NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Food irradiation

Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation in order to destroy microorganisms, bacteria, viruses, or insects that might be present in the food. Further applications include sprout inhibition, delay of ripening. increase of juice yield, improvement of re-hydration. Irradiation is a more general term of deliberate exposure of materials to radiation to achieve a technical goal. As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware, polymeric plastics, tubes for gas-pipelanies, tyres, or even gemstones. Image File history File links Radura-Symbol. ... Image File history File links Radura-Symbol. ... Radura The Radura is the international symbol indicating a food product has been irradiated. ... Radiation hazard symbol. ... A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. ... Phyla Actinobacteria Aquificae Chlamydiae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Lentisphaerae Nitrospirae Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Verrucomicrobia Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. ... Groups I: dsDNA viruses II: ssDNA viruses III: dsRNA viruses IV: (+)ssRNA viruses V: (-)ssRNA viruses VI: ssRNA-RT viruses VII: dsDNA-RT viruses A virus (from the Latin noun virus, meaning toxin or poison) is a microscopic particle (ranging in size from 20 - 300 nm) that can infect the... Orders Subclass Apterygota Archaeognatha (bristletails) Thysanura (silverfish) Monura - extinct Subclass Pterygota Infraclass Paleoptera (may be paraphyletic) Ephemeroptera (mayflies) Palaeodictyoptera - extinct Megasecoptera - extinct Archodonata - extinct Diaphanopterodea - extinct Protodonata - extinct Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) Infraclass Neoptera Superorder Exopterygota Caloneurodea - extinct Titanoptera - extinct Protorthoptera - extinct Grylloblattodea (ice-crawlers) Mantophasmatodea (gladiators) Plecoptera (stoneflies) Embioptera... Irradiation is the process by which an item is exposed to radiation. ...

Food irradiation is sometimes referred to as cold pasteurization^[1] or electronic pasteurization^[2] because ionizing radiation used to sterilize the food does not heat the food to high temperatures during the process, as in heat-pasteurization (typically at a dose of 10 kGy for food being physically equivalent to water by about 2.5 °C). The treatment of solid food by ionizing radiation can provide an effect similar to heat pasteurization of liquids, such as milk. However, the use of the term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is controversial, because pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes, although the intended end results can in some cases be similar.

Food Irradiation is currently permitted by over 40 countries^[3] and volumes are estimated to exceed 500 000 metric tons annually world wide^[4]

Food irradiation

By irradiating food, depending on the dose, some or all of the harmful bacteria and other pathogens present are killed. This prolongs the shelf-life of the food in cases where microbial spoilage is the limiting factor. Some foods (e.g., herbs and spices) are irradiated at sufficient doses (five kilograys or more) that they show microbial counts reduced by several orders of magnitude^[5]. It has also been shown that irradiation can delay the ripening of fruits or the sprouting of vegetables.^[6] Herbs: basil Herbs (IPA: hÉ™()b, or É™b; see pronunciation differences) are seed-bearing plants without woody stems, which die down to the ground after flowering. ... For other uses, see Spice (disambiguation). ... The gray (symbol: Gy) is the SI unit of absorbed dose. ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... A plate of vegetables Vegetable is a culinary term which generally refers to an edible part of a plant. ...

The United States Department of Agriculture has approved the use of low-level irradiation as an alternative treatment to pesticides for fruits and vegetables that are considered hosts to a number of insect pests, including fruit flies and seed weevils. While the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) has passed a motion to commit member states to implement irradiation technology for their national phytosanitary programs, the findings of recent scientific studies contributed to the European Parliament’s decision to revise a proposal to expand the types of food that can be irradiated in the European Union^[7]. Currently, the European Union only permits irradiation of dried aromatic herbs, spices, and vegetable seasonings^[8]. And requesting more studies to be done before they will allow expansion of irradiation technology to other food items^[9]. Other countries including New Zealand, Australia, Thailand, India, and Mexico have permitted the irradiation of fresh fruits for fruit fly quarantine purposes amongst others. Other countries as Pakistan and Brazil have adopted the Codex Alimentarius Standard on Irradiated Food without any reservation or restriction, ie. any food to any dose. The United States Department of Agriculture (also called the Agriculture Department, or USDA) is a United States Federal Executive Department (or Cabinet Department). ... Established 1952, as the Common Assembly President Hans-Gert PÃ¶ttering (EPP) Since 16 January 2007 Vice-Presidents 14 Rodi Kratsa-Tsagaropoulou (EPP) Alejo Vidal-Quadras (EPP) GÃ©rard Onesta (Greens â€“ EFA) Edward McMillan-Scott (ED) Mario Mauro (EPP) Miguel Angel MartÃnez MartÃnez (PES) Luigi Cocilovo (ALDE) Mechtild...

