In media studies, sociology and psychology, framing is a process of selective control over the individual's perception of the meanings attributed to words or phrases. Framing defines how an element of rhetoric is packaged so as to allow certain interpretations and rule out others. Media frames can be created by the mass media or by specific political or social movements or organizations. Image File history File links Broom_icon. ... Image File history File links Gnome-globe. ... Media studies concerns the study of media content, institutions, and its role in society. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Psychology (from Greek: ψυχή, psukhē, spirit, soul; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is an academic/ applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. ... In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information. ... Rhetoric (from Greek , rhêtôr, orator, teacher) is generally understood to be the art or technique of persuasion through the use of spoken and written language; however, this definition of rhetoric has expanded greatly since rhetoric emerged as a field of study in universities. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ...

History

The concept is generally attributed to the work of Erving Goffman, especially his 1974 book, Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. The concept of framing is taken from Erving Goffman (1974, p. 21) to label "schemata of interpretation" that allows individuals or groups "to locate, perceive, identify, and label" events and occurrences, thus rendering meaning, organizing experiences, and guiding actions. Goffman's framing concept evolves out of his 1959 work, Presentation of Self, a commentary on impression management. It could be argued that these works evolve out of Kenneth Boulding's concept of image (Boulding, 1956). George Lakoff, in teaching his Cognitive Science 101 course at the University of California, Berkeley gives his students a directive: "Do not think of an elephant!"^[1] According to Lakoff, it is impossible not to think of an elephant as the mere mention of the word "elephant" provokes an image and an accompanying frame. Erving Goffman Erving Goffman (June 11, 1922 – November 19, 1982), was a sociologist and writer. ... Erving Goffman Erving Goffman (June 11, 1922 – November 19, 1982), was a sociologist and writer. ... Kenneth Ewart Boulding (January 18, 1910 - March 18, 1993) was born in Liverpool, England, graduated from Oxford University, granted United States citizenship in 1948. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Cognitive science is usually defined as the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence (e. ... Sather tower (the Campanile) looking out over the San Francisco Bay and Mount Tamalpais. ... Genera and Species Loxodonta Loxodonta cyclotis Loxodonta africana Elephas Elephas maximus Elephas antiquus † Elephas beyeri † Elephas celebensis † Elephas cypriotes † Elephas ekorensis † Elephas falconeri † Elephas iolensis † Elephas planifrons † Elephas platycephalus † Elephas recki † Stegodon † Mammuthus † Elephantidae (the elephants) is a family of pachyderm, and the only remaining family in the order Proboscidea...

Description

Framing is the process of selectively using frames to invoke a particular image or idea. This idea is often associated with a pre-conceived cultural metaphor. Lakoff suggests, for example, that political terms such as "tax relief" are successful framing devices because the frame relates to the cultural metaphor of something positive. One who brings about pain or distress is an afflicter, someone bad. One who relieves pain or distress is a hero. Lakoff notes the salience of this concept in affecting those who hear the frame: Look up metaphor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

"Taxes are an affliction, proponents of taxes are the causes of affliction (the villains), the taxpayer is the afflicted (the victim) and the proponents of tax relief are the heroes who deserve the taxpayers' gratitude. Those who oppose tax relief are bad guys who want to keep relief from the victim of the affliction, the taxpayer. Every time the phrase tax relief is used, and heard or read by millions of people, this view of taxation as an affliction and conservatives as heroes gets reinforced."^[2] This article deals with conservatism as a political philosophy. ...

The consequences of framing are extremely widespread. From a political perspective, if one considers the importance of agenda setting, for example, it becomes clear that the concepts of framing and agenda setting are linked. By constantly invoking a particular frame, the framing party is able to effectively control the discourse, thus often setting the agenda. Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber in Trust Us, We're Experts illustrate how Public Relations (PR) firms often use language to help frame a given issue, structuring the questions that are then subsequently asked. For example, one firm advises clients to use "bridging language" that uses a strategy of answering questions with specific terms or ideas in order to shift the discourse from an uncomfortable topic, to a more comfortable one.^[3] Practitioners of this strategy might attempt to draw attention away from one frame in order to focus on another. As Lakoff notes, "On the day that George W. Bush took office, the words "tax relief" started appearing in White House communiqués."^[4] By refocusing the structure away from one frame (tax burden or tax responsibilities), individuals are able to set the agenda of the questions to be asked in future. The Agenda-setting theory,is the theory that the mass-news media have a large influence on audiences by their choice of what stories to consider newsworthy and how much prominence and space to give them. ... Trust Us, Were Experts: How Industry Manipulates Science and Gambles with Your Future is a book written by Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber. ... Public relations (PR): Building sustainable relations with all publics in order to create a postive brand image. ... George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is the 43rd and current President of the United States, inaugurated on January 20, 2001. ...

