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In philosophy, a formal fallacy or a logical fallacy is a pattern of reasoning which is always wrong. This is due to a flaw in the structure of the argument which renders the argument invalid. A formal fallacy is contrasted with an informal fallacy, which may have a valid logical form, but be false due to the characteristics of its premises. Philosophical logic is the application of formal logical techniques to problems that concern philosophers. ...
In logic, an argument is a set of statements, consisting of a number of premises, a number of inferences, and a conclusion, which is said to have the following property: if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true or highly likely to be true. ...
In logic, the form of an argument is valid precisely if it cannot lead from true premises to a false conclusion. ...
In Philosophical logic, an informal fallacy is a pattern of reasoning which is false due to the falsity of one or more of its premises. ...
In discourse, a premise (also premiss in British usage) is a claim which is part of a reason or objection. ...
The term fallacy is often used more generally to mean an argument which is problematic for any reason, whether it be a formal or an informal fallacy. Look up fallacy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
The presence of a formal fallacy in a deductive argument does not imply anything about the argument's premises or its conclusion. Both may actually be true, or even more probable as a result of the argument (e.g. appeal to authority), but the deductive argument is still invalid because the conclusion does not follow from the premises in the manner described. By extension, an argument can contain a formal fallacy even if the argument is not a deductive one; for instance an inductive argument that incorrectly applies principles of probability or causality can be said to commit a formal fallacy. An appeal to authority or argument by authority is a type of argument in logic, consisting on basing the truth value of an assertion on the authority, knowledge or position of the person asserting it. ...
Probability is the likelihood that something is the case or will happen. ...
It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ...
Recognizing fallacies in everyday arguments may be difficult since arguments are often embedded in rhetorical patterns that obscure the logical connections between statements. Informal fallacies may also exploit the emotions or intellectual or psychological weaknesses of the audience. Having the capability to recognize fallacies in arguments is one way to reduce the likelihood of such occurrences. Rhetoric (from Greek , rhêtôr, orator, teacher) is generally understood to be the art or technique of persuasion through the use of spoken language; however, this definition of rhetoric has expanded greatly since rhetoric emerged as a field of study in universities. ...
Emotional redirects here. ...
Psychology (from Greek: ψυχή, psukhē, spirit, soul; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is both an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. ...
A different approach to understanding and classifying fallacies is provided by argumentation theory; see for instance the van Eemeren, Grootendorst reference below. In this approach, an argument is regarded as an interactive protocol between individuals which attempts to resolve a disagreement. The protocol is regulated by certain rules of interaction and violations of these rules are fallacies. Many of the fallacies in the list below are best understood as being fallacies in this sense. Argumentation theory, or argumentation, embraces the arts and sciences of civil debate, dialogue, conversation, and persuasion. ...
In international politics, protocol is the etiquette of diplomacy and affairs of state. ...
These fallacies are used in many forms of modern communication where the intention is to influence behavior and change beliefs. Examples in the mass media today include but are not limited to propaganda, advertisements, politics, and opinion news shows. This article does not cite any references or sources. ...
Soviet Propaganda Poster during the World War II. The text reads Red Army Fighter, SAVE US! Chinese propaganda poster from during the Cultural Revolution. ...
Generally speaking, advertising is the paid promotion of goods, services, companies and ideas by an identified sponsor. ...
The Politics series Politics Portal This box: Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions. ...
Common examples
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For a list of types of formal and informal fallacy, as well as examples of fallacious arguments, see Fallacy. For a concise list of "appeal to" fallacies, see Appeal (disambiguation). This is a list of fallacies. ...
Look up fallacy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
Look up appeal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
See also Anecdotal evidence is an informal account of evidence in the form of an anecdote, or hearsay. ...
Apophasis (Late Latin, from Greek apophanai, to say no [1]) refers, in general, to mentioning by not mentioning. Apophasis has specific meanings when used a figure of speech or as a logical device. ...
This article does not cite any references or sources. ...
An argument is cogent if and only if the truth of the arguments premises would render the truth of the conclusion probable (i. ...
This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...
The conjunction fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that specific conditions are more probable than general ones. ...
Demagogy (from Greek demos, people, and agogos, leading) refers to a political strategy for obtaining and gaining political power by appealing to the popular prejudices, fears, and expectations of the public — typically via impassioned rhetoric and propaganda, and often using nationalistic or populist themes. ...
Look up fallacy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
Fallacies of definition refer to the various ways in which definitions can fail to have merit. ...
This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ...
Informal logic is the study of arguments as presented in ordinary language, as contrasted with the presentations of arguments in an artificial (technical) or formal language (see formal logic). ...
In mathematics, there are a variety of spurious proofs of obvious contradictions. ...
Look up paradox in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
Sophism (gr. ...
(This article discusses the soundess notion of informal logic. ...
In statistics, a spurious relationship (or, sometimes, spurious correlation) is a mathematical relationship in which two occurrences have no causal connection, yet it may be inferred that they do, due to a certain third, unseen factor (referred to as a confounding factor or lurking variable). The spurious relationship gives an...