Irradiation doses

Unit of measure for irradiation dose

The dose of radiation is measured in the SI unit known as Gray (Gy). One Gray (Gy) dose of radiation is equal to 1 joule of energy absorbed per kg of food material. In radiation processing of foods, the doses are generally measured in kGy (1000 Gy). The International System of Units (symbol: SI) (for the French phrase Système International dUnités) is the most widely used system of units. ... Gray (Gy) is the derived SI unit for absorbed dose, specific energy and kerma (kinetic energy in matter). ... Gray (Gy) is the derived SI unit for absorbed dose, specific energy and kerma (kinetic energy in matter). ...

Dosimetry

The measurement of radiation dose is referred to as dosimetry and it involves exposing dosimeters jointly with the treated food item. Dosimeters are small components attached to the irradiated product made of materials that when exposed to ionizing radiation change specific measureable physical attributes to a degree that can be correllated to the dose received. Modern dosimeters are made of a range of materials such as alanine pellets, perspex blocks, radiochromic films, as well as special solutions. These dosimeters are used in combination with specialized read out devices. Standards that describe calibration and operation for radiation dosimetry are maintained by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM international) and are also available as ISO/ASTM standards^[10]. Dosimetry is the measurement of absorbed dose in matter and tissue resulting from the exposure to ionizing radiations. ... A dosimeter is any device used to measure an individuals exposure to a hazardous environment, particularly when the hazard is cumulative over long intervals of time, or ones lifetime. ... A dosimeter is any device used to measure an individuals exposure to a hazardous environment, particularly when the hazard is cumulative over long intervals of time, or ones lifetime. ... Radiation hazard symbol. ... ASTM International is an international voluntary standards organization that develops and produces technical standards for materials, products, systems and services. ...

Applications

On the basis of the dose of radiation the application is generally divided into three main categories as detailed under:

Low Dose Applications (up to 1 kGy)

Medium Dose Applications (1 kGy to 10 kGy)

High Dose Applications (above 10 kGy)

It is important to note that these doses are above those currently permitted for these food items by the FDA and other regulators around the world. The Codex Alimentarius Standard on Irradiated Food does not currently specify any upper dose limit^{[citation needed]}. The NASA is authorized to serilize food for Austronauts at doses of 44 kGy as a notable exception^{[citation needed]}. The United States Food and Drug Administration is the government agency responsible for regulating food, dietary supplements, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, biologics and blood products in the United States. ... The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nations public space program. ...

Irradiation treatments are also sometimes classified as radappertization,radicidation and radurization // Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation in order to disinfest, sterilize, or preserve food. ... // Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation in order to disinfest, sterilize, or preserve food. ... // Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation in order to disinfest, sterilize, or preserve food. ...

Technologies

Electron irradiation

Electron irradiation uses electrons accelerated in an electric field to a velocity close to the speed of light. Electrons are particulate radiation and have cross section many times larger than photons, so that they do not penetrate the product beyond a few inches depending on product density. Electron facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and the environment from radiation exposure.