Marvin Minsky sees frames as a core mechanism in the human brain, and advocates its use in AI. See: http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/papers/Frames/frames.html Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ...

As used by linguists

In politics, linguists point to an example of framing in the phrase "tax relief"; the use of the word "relief" implies a notion that the prevailing level of taxes put strain on the citizen, and casts those who oppose it as insensitive to taxpayers; similarly, when tax reductions are framed as "giveaways to the rich," this casts those who support reduced taxation in a bad light. A tax cut is a reduction in the rate of tax charged by a government, for example on personal or corporate income. ...

Terms that frame debate seek to limit the possibilities of discourse by setting the vocabulary and metaphors by which an issue can be discussed. In this view, framing cannot be avoided — it is an inherent part not just of political discourse, but of literally all cognition, both conscious and unconscious — but the effort should be made to do it consciously.

According to Klandermans, a sociologist, the "social construction of collective action frames," involves "public discourse, that is, the interface of media discourse and interpersonal interaction; persuasive communication during mobilization campaigns by movement organizations, their opponents and countermovement organizations; and consciousness raising during episodes of collective action." (1997: p. 45)

Cultural anthropologist Jeffrey Feldman, writing about framing and politics in his Framing the Debate suggests that frames are cognitive, cultural and historical. Feldman demonstrates that for framing to be effective as strategic politics, it must be rooted in rhetorical tradition. Feldman makes his case by drawing on historic speeches (e.g., Presidential addresses) to understand and define contemporary debate challenges.

Other possible examples

• The word "progressive" to describe left-wing politics. The word "progressive" implies an improvement, or a step forward, and therefore suggests that right-wing politics are a regression or a step back. The use of the word progressive is sometimes used as a substitute for the word liberal (which itself was effectively framed by various opponents into a negative word, and is now being reclaimed as an honorable appellation).

• Phrases such as "Pro-Life" (which implies its opponents are "anti-life" or "pro-death"), "Pro-Choice" (which implies its opponents are "anti-choice" or "pro-compulsion"), and "anti-immigrant" (which implies the people this term is applied to are against individual immigrants as opposed to being against immigration or illegal immigrants.).

• Terms such as Faith-based community (which implies that its opponents are without faith), and "Reality-based community" (which implies that its opponents are unrealistic).

• Program names that may only describe the intended effects of a program but can also imply their effectiveness. These include "Foreign Aid" (which implies that the result will be to aid, rather than harm foreigners), "Social Security" (which implies that the program can be relied on to provide security for a society), "Stabilisation policy" (which implies that the effects of a policy will be stabilizing).

• Recent popularization of the term "escalation" to describe an increase in troop levels in Iraq. This implies that the United States is deliberately increasing the scope of conflict in a provocative manner.

In politics, left-wing, political left, leftism, or simply the left, are terms which refer (with no particular precision) to the segment of the political spectrum typically associated with any of several strains of socialism, social democracy, or liberalism (especially in the American sense of the word), or with opposition... In politics, right-wing, the political right, or simply the right, are terms which refer, with no particular precision, to the segment of the political spectrum in opposition to left-wing politics. ... Look up liberal on Wiktionary, the free dictionary Liberal may refer to: Politics: Liberalism American liberalism, a political trend in the USA Political progressivism, a political ideology that is for change, often associated with liberal movements Liberty, the condition of being free from control or restrictions Liberal Party, members of... To reclaim is to bring a word back to a more acceptable course. ... This article is about the social movement. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... A faith-based community is a community with members who all believe in the same religious concepts, or at least they did when it was founded. ... Reality-based community is a popular term among Internet bloggers that is an example of political framing. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Development aid. ... Social security primarily refers to a field of social welfare service concerned with social protection, or protection against socially recognized conditions, including poverty, old age, disability, unemployment, families with children and others. ... A stabilisation policy is a package or set of measures introduced to stabilise a financial system or economy that is in difficult circumstances. ...

