance. ... A college (Latin collegium) can be the name of any group of colleagues; originally it meant a group of people living together under a common set of rules (con-, together + leg-, law). As a consequence members of colleges were originally styled fellow and still are in some places. ... A university is an institution of higher education and of research, which grants academic degrees. ... The single-grain experiment was an experiment that carried out at the University of Wisconsin from May 1907 to 1911 that would lead to the development of modern nutrition. ... Year 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1911 (MCMXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Harvey Washington Wiley Harvey Washington Wiley (October 30, 1844, Kent, Indiana - June 30, 1930, Washington, D.C.) was a noted chemist involved with the passage of the landmark Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. ... USDA redirects here. ... The United States Food and Drug Administration is the government agency responsible for regulating food, dietary supplements, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, biologics and blood products in the United States. ... 1906 (MCMVI) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... The American Chemical Society (ACS) is a learned society (professional association) based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry in the field of chemistry. ... Year 1908 (MCMVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Institute of Food Technologists The Insitute of Food Technologists or IFT is an international, non-profit professional organization for the advancement of food science and technology. ... Year 1995 (MCMXCV) was a common year starting on Sunday. ...

Water

Main article: Water

A major component of food is water, which can encompass anywhere from 50% in meat products to 95% in lettuce, cabbage, and tomato products. It is also an excellent place for bacterial growth and food spoilage if it is not properly processed. One way this is measured in food is by water activity which is very important in the shelf life of many foods during processing. One of the keys to food preservation in most instances is reduce the amount of water or alter the water's characteristics to enhance shelf-life. Such methods include dehydration, freezing, and refrigeration. Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... For other uses, see Meat (disambiguation). ... Binomial name L. Vit. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... For other uses, see Tomato (disambiguation). ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria is also the fictional name of a warring nation under Benzino Napaloni as dictator, in the 1940 film The Great Dictator... Water activity or aw is the relative availability of water in a substance. ... Various preserved foods Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in such a way as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent foodborne illness while maintaining nutritional value, density, texture and flavor. ... Dehydration (hypohydration) is the removal of water (hydro in ancient Greek) from an object. ... In physics and chemistry, freezing is the process whereby a liquid turns to a solid when cold enough. ... Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space, or from a substance, and rejecting it elsewhere for the primary purpose of lowering the temperature of the enclosed space or substance and then maintaining that lower temperature. ...

Carbohydrates

Main article: Carbohydrate

Sucrose: ordinary table sugar and probably the most familiar carbohydrate.

Comprising 75% of the biological world and 80% of all food intake for human consumption, the most common known human carbohydrate is starch. The simplest version of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which possesses the properties of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio under a general formula of C_nH_2nO_n where n is a minimum of 3. Glucose is an example of a monosaccharide as is fructose. Combine them in the picture shown to the right and you have sucrose, one of the more common sugar products around. Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... Image File history File links Saccharose. ... Image File history File links Saccharose. ... Flash point N/A Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 Â°C, 100 kPa) Infobox disclaimer and references Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8, chemical formula (C6H10O5)n,[1]) is a mixture of amylose and amylopectin (usually in 20:80 or 30:70 ratios). ... Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. ... For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... Flash point N/A Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 Â°C, 100 kPa) Infobox disclaimer and references Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ...

A chain of monosaccharides form to make a polysaccharide. Such polysaccharides include pectin, dextran, agar, and xanthan. Polysaccharides (sometimes called glycans) are relatively complex carbohydrates. ... Pectin, a white to light brown powder, is a heterosaccharide derived from the cell wall of higher terrestrial plants. ... Dextran is a complex branched polysaccharide made of many glucose molecules joined into chains of varying lengths. ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Xanthan gum (C35H49O29) is a natural gum polysaccharide used as a food additive and rheology modifier. ...

Sugar content is commonly measured in degrees brix. It has been suggested that Öchsle scale and Baumé scale be merged into this article or section. ...

Lipids

Main article: Lipid

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids (including essential fatty acids), fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and steroids. Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid. Some common lipids. ... In science, a molecule is the smallest particle of a pure chemical substance that still retains its chemical composition and properties. ... In chemistry, a nonpolar compound is one that does not have concentrations of positive or negative electric charge. ... candle wax This page is about the substance. ... In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched aliphatic tail (chain), which is either saturated or unsaturated. ... Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that cannot be constructed within an organism from other components (generally all references are to humans) by any known chemical pathways; and therefore must be obtained from the diet. ... In chemistry and biology, Steroids are a type of lipid, characterized by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings. ... In chemistry, non-aromatic and non-cyclic (acyclic) organic compounds are called aliphatic. ... In chemistry, an aromatic molecule is one in which electrons are free to cycle around circular arrangements of atoms, which are alternately singly and doubly bonded to one another. ...

Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol). A commonly-used example of a polar compound is water (H2O). ... In chemistry, hydrophobic or lipophilic species, or hydrophobes, tend to be electrically neutral and nonpolar, and thus prefer other neutral and nonpolar solvents or molecular environments. ... The adjective hydrophilic describes something that likes water (from Greek hydros = water; philos = friend). ... An amphipathic (a. ... Cholesterol is a sterol (a combination steroid and alcohol). ... // Hydroxyl group The term hydroxyl group is used to describe the functional group -OH when it is a substituent in an organic compound. ...

Lipids in food include the oils of such grains as corn, soybean, from animal fats, and are parts of many foods such as milk, cheese, and meat. They also act as vitamin carriers as well. This article is about the maize plant. ... Soy redirects here. ... For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation). ... Cheese is a solid food made from the milk of cows, goats, sheep, and other mammals. ...

Proteins

Main article: Protein

Proteins compose over 50% of the dry weight of an average living cell and are very complex macromolecules. They also play a fundamental role in the structure and function of cells. Comprised mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and some sulfur, they also may contain iron, copper, phosphorus, or zinc. A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin showing coloured alpha helices. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... For other uses, see Copper (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... General Name, symbol, number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Standard atomic weight 65. ...

In food, proteins are essential for growth and survival and vary depending upon a person's age and physiology (e.g., pregnancy). Proteins in food are commonly found in peanuts, meat, poultry, and seafood. They are also involved in ELISA test for food allergy determination as well. This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... This article is about human pregnancy in biological females. ... For other uses, see Peanut (disambiguation). ... Ducks amongst other poultry The Poultry-dealer, after Cesare Vecellio Poultry is the category of domesticated birds kept for meat, eggs, and feathers. ... Spaghetti with seafood (Spaghetti allo scoglio). ... Elisa (born Elisa Toffoli on 19 December 1977) is an Italian singer and solo artist, writing and performing within several genres, notably rock, blues, soul and ambient. ... A food allergy is an immunologic response to a food protein. ...

Enzymes

Main article: Enzyme

Enzymes are biochemical catalysts used in converting processes from one substance to another. They are also involved in reducing the amount of time and energy required to complete a chemical process. Many aspects of the food industry use catalysts, including baking, brewing, dairy, and fruit juices, to make cheese, beer, and bread. Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... A catalyst (Greek: καταλύτης) is a substance that accelerates the rate of a chemical reaction, at some temperature, but without itself being transformed or consumed by the reaction (see also catalysis). ... Some examples of baked food. ... A 16th century brewer A 21st century brewer This article concerns the production of alcoholic beverages. ... A dairy farm near Oxford, New York in the United States. ... For other uses, see Juice (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Beer (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Bread (disambiguation). ...

Vitamins

Main article: Vitamin

Riboflavin (Vitamin B₂), water soluble

Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body. These are broken down in nutrition as either water soluble (Vitamin C) or fat soluble (Vitamin E). An adequate supply of vitamins can prevent such diseases as beriberi, anemia, and scurvy while an overdose of vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death. Retinol (one vitamer of Vitamin A) A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. ... Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) Corrected version is drawn in bkchem and GIMP. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) Corrected version is drawn in bkchem and GIMP. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Nutrients and the body A nutrient is any element or compound necessary for or contributing to an organisms metabolism, growth, or other functioning. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... This article is about the nutrient. ... For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... Tocopherol, or Vitamin E, is a fat-soluble vitamin in eight forms that is an important antioxidant. ... Beriberi is a nervous system ailment caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. ... This article discusses the medical condition. ... Scurvy (N.Lat. ... For other uses, see Nausea (disambiguation). ... Emesis redirects here. ... For other uses, see Death (disambiguation). ...

Minerals

Main article: Dietary mineral

Dietary minerals in foods are large and diverse with many required to function while other trace elements can be hazardous if consumed in excessive amounts. Bulk minerals with a Reference Daily Intake (RDI, formerly Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)) of more than 200 mg/day are calcium, magnesium, and potassium while important trace minerals (RDI less than 200 mg/day) are copper, iron, and zinc. These are found in many foods, but can also be taken in dietary supplements. mccall is cooool Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are present in common organic molecules. ... Reference Daily Intake (RDI) is the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient considered sufficient to meet the requirements of nearly all (97–98%) healthy individuals in each life-stage and gender group. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white solid at room temp Standard atomic weight 24. ... General Name, symbol, number potassium, K, 19 Chemical series alkali metals Group, period, block 1, 4, s Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 39. ...