Gamma irradiation

Gamma radiation is radiation of photons in the gamma part of the spectrum. The radiation is obtained through the use of radioisotopes, generally cobalt 60 or, in theory, caesium 137^[11] Caesium 137 is a material recovered from nuclear spent fuel elements in the refinement procedure of this waste. As - except for military applications - this technology is not commercially available and sufficient quantities for the use in large scale, commercial irradiateors are not available on the global isotope markets. Presently, caesium 137 is used only in small hospital units to treat blood before tranfusion against the Graft vs host disease. This article is about electromagnetic radiation. ... In modern physics the photon is the elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena. ... Legend Î³ = Gamma rays HX = Hard X-rays SX = Soft X-Rays EUV = Extreme ultraviolet NUV = Near ultraviolet Visible light NIR = Near infrared MIR = Moderate infrared FIR = Far infrared Radio waves EHF = Extremely high frequency (Microwaves) SHF = Super high frequency (Microwaves) UHF = Ultra high frequency VHF = Very high frequency HF = High... A radionuclide is an atom with an unstable nucleus. ... Cobalt 60 is a Front 242 side project featuring Front 242s Jean-Luc de Meyer and Dominique Lallement. ... Caesium-137 is a radioactive isotope which is formed mainly by nuclear fission. ... Caesium-137 is a radioactive isotope which is formed mainly by nuclear fission. ... Caesium-137 is a radioactive isotope which is formed mainly by nuclear fission. ... Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a common complication of allogeneic bone marrow transplantation in which functional immune cells in the transplanted marrow recognize the recipient as foreign and mount an immunologic attack. ...

Food irradiation using Cobalt 60 is the preferred method by most processors, because the better penetration enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes, reducing the need for material handling. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several minutes depending on dose. Radioactive material must be monitored and carefully stored to shield workers and the environment from its gamma rays. With most designs the radioisotope can be lowered into a water filled source storage pool to allow maintenance personnel to enter the radiation shield. In this mode the water in the pool absorbs the radiation. Other uncommonly used designs feature dry storage by providing movable shields that reduce radiation levels in areas of the irradiation chamber. Decay scheme of 60Co Cobalt-60 is a radioactive isotope of cobalt, with a half life of 5. ...

One variant of gamma irradiators keeps the cobalt 60 under water at all times and lowers the product to be irradiated under water in hermetic bells. No further shielding is required for such designs.

X-ray irradiation

Similar to gamma radiation, X-rays are photon radiation of a wide energy spectrum and an alternative to isotope based irradiation systems. X-rays are generated by colliding accelerated electrons with a dense material such as Tantalum in a process known as bremsstrahlung-conversion. X-ray irradiators are scalable and have good penetration, with the added benefit of using an electronic source that stops radiating when switched off. They also permit very good dose uniformity. However these systems generally have low energetic efficiency during the conversion of electron energy to photon radiation requiring much more electrical energy than other systems despite longer exposure times than those required by gamma rays or electron beams. Like most other types of facilities, X-ray systems rely on concrete shields to protect the environment and workers from radiation. In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz... General Name, Symbol, Number tantalum, Ta, 73 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 5, 6, d Appearance gray blue Standard atomic weight 180. ... (helpÂ· info), (from the German bremsen, to brake and Strahlung, radiation, thus, braking radiation), is electromagnetic radiation produced by the acceleration of a charged particle, such as an electron, when deflected by another charged particle, such as an atomic nucleus. ... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz...

Irradiated foods in the market place

Current U.S. market

Many U.S. supermarkets carry irradiated food products today ranging from fresh tropical fruit from Hawaii or Florida ^[12], dehydrated spices^[13] and ground meat products^[14]^[15]. Certain supermarkets like Whole Foods Market prefer not carry the product for reasons of consumer perception.^[16] Whole Foods Market (NASDAQ: WFMI) is an Austin, Texas-based natural foods grocer, which, as of July 5, 2007, consisted of 196[3] locations in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. ...