Frame analysis

Framing theory and frame analysis is a broad theoretical approach that has been used in communication studies, news (Johnson-Cartee, 1995), politics, and social movements among other applications. "Framing is the process by which a communication source, such as a news organization, defines and constructs a political issue or public controversy" (Nelson, Oxley, & Clawson, 1997, p. 221). To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Frame analysis for social movements

Framing has been utilized to explain the process of social movements (Snow & Benford, 1988). Movements are carriers of beliefs and ideologies. In addition, they are part of the process of constructing meaning for participants and opposers (Snow & Benford, 1988). Mass movements are said to be successful when the frames projected align with the frames of participants to produce resonance between the two parties. This is a process known as frame alignment.

Frame alignment — a process to explain social movement theory

Snow and Benford (1988) say that frame alignment is an important element in social mobilization or movement. They argue that when individual frames become linked in congruency and complementariness, that "frame alignment" occurs (p. 198; Snow et al. 1986, p. 464), producing "frame resonance", which is key to the process of a group transitioning from one frame to another (although not all framing efforts are successful). The conditions that affect or constrain framing efforts are:

• "The robustness, completeness, and thoroughness of the framing effort". Snow and Benford (1988) identify three core framing tasks and the degree to which these tasks are attended to will determine participant mobilization. The three tasks are: a) diagnostic framing for the identification of a problem and assignment of blame, b) prognostic framing to suggest solutions, strategies, and tactics to a problem, and c) motivational framing that serves as a call to arms or rationale for action.
• The relationship between the proposed frame and the larger belief system; centrality – the frame cannot be of low hierarchical significance and salience within the larger belief system. Its range and interrelatedness – if the frame is linked to only one core belief or value that, in itself, is of limited range within the larger belief system, the frame has a high degree of being discounted.
• Relevance of the frame to the realities of the participants; a frame must be relevant to participants and inform them. Relevancy can be constrained by empirical credibility or testability, it relates to participant experience, and has narrative fidelity, that is, it fits in with existing cultural myths and narrations.
• Cycles of protest (Tarrow 1983a; 1983b); the point at which the frame emerges on the timeline of the current era and existing preoccupations with social change. Framing efforts may be affected by previous frames.

Snow and Benford (1988) propose that once proper frames are constructed as described above, large-scale changes in society such as those necessary for social movement can be achieved through frame alignment.

Four types of frame alignment

There are four types, which include frame bridging, frame amplification, frame extension and frame transformation.

Frame bridging is the "linkage of two or more ideologically congruent but structurally unconnected frames regarding a particular issue or problem" (Snow et al., 1986, p. 467). It involves the linkage of a movement to "unmobilized [sic] sentiment pools or public opinion preference clusters" (p. 467) of people who share similar views or grievances but who lack an organizational base. This article or section needs additional references or sources to improve its verifiability. ...

Frame amplification refers to "the clarification and invigoration of an interpretive frame that bears on a particular issue, problem, or set of events" (Snow et al., 1986, p. 469). This interpretive frame usually involves the invigorating of values or beliefs.

Frame extensions are a movement's effort to incorporate participants by extending the boundaries of the proposed frame to include or encompass the views, interests, or sentiments of targeted groups.

Frame transformation is a process required when the proposed frames "may not resonate with, and on occasion may even appear antithetical to, conventional lifestyles or rituals and extant interpretive frames" (Snow et al., 1986, p. 473).

When this happens, new values, new meanings and understandings are required in order to secure participants and support. Goffman (1974, p. 43–44) calls this "keying" where "activities, events, and biographies that are already meaningful from the standpoint of some primary framework, in terms of another framework" (Snow et al., 1986, p. 474) such that they are seen differently. There are two types of frame transformation:

1. Domain-specific transformations such as the attempt to alter the status of groups of people, and
2. Global interpretive frame transformation where the scope of change is quite radical as in a change of world views, total conversions of thought, or uprooting of all that is familiar (e.g. moving from communism to market capitalism; religious conversion, etc.).

Communism is an ideology that seeks to establish a classless, stateless social organization based on common ownership of the means of production. ... A market economy (aka free market economy and free enterprise economy) is an economic system in which the production and distribution of goods and services takes place through the mechanism of free markets guided by a free price system rather than by the state in a planned economy. ...