In logic, the form of an argument is valid precisely if it cannot lead from true premises to a false conclusion. ...
Vacuous truth is a special topic of first-order logic. ...
The argument from fallacy, also known as argumentum ad logicam or fallacy fallacy, is a logical fallacy which assumes that if an argument is fallacious, its conclusion must be false. ...
In formal logic, a modal logic is any logic for handling modalities: concepts like possibility, existence, and necessity. ...
I know who X is. ...
The appeal to probability is a logical fallacy, often used in conjunction with other fallacies. ...
The bare assertion fallacy is fallacy in formal logic where a premise in an argument is assumed to be true merely because it says that it is true. ...
In logic and mathematics, a propositional calculus (or a sentential calculus) is a formal system in which formulas representing propositions can be formed by combining atomic propositions using logical connectives, and a system of formal proof rules allows to establish that certain formulas are theorems of the formal system. ...
The logical fallacy of affirming a disjunct occurs in a disjunctive syllogism when an argument takes the form: Either A or B (this is the disjunct) A (Affirming the middle term) Therefore, not B The fallacy lies in concluding that B must be false because A is true; in fact...
Affirming the consequent is a logical fallacy in the form of a hypothetical proposition. ...
The form of the fallacy of false dichotomy as an argument map with the conclusion at the top of the tree. ...
Denying the antecedent (also known as vacuous implication) is a type of logical fallacy. ...
In language and logic, quantification is a construct that specifies the extent of validity of a predicate, that is the extent to which a predicate holds over a range of things. ...
The existential fallacy is a logical fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because it has two universal premises and a particular conclusion. ...
An illicit conversion is an argument which entails the arbitrary assignment of a specific trait of a set to one of its subsets. ...
Syllogistic fallacies are logical fallacies that occur in syllogisms. ...
Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise is a logical fallacy that is committed when a categorical syllogism has a positive conclusion, but one or two negative premises. ...
The fallacy of exclusive premises is a formal fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because both of its premises are negative. ...
A fallacy of necessity is a fallacy in the logic of a syllogism whereby a degree of unwarranted necessity is placed in the conclusion. ...
The fallacy of four terms (Latin: quaternio terminorum) is a logical fallacy that occurs when a three-part syllogism has four terms. ...
This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. ...
Illicit minor is a logical fallacy committed in a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its minor term is undistributed in the minor premise but distributed in the conclusion. ...
The fallacy of the undistributed middle is a logical fallacy that is committed when the middle term in a categorical syllogism isnt distributed. ...
References - Aristotle, On Sophistical Refutations, De Sophistici Elenchi.
- William of Ockham, Summa of Logic (ca. 1323) Part III.4.
- John Buridan, Summulae de dialectica Book VII.
- Francis Bacon, the doctrine of the idols in Novum Organum Scientiarum, Aphorisms concerning The Interpretation of Nature and the Kingdom of Man, XXIIIff.
- The Art of Controversy | Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten — The Art Of Controversy (bilingual), by Arthur Schopenhauer
- John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic — Raciocinative and Inductive. Book 5, Chapter 7, Fallacies of Confusion.
- C. L. Hamblin, Fallacies. Methuen London, 1970.
- Fearnside, W. Ward and William B. Holther, Fallacy: The Counterfeit of Argument, 1959.
- Vincent F. Hendricks, Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005, ISBN 87-991013-7-8
- D. H. Fischer, Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought, Harper Torchbooks, 1970.
- Douglas N. Walton, Informal logic: A handbook for critical argumentation. Cambridge University Press, 1989.
- F. H. van Eemeren and R. Grootendorst, Argumentation, Communication and Fallacies: A Pragma-Dialectical Perspective, Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, 1992.
- Warburton Nigel, Thinking from A to Z, Routledge 1998.
- T. Edward Damer. Attacking Faulty Reasoning, 5th Edition, Wadsworth, 2005. ISBN 0-534-60516-8
- Sagan, Carl, "The Demon-Haunted World: Science As a Candle in the Dark". Ballantine Books, March 1997 ISBN 0-345-40946-9, 480 pgs. 1996 hardback edition: Random House, ISBN 0-394-53512-X, xv+457 pages plus addenda insert (some printings).
Aristotle (Greek: Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ...
William of Ockham (also Occam or any of several other spellings, IPA: ) (c. ...
Arthur Schopenhauer (February 22, 1788 – September 21, 1860) was a German philosopher. ...
1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday. ...
Vincent F. Hendricks is a philosopher and logician. ...
Year 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar). ...
Year 1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar). ...
Year 1998 (MCMXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar). ...
Attacking Faulty Reasoning is a textbook on logical fallacies by T. Edward Damer that has been used for many years in a number of college courses on logic, critical thinking, argumentation, and philosophy. ...
Insert non-formatted text here Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer and astrobiologist and a highly successful popularizer of astronomy, astrophysics, and other natural sciences. ...
The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark is a 1997 book by Carl Sagan. ...
Ballantine Books, founded in 1952 by Ian Ballantine, is a major book publisher and is currently owned by Random House. ...
// Random House is a publishing house based in New York City. ...
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