=== Consumer perception === Some older studies suggest that majority of the public questions the safety of irradiated foods, and if given a choice, will not buy foods that have been irradiated ^[17]. More recent consumer attitude and markets studies worldwide, however, indicate consumers today will tend to accept irradiated food. Major studies in the United States indicate the number of consumers concerned about the safety of irradiated food has decreased in the last 10 years and continues to be less than the number of those concerned about pesticide residues, microbiological contamination, and other food-related concerns. Where ever irradiated food has reached the market, it has found a sufficient number of consumers to buy it. A number of marketing tests has proven, that consumers as soon as they are allowed to try the real irradiated food item and are informed about the technology and the purpose of the treatment are willing to buy. The number of people reporting no concerns about irradiated food is among the lowest for food issues, comparable to that of people with no concern about food additives and preservatives.^[18] Bold text''''[[

Link title

Food irradiation and a globalized food supply

Opponents of food irradiation sometimes state that large-scale irradiation would increase processing, transportation, and handling times for fruits and vegetables thus contributing to a negative ecological balance compared to locally grown foods.

Labeling

Labeling laws differ from country to country. While Codex Alimentarius represents the global standard in particular under the WTO-agreement, member states are free to convert those standards into national regulations. With regard to labelling of irradiated food detailed rules are published at CODEX-STAN - 1 (2005) labelling of prepacked food^[19] The Codex Alimentarius (Latin for food code or food book) is a collection of internationally recognized standards, codes of practice, guidelines and other recommendations relating to foods, food production and food safety under the aegis of consumer protection. ...

The provisions are that any 'first generation' product must be labelled 'irradiated' as any product derived directly from an irradiated raw material; for ingredients the provisions is that even the last molecule of an irradiated ingredient must be listed with the ingredients even in cases where the unirradiated ingredient will not appear on the label. The RADURA-logo is optional; several countries use a graphical version which differs from the Codex-version.

In the US as in many other countries irradiated food must be labeled as "Treated with irradiation" or "Treated by radiation" and require the usage of the Radura symbol at the point of sale. However, the meaning of the label is not consistent. The amount of irradiation used can vary and since there are no published standards, the amount of pathogens affected by irradiation can be variable as well. In addition, there are no regulations regarding the levels of pathogen reduction that must be achieved. Food that is processed as an ingredient by a restaurant or food processor is exempt from the labeling requirement. Radura The Radura is the international symbol indicating a food product has been irradiated. ...

FDA is currently proposing a rule that in some cases would allow certain irradiated foods to be marketed without any labeling at all. Under the new rules, only those irradiated foods in which the irradiation causes a material change in the food, or a material change in the consequences that may result from the use of the food, would bear the Radura symbol and the term "irradiated", or a derivative thereof, in conjunction with explicit language describing the change in the food or its conditions of use. In the same rule FDA is proposing to permit a firm to use the terms "electronically pasteurized" or "cold pasteurized" in lieu of "irradiated", provided it notifies the agency that the irradiation process being used meets the criteria specified for use of the term "pasteurized".^[20]

Enforcement of Labelling

There are analytical methods available to detect the usage of irradiation on food items in the marketplace^{[citation needed]}. This is understood as a tool for government authorities to enforce existing labeling standards and to bolster consumer confidence. The European Union is particularly strict in enforcing irradiation labeling requireing its member countries to perform tests on a cross section of food items in the market-place and to report to the European Commission;^{[citation needed]} the results are published annually in the OJ of the European Communities.^{[citation needed]}

Safety aspects of food irradiation

Safety and wholesomeness of irradiated foods

Hundreds of animal feeding studies of irradiated food, including multigenerational studies, have been performed since 1950^[21]. Endpoints investigated have included subchronic and chronic changes in metabolism, histopathology, and function of most systems; reproductive effects; growth; teratogenicity; and mutagenicity. Because a large number of studies has been performed, some have demonstrated adverse effects of irradiation, but no consistent pattern has emerged^[22]^[23]. Independent reviews of the scientific evidence by a series of expert committees, involving the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI), as well as the FDA have concluded that irradiation of foods under specified conditions is safe.^[24],^[25],^[26] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. ... The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established as an autonomous organization on July 29, 1957. ... The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. ... The United States Food and Drug Administration is the government agency responsible for regulating food, dietary supplements, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, biologics and blood products in the United States. ...