Framing Effect

The context or framing of problems adopted by decision makers is controlled in part by extrinsic manipulation of the decision options offered, as well as by forces intrinsic to decision makers, e.g., their norms, habits, and unique temperament. In psychology, temperament is the innate aspect of an individuals personality, such as introversion or extroversion. ...

Absolute and relative influences

Framing effects arise because it is frequently possible to frame a decision using multiple scenarios, wherein benefits may be expressed either as a relative risk reduction (RRR), or as absolute risk reduction (ARR). Extrinsic control over the cognitive distinctions, between risk tolerance and reward anticipation, adopted by decision makers can be facilitated by altering the presentation of relative risks and absolute benefits. A scenario (from the Italian, that which is pinned to the scenery) is a brief description of an event or a series of events. ... Risk aversion is a concept in economics, finance, and psychology explaining the behaviour of consumers and investors under uncertainty. ... For the record label, see Incentive Records. ... In statistics and mathematical epidemiology, relative risk (RR) of an event associated with the exposure is a ratio of probability of outcome of interest in exposed group versus treatment group. ... The three degrees of comparison refers to the absolute, comparative, and superlative. ...

People generally prefer the absolute certainty inherent in a positive framing effect, where gains are assured. When decision options are framed as a likely gain, risk averse choices predominate.

A shift toward risk-seeking behavior occurs when decisions are framed in negative terms, or when a negative framing effect is adopted by a decision maker.

Frame manipulation research

Researchers have found that when decision problems are framed in a positive light, less risky choices are generally the result; when problems are framed negatively, riskier choices tend to result. According to behavioral economists:

• Positive framing effects (associated with risk aversion) result from presentation of options as sure (or absolute) gains.
• Negative framing effects (associated with a preference shift toward choosing riskier options) result from options presented as the relative likelihood of losses.

Researchers have found that subjects were invariably affected, but to varying degrees, by framing manipulation. Individuals were risk averse when presented with value-increasing options, and when faced with value decreasing contingencies, tended towards increased risk-taking. Variations in decision framing, by manipulating the options to represent either a gain or as a loss, were found to alter the risk aversion preferences of decision makers. Risk aversion is a concept in economics and finance theory explaining the behaviour of consumers and investors under uncertainty. ...

In one study, 57% of the subjects chose a medication when benefits were presented in relative terms, whereas only 14.7% chose a medication whose benefit was presented in absolute terms. Further questioning of the patients suggested that, because the underlying risk of disease was ignored by the subjects, benefits were perceived as greater when expressed in relative terms.[5]

Theoretical models

Various models explaining the framing effect have been proposed:

• Cognitive theories, such as the Fuzzy Trace theory, attempt to explain framing effects by determining the amount of cognitive processing effort devoted to determining the value of potential gains and losses.
• Prospect Theory explains the framing effect in functional terms, determined by preferences for differing perceived values, based on the assumption that losses are weighed more heavily than equivalent gains.
• Motivational theories explain framing effects in terms of hedonic forces affecting individuals, such as fears and wishes, based on the notion that negative emotions evoked by potential losses are usually greater than those evoked by hypothetical gains.
• Cognitive cost-benefit tradeoff theory, which defines choice as a compromise between desires, either as a preference for a correct decision or a preference for minimized cognitive effort. This model, which dovetails elements of cognitive and motivational theories, postulates that the necessary cognitive effort for calculating the value of a sure gain is considerably lower than what is required to select a risky gain.

It has been suggested that Base motive be merged into this article or section. ... Gadabout redirects here. ... Cost-benefit analysis is an important technique for project appraisal: the process of weighing the total expected costs against the total expected benefits of one or more actions in order to choose the best or most profitable option. ...

Neuroimaging

Cognitive neuroscientists have linked the framing effect to neural activity in the amygdala, and have identifed another brain region, the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex (OMPFC), that appears to moderate the role of emotion on decisions. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to monitor brain activity during a financial decision-making task, greater activity was observed in the OMPFC of research subjects who were less susceptible to framing effects. Neuroscience is a field of study which deals with the structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology and pathology of the nervous system. ... Look up Amygdala in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The prefrontal cortex is the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain, lying in front of the motor and premotor areas. ... For other uses, see Emotion (disambiguation). ... Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is the use of MRI to measure the haemodynamic response related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ...