Color

Main article: Food coloring

Food coloring is added to change the color of any food substance. It is mainly for sensory analysis purposes. It can be used to simulate the natural color of a product as perceived by the customer, such as red dye like FD&C Red No.40 (Allura Red AC) to ketchup or to add unnatural colors to a product like Kellogg's Froot Loops. Caramel is a natural food dye; the industrial form, caramel coloring, is the most widely-used food coloring and is found in foods from soft drinks to soy sauce, bread, and pickles. Food coloring spreading on a thin water film. ... Color is an important part of the visual arts. ... sensory evaluation is ussually the evaluation of foods with the use of the human senses. ... The United States Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C) is a set of laws passed by Congress in 1938 giving authority to the Food and Drug Administration to oversee the safety of food, drugs, and cosmetics. ... Allura Red AC Allura Red AC, also called Allura Red, Food Red 17, C.I. 16035, and FD&C Red 40, is a red azo dye. ... For other uses, see Ketchup (disambiguation). ... Kellogg Company (often referred to as simply Kellogg or Kelloggs) is an American multinational producer of breakfast foods, snack foods, cookies, and crackers, with corporate headquarters in Battle Creek, Michigan, USA. Kellogg trades under the ticker symbol NYSE: K. Revenues in 2006 were $10. ... “Fruit Loops” redirects here. ... Caramel candy For other uses, see Caramel (disambiguation). ... Caramel coloring is caramel used as a food coloring; like caramel candy, it is made by controlled heating of sugar, generally in the presence of acids or alkalis and possibly other compounds, a process called caramelization. ... A soft drink is a drink that contains no alcohol. ... Japanese name Kanji: Hiragana: Korean name Hangul: Vietnamese name Quoc Ngu: Soy sauce (US) or soya sauce is a fermented sauce made from soybeans (soya beans), roasted grain, water and salt. ... For other uses, see Bread (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Pickle. ...

Flavors

Main article: Flavor

Flavor in food is important in how food smells and tastes to the consumer, especially in sensory analysis. Some of these products occur naturally like salt and sugar, but flavor chemists (called a "flavorist") develop many of these flavors for food products. Such artificial flavors include methyl salicylate which creates the wintergreen odor and lactic acid which gives milk a tart taste. This article is about flavor as a sensory impression. ... Olfaction (also known as olfactics) refers to the sense of smell. ... For the social and aesthetic aspects of taste, see taste (sociology). ... This article is about common table salt. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... A flavorist, also known as flavor chemist, is someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors. ... Methyl salicylate (chemical formula C6H4(HO)COOCH3; also known as salicylic acid methyl ester, oil of wintergreen, betula oil, methyl-2-hydroxybenzoate) is a natural product of many species of plants. ... Wintergreen is a term that can refer to various groups of plants: Wintergreen once commonly referred to plants that continue photosynthesis (remain green) throughout the winter. ...

Food Additives

Main article: Food additive

Food additives are substances added to food for preserving flavors, or improving taste or appearance. These processes are as old as adding vinegar for pickling or as an emulsifier for emulsion mixtures like mayonnaise. These are generally listed by "E number" in the European Union or GRAS ("Generally recognized as safe") by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or improve its taste and appearance. ... Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ... For other uses, see Pickle. ... An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible substances. ... A. Two immiscible liquids, not emulsified; B. An emulsion of Phase II dispersed in Phase I; C. The unstable emulsion progressively separates; D. The surfactant (purple outline) positions itself on the interfaces between Phase A and Phase B, stabilizing the emulsion An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible (unblendable... For the song by The Smashing Pumpkins, see Mayonaise (song). ... For the mathematical constant see: E (mathematical constant). ... Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS): Designation by the FDA that a chemical or substance (including certain pesticides) added to food is considered safe by experts, and so is exempted from the usual FFDCA food additive tolerance requirements. ... Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) is a United States of America Food and Drug Administration (FDA) designation that a chemical or substance added to food is considered safe by experts, and so is exempted from the usual Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) food additive tolerance requirements. ... “FDA” redirects here. ...

References

• Fennema, O.R., Ed. (1985). Food Chemistry - Second Edition, Revised and Expanded. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
• Francis, F.J. (2000). "Harvey W. Wiley: Pioneer in Food Science and Quality." In A Century of Food Science. Chicago: Institute of Food Technologists. pp. 13-14.
• Potter, N.N. and J.H. Hotchkiss. (1995). Food Science, Fifth Edition. New York: Champman & Hall. pp. 24-68.
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (1993). Everything Added to Food in the United States. Boca Raton, FL: C.K. Smoley (c/o CRC press, Inc.).

External links

• American Chemical Society Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division website.
• Institute of Food Technologists Food Chemistry Division website.
• Association of Public Analysts