Some consumer advocacy groups like Public Citizen or Food and Water Watch maintain that the safety of irradiated food is not proven and strongly oppose the use of the technology.^[27]^[28]

Irradiation to cover up poor food quality

Concerns have sometimes been expressed by public interest groups and public health experts that irradiation, as a non-preventive measure, might disguise or otherwise divert attention away from poor working conditions, sanitation, and poor food-handling procedures that lead to contamination in the first place^[29]. The Lachine Canal, in Montreal, is badly polluted Pollution is the release of harmful environmental contaminants, or the substances so released. ...

Processors of irradiated food are subject to all existing regulations, inspections, and potential penalties regarding plant safety and sanitization; including fines, recalls, and criminal prosecutions. Furthermore, while food irradiation can in some cases maintain the quality of certain perishable food for a longer period of time, it can not undo spoilage effects that occur prior to irradiation. Irradiation can therefore not be successfully used to mask quality issues other than pathogens.

Worker safety and impact on the environment

Experience over more than 40 years in the field of radiation processing has shown that such technology is generally safely used ^[30]. The steady improvement in the design of such facilities and careful selection and training of operators have contributed to a very good safety record. Nevertheless, there have been instances, as in Italy in 1975, in Norway in 1982 and in El Salvador in 1989, when safety systems have been circumvented and serious radiological accidents involving workers at the facilities have ensued.^[31]

The safety of irradiation facilities is regulated by the United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency and monitored by the different national Nuclear Regulatory Commissions. The incidents that have occurred in the past are documented by the agency and thoroughly analyzed to determine root cause and improvement potential. Such improvements are then mandated to retrofit existing facilities and future design. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established as an autonomous organization on July 29, 1957. ...

National and international regulations on the levels and types of energy used to irradiate food generally set standards that prevent the possibility of inducing radioactivity in treated foods. Care must be taken not to expose the operators and the environment to radiation. Interlocks and safeguards are mandated to minimize this risk. Nevertheless there have been radiation related deaths and injury amongst workers of such facilities, many of them caused by the operators themselves overriding the interlocks. ^[32].

An incident in Decatur, Georgia where water soluble caesium-137 leaked into the source storage pool requiring NRC intervention ^[33] has led to near elimination of this radioisotope; it has been replaced by the more costly, non-water soluble cobalt-60. For the south-western Georgia county, see Decatur County, Georgia. ... Caesium-137 is a radioactive isotope which is formed mainly by nuclear fission. ... NRC is a TLA that can refer to: Merchants Despatch Transportation Corporation (AAR reporting mark NRC) National Recycling Coalition (U.S.) National Research Council (U.S.) National Research Council of Canada New Roc City Nigerian Railway Corporation Nokia Research Center Norwegian Refugee Council National Rugby Competition NATO Russia Council Noise... Cobalt 60 is a Front 242 side project featuring Front 242s Jean-Luc de Meyer and Dominique Lallement. ...

Economics

Some foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, are naturally restricted from sale on the global market, unless they are irradiated to prolong quality for transportation. Less spoilage at the receiving end means fewer discards, lowering the unit cost. Irradiation has also been used to reduce bacteria counts in seafood that is shipped over long distances. Because irradiation can reduce pest infestations, it has opened the markets for previously prohibited items, such as mangoes from India that otherwise have a risk of carrying certain insects and pathogens with them into the importing country. Insect pests can have a devastating effect on crop production. They can also transmit diseases that destroy crops and kill livestock and people. Heavy reliance on pesticides raises environmental concerns and problems of pest adaptation and resistance. As a result, many countries are seeking to minimize insecticide use through irradiation techniques.