References

1. ^  "Framing the Dems: How conservatives control political debate and how progressives can take it back." The American Prospect. Volume 14, Issue 8, September 2003. http://www.prospect.org/print/V14/8/lakoff-g.html
2. ^  Ibid.
3. ^  Rampton, Sheldon and Stauber, John. Trust Us, We're Experts! Putnam Publishing, New York, NY, 2002. Page 64.

Further reading

• Baars, B. (1988), A Cognitive Theory of Consciousness, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Carruthers, P. (2003), On Fodor's Problem, Mind and Language, vol. 18(5), pp. 502–523.
• Clark, A. (1997), Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Dennett, D. (1978), Brainstorms, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Fodor, J.A. (1983), The Modularity of Mind, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Fodor, J.A. (1987), “Modules, Frames, Fridgeons, Sleeping Dogs, and the Music of the Spheres”, in Pylyshyn (1987).
• Fodor, J.A. (2000), The Mind Doesn't Work That Way, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Ford, K.M. & Hayes, P.J. (eds.) (1991), Reasoning Agents in a Dynamic World: The Frame Problem, New York: JAI Press.
• Goodman, N. (1954), Fact, Fiction, and Forecast, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Hanks, S. & McDermott, D. (1987), “Nonmonotonic Logic and Temporal Projection”, Artificial Intelligence, vol. 33(3), pp. 379–412.
• Haselager, W.F.G. (1997). Cognitive science and folk psychology: the right frame of mind. London: Sage
• Haselager, W.F.G. & Van Rappard, J.F.H. (1998), “Connectionism, Systematicity, and the Frame Problem”, Minds and Machines, vol. 8(2), pp. 161–179.
• Hayes, P.J. (1991), “Artificial Intelligence Meets David Hume: A Reply to Fetzer”, in Ford & Hayes (1991).
• Heal, J. (1996), “Simulation, Theory, and Content”, in Theories of Theories of Mind, eds. P. Carruthers & P. Smith, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 75–89.
• Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980), Metaphors We Live By, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• McCarthy, J. (1986), “Applications of Circumscription to Formalizing Common Sense Knowledge”, Artificial Intelligence, vol. 26(3), pp. 89–116.
• McCarthy, J. & Hayes, P.J. (1969), “Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence”, in Machine Intelligence 4, ed. D.Michie and B.Meltzer, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 463–502.
• McDermott, D. (1987), “We've Been Framed: Or Why AI Is Innocent of the Frame Problem”, in Pylyshyn (1987).
• Mithen, S. (1987), The Prehistory of the Mind, London: Thames & Hudson.
• Pylyshyn, Z.W. (ed.) (1987), The Robot's Dilemma: The Frame Problem in Artificial Intelligence, Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
• Russell, S. & Wefald, E. (1991), Do the Right Thing: Studies in Limited Rationality, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Shanahan, M.P. (1997), Solving the Frame Problem: A Mathematical Investigation of the Common Sense Law of Inertia, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Shanahan, M.P. (2003), “The Frame Problem”, in The Macmillan Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, ed. L.Nadel, Macmillan, pp. 144–150.
• Simon, H. (1957), Models of Man, New York: John Wiley.
• Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1996), “Fodor's Frame Problem and Relevance Theory”, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, vol. 19(3), pp. 530–532.
• Wilkerson, W.S. (2001), “Simulation, Theory, and the Frame Problem”, Philosophical Psychology, vol. 14(2), pp. 141–153.
• Goffman, Erving. 1974. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. London: Harper and Row.
• Fairhurst, Gail T. and Sarr, Robert A. 1996. The Art of Framing: Managing the Language of Leadership. USA: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
• Klandermans, Bert. 1997. The Social Psychology of Protest. Oxford: Blackwell.
• Cutting, Hunter and Makani Themba Nixon. 2003. Talking the Walk: A Communications Guide for Racial Justice." San Francisco: We Interrupt This Message:
• Feldman, Jeffrey. 2007. Framing the Debate: Famous Presidential Speeches and How Progressives Can Use Them to Control the Conversation (and Win Elections). Brooklyn, NY: Ig Publishing.
• Scheufele, Dietram A. 1999. Framing as a theory of media effects. Journal of Communication, 49(1), 103–122.
• Willard,Charles Arthur Liberalism and the Social Grounds of Knowledge Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
• Boulding, Kenneth E. (1956). The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society. Michigan University Press.
• Goffman, E. (1974). Frame Analysis. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Goffman, E. (1959). Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday.
• Johnson-Cartee, K. (2005). News narrative and news framing: Constructing political reality. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Diana Kendall, Sociology In Our Times, Thomson Wadsworth, 2005, ISBN 0-534-64629-8 Google Print, p.531
• Leites, N. & Wolf, C., Jr. (1970). Rebellion and authority. Chicago: Markham Publishing Company.
• McAdam, D., McCarthy, J., & Zald, M. (1996). Introduction: Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Framing Processes—Toward a Synthetic, Comparative Perspective on Social Movements. In D. McAdam, J. McCarthy & M. Zald (Eds.), Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements; Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (pp. 1–20). New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Nelson, T. E., Oxley, Z. M., & Clawson, R. A. (1997). Toward a psychology of framing effects. Political Behavior, 19(3), 221–246.
• Pan. Z. & Kosicki, G. M. (2001). Framing as a strategic action in public deliberation. In S. D. Reese, O. H. Gandy, Jr., & A. E. Grant (Eds.), Framing public life: Perspectives on media and our understanding of the social world, (pp. 35–66). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Snow, D. A., & Benford, R. D. (1988). Ideology, frame resonance, and participant mobilization. International Social Movement Research, 1, 197–217.
• Snow, D. A., Rochford, E. B., Worden, S. K., & Benford, R. D. (1986). Frame alignment processes, micromobilization, and movement participation. American Sociological Review, 51, 464–481.
• Tarrow, S. (1983a). Struggling to Reform: social Movements and policy change during cycles of protest. Western Societies Paper No. 15. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.
• Tarrow, S. (1983b). Resource mobilization and cycles of protest: Theoretical reflections and comparative illustrations. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Detroit, August 31–September 4.
• Tilly, C., Tilly, L., & Tilly, R. (1975). The rebellious century, 1830–1930. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
• Turner, R. H., & Killian, L. M. (1972). Collective Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Dietram A. Scheufele is Professor of Life Sciences Communication and Journalism & Mass Communication at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. ... Sidney G. Tarrow is a professor of political science and sociology, known for his research in the areas of of comparative politics, social movements, political parties, collective action and political sociology. ...