Such benefits are offset by the cost of this rather capital intensive technology. The actual cost of food irradiation is influenced by dose requirements, the food's tolerance of radiation, handling conditions (i.e., packaging and stacking requirements), construction costs, financing arrangements, and other variables particular to the situation ^[34]. Irradiation is a capital-intensive technology requiring a substantial initial investment, ranging from $1 million to $5 million. In the case of large research or contract irradiation facilities, major capital costs include a radiation source (cobalt-60), hardware (irradiator, totes and conveyors, control systems, and other auxiliary equipment), land (1 to 1.5 acres), radiation shield, and warehouse. Operating costs include salaries (for fixed and variable labor), utilities, maintenance, taxes/insurance, cobalt-60 replenishment, general utilities, and miscellaneous operating costs ^[35]^[36]

Treatment costs vary as a function of dose and facility usage. Low dose applications such as desinfestation of fruit range between $US 0.01/lbs and $US 0.08/lbs while higher dose applications can cost as much as $US 0.20 / lbs. ^[37]

Alternatives

Other methods to reduce different pathogens in food include pasteurization, [[Ultra-high temperature processing, UV radiation, Ozone or fumigation with ethylene oxide. Pasteurization (or pasteurisation) is the process of heating liquids for the purpose of destroying viruses and harmful organisms such as bacteria, protozoa, molds, and yeasts. ... Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ... It has been suggested that Ozone generator be merged into this article or section. ... The chemical compound ethylene oxide is an important industrial chemical used as an intermediate in the production of ethylene glycol and other chemicals, and as a sterilant for foodstuffs and medical supplies. ...

Insect pests can also be eliminated fumigation with methyl bromide or aluminum phosphine, vapour heat, forced hot air, hot water dipping, or cold treatment The chemical compound bromomethane is an organic halogen compound with formula BrCH3. ...

Other methods to extend shelf life of food items include modified atmosphere packaging, carbon monixide, dehydration, vacuum packaging, freezing and flash freezing Modified atmosphere is a common technical definition that describes the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package (commonly food packages, but this technique is also used for drugs) in order to improve the shelf life. ... Carbon monoxide, chemical formula CO, is a colourless, odourless, flammable and highly toxic gas. ... Dehydration (hypohydration) is the removal of water (hydro in ancient Greek) from an object. ... In physics and chemistry, freezing is the process whereby a liquid turns to a solid. ... Flash freezing refers to the application of supercooling in various kinds of industries whereby objects are quickly frozen by subjecting them to super low temperatures. ...

Some people argue that the best alternative to food irradiation to reduce pathogens is in good agricultural practices. For example, farmers and processing plants should improve sanitation practices, water used for irrigation and processing should be regularly tested for E. coli, and production plants should be routinely inspected. concentrated animal feeding operations near farmland where produce is grown should be regulated.

See also

Binomial name Deinococcus radiodurans Brooks & Murray, 1981 Deinococcus radiodurans (strange berry that withstands radiation, formerly called Micrococcus radiodurans) is an extremophilic bacterium, and is the most radioresistant organism known. ... Irradiated mail is mail that has been deliberately exposed to radiation, typically in an effort to disinfect it. ...

References

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. ...

Notes

^ http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/foods/458-300/458-300.html
^ See, e.g., The Truth about Irradiated Meat, CONSUMER REPORTS 34-37 (Aug. 2003).
^ http://nucleus.iaea.org/NUCLEUS/nucleus/Content/Applications/FICdb/FoodIrradiationClearances.jsp?module=cif
^ http://www.mindfully.org/Food/Irradiation-Position-ADA.htm
^ http://www.ffcms.nl/klanten/iso/media/pdf/en/D-10%20values%20of%20micro-organisms.pdf
^ http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1966.tb03262.x
^ Burros, Marian. "Irradiated Beef: A Question In Lunchrooms," The New York Times, January 29, 2003.
^ http://eur-lex.europa.eu/pri/en/oj/dat/1999/l_066/l_06619990313en00240025.pdf
^ http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out193_en.pdf
^ (see Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 10.02), West Conshohocken,PA, USA
^ http://www.hi-tm.com/Documents/Irradref.html
^ http://www.hawaiipride.com/
^ http://ccr.ucdavis.edu/irr/inus1.shtml
^ http://ccr.ucdavis.edu/irr/inus1.shtml
^ http://www.citizen.org/print_article.cfm?ID=11108
^ Whole Foods Market, Food Safety, Irradiated Meat (English). Retrieved on 2007-06-18.
^ Food Marketing Institute poll 2000
^ Consumer Attitudes and Market Response to Irradiated Food, Author: Bruhn, Christine M.1 Journal of Food Protection®, Volume 58, Number 2, February 1995 , pp. 175-181(7), Publisher: International Association for Food Protection
^ http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/standard_list.do?lang=en in the associated table at
^ http://www.regulations.gov/fdmspublic/ContentViewer?objectId=0900006480220052&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf
^ http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1745-4603.1981.tb00539.x?journalCode=jts
^ http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1745-4603.1981.tb00539.x?journalCode=jts
^ Thayer DW, Christopher JP, Campbell LA, Toxicology studies of irradiation-sterilized chicken
^ World Health Organization. Safety and Nutritional Adequacy of Irradiated Food. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1994
^ US Department of Health, and Human Services, Food, and Drug Administration Irradiation in the production, processing, and handling of food. Federal Register 1986; 51:13376-13399
^ World Health Organization. High-Dose Irradiation: Wholesomeness of Food Irradiated With Doses Above 10 kGy. Report of a Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Study Group. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1999. WHO Technical Report Series No. 890
^ http://www.citizen.org/cmep/foodsafety/food_irrad/articles.cfm?ID=11803
^ http://www.foodandwaterwatch.org/food/foodirradiation/food-irradiation
^ http://www.organicconsumers.org/irrad/epsteinsanitation.rtf
^ http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub925_web.pdf http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub925_web.pdf
^ http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub925_web.pdf http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub925_web.pdf
^ International Atomic Energy Agency, The Radiological Accident in Soreq, http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub925_web.pdf
^ http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/gen-comm/info-notices/1989/in89082.html
^ (Forsythe and Evangel 1993, USDA 1989)
^ (Kunstadt et al., USDA 1989)
^ http://www.epa.gov/Ozone/mbr/casestudies/volume2/irad2.html
^ http://www.epa.gov/Ozone/mbr/casestudies/volume2/irad2.html

Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 169th day of the year (170th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established as an autonomous organization on July 29, 1957. ...

External links

Codex Alimentarius

The Codex Alimentarius (Latin for food code or food book) is a collection of internationally recognized standards, codes of practice, guidelines and other recommendations relating to foods, food production and food safety under the aegis of consumer protection. ...

Other websites

Categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since August 2007 | Food preservation | Foodborne illnesses Food and Water Watch Logo Food and Water Watch is a Washington, D.C. based non-governmental organization and consumer rights group which focuses on corporate and government accountability relating to food, water, and fishing. ... The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established as an autonomous organization on July 29, 1957. ... Karlsruhe (population 285,812 in 2006) is a city in the south west of Germany, in the Bundesland Baden-WÃ¼rttemberg, located near the French-German border. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Nuclear engineering is the practical application of the atomic nucleus gleaned from principles of nuclear physics and the interaction and maintenance of nuclear fission systems and components, specifically, nuclear reactors, nuclear power plants and/or nuclear weapons. ... Nuclear physics is the branch of physics concerned with the nucleus of the atom. ... For the generation of electrical power by fission, see Nuclear power plant An induced nuclear fission event. ... The deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion reaction is considered the most promising for producing fusion power. ... Radiation as used in physics, is energy in the form of waves or moving subatomic particles. ... Radiation hazard symbol. ... The nucleus of an atom is the very small dense region, of positive charge, in its centre consisting of nucleons (protons and neutrons). ... This diagram demonstrates the defense in depth quality of nuclear power plants. ... Nuclear chemistry is a subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. ... Nuclear material consists of materials used in nuclear systems, such as nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. ... Nuclear Fuel Process A graph compairing nucleon number against binding energy Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear energy, by analogy to chemical fuel that is burned to derive energy. ... Fertile material is a term used to describe nuclides which generally themselves do not undergo induced fission (fissionable by thermal neutrons) but from which fissile material is generated by neutron absorption and subsequent nuclei conversions. ... General Name, Symbol, Number thorium, Th, 90 Chemical series Actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 232. ... General Name, Symbol, Number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Standard atomic weight 238. ... These pie-graphs showing the relative proportions of uranium-238 (blue) and uranium-235 (red) at different levels of enrichment. ... Depleted uranium storage yard. ... General Name, Symbol, Number plutonium, Pu, 94 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight (244) gÂ·molâˆ’1 Electron configuration [Rn] 5f6 7s2 Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2 Physical properties Phase solid Density (near r. ... For fusion power, see Fusion power. ... Core of CROCUS, a small nuclear reactor used for research at the EPFL in Switzerland. ... Radioactive waste are waste types containing radioactive chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose. ... Internal view of the JET tokamak superimposed with an image of a plasma taken with a visible spectrum video camera. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into energy development. ... An Inertial fusion power plant is intended to industrially produce electric power by use of inertial confinement fusion techniques. ... Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) (also VVER if of Russian design) are generation II nuclear power reactors that use ordinary water under high pressure as coolant and neutron moderator. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Generation IV reactors (Gen IV) are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. ... The fast breeder or fast breeder reactor (FBR) is a fast neutron reactor designed to breed fuel by producing more fissile material than it consumes. ... Shevchenko BN350 nuclear fast reactor and desalination plant situated on the shore of the Caspian Sea. ... Schematic diagram of a Magnox nuclear reactor showing gas flow. ... Schematic diagram of the Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor. ... The Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR) system is a Generation IV reactor concept that features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides. ... A molten salt reactor is a type of nuclear reactor where the working fluid is a molten salt. ... A Liquid metal cooled nuclear reactor is nuclear reactor where the primary coolant is a liquid molten metal. ... The Lead-cooled Fast Reactor is a Generation IV reactor that features a fast-spectrum lead or lead/bismuth eutectic liquid metal-cooled reactor with a closed fuel cycle. ... The Sodium-cooled fast reactor is a sodium cooled reactor that uses fast neutrons. ... Supercritical water reactor scheme. ... Very high temperature reactor scheme. ... Graphite Pebble for Reactor The pebble bed reactor (PBR) or pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) is an advanced nuclear reactor design. ... The Integral Fast Reactor or Advanced Liquid-Metal Reactor is a design for a nuclear fast reactor with a specialized nuclear fuel cycle. ... Nuclear propulsion can include a wide variety of methods, the commonality of which is the use of some form of nuclear reaction as their primary power source. ... In a nuclear thermal rocket a working fluid, usually hydrogen, is heated in a high temperature nuclear reactor, and then expands through a rocket nozzle to create thrust. ... // A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) is a simple electrical generator which obtains its power from radioactive decay. ... Shown above is the bone scintigraphy of a young woman. ... Image of a typical positron emission tomography (PET) facility Positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine medical imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the body. ... Clinac 2100 C100 accelerator Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis). ... Radiosurgery is a medical procedure which allows non-invasive brain surgery, i. ... Proton therapy is a kind of external beam radiotherapy where protons are directed to a tumor site. ... Brachytherapy for prostate cancer is administered using seeds, small radioactive rods implanted directly into the tumour. ... Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) is an experimental form of radiotherapy that utilizes a neutron beam that interacts with boron injected to a patient. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 kilometers (11 mi) above the hypocenter A nuclear weapon derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions of fusion or fission. ... A nuclear fireball lights up the night in a United States nuclear test. ... For the 1989 computer game, see Nuclear War (computer game). ... U.S. and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945-2006. ... The first nuclear weapons, though large, cumbersome and inefficient, provided the basic design building blocks of all future weapons. ... A 23 kiloton tower shot called BADGER, fired on April 18, 1953 at the Nevada Test Site, as part of the Operation Upshot-Knothole nuclear test series. ... Preparation for an underground nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site in the 1980s. ... // Nuclear weapons delivery is the technology and systems used to place a nuclear weapon at the position of detonation, on or near its intended target. ... World map with nuclear weapons development status represented by color. ... This is a list of states with nuclear weapons, sometimes called the nuclear club. ... Main article: Nuclear testing The following is a list of nuclear test series designations, organized first by country and then by date. ...

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