See also

• Argumentation theory
• Bias
• Buzzword
• Code word (figure of speech)
• Communication theory
• Connotation
• Demagoguery
• Fallacy of many questions
• Figure of speech
• Freedom of speech
• Free press
• Journalism
• Language and thought
• Meme
• Newspeak
• political correctness
• Political frame
• Power word
• Rhetorical device
• Semantics
• Sophism
• Spin doctor
• Stovepiping
• Thought Reform (book)
• Trope
• Unspeak (book)

Argumentation theory, or argumentation, embraces the arts and sciences of civil debate, dialogue, conversation, and persuasion. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A code word is a word or a phrase designed to evoke a predetermined meaning to certain listeners while disguising the speakers true meaning by allowing them to use a word that sounds much more acceptable to an average listener. ... There is much discussion in the academic world of communication as to what actually constitutes communication. ... For the more specialised meaning of Connotation in semiotics, see connotation (semiotics). ... Demagogy is generally a method of convincing a listener by appealing to the persons common sense and leaps of logic. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... A figure of speech, sometimes termed a rhetoric, or elocution, is a word or phrase that departs from straightforward, literal language. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... In the modern age, the free press has taken on multiple meanings. ... Journalism is a discipline of gathering, writing and reporting news, and more broadly it includes the process of editing and presenting the news articles. ... A variety of different authors, theories and fields purport influences between language and thought. ... The term meme (IPA: , rhyming with theme; commonly pronounced in the US as , rhyming with gem), coined/popularized in 1976[1] by the biologist Richard Dawkins, refers to a unit of cultural information which can propagate from one mind to another in a manner analogous to genes (i. ... Newspeak is a fictional language in George Orwells novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. ... Political correctness is the alteration of language to redress real or alleged injustices and discrimination or to avoid offense. ... // Definition A political frame is a word or idea that brings to mind other words or ideas within a specific paradigm. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... In rhetoric, a rhetorical device or resource of language is a technique that an author or speaker uses to evoke an emotional response in his audience (his reader(s) or listener(s)). These emotional responses are central to the meaning of the work or speech, and should also get the... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Sophism (gr. ... In public relations, spin is a usually pejorative term signifying a heavily biased portrayal in ones own favor of an event or situation that is designed to bring about the most positive result possible. ... Stovepiping is a metaphorical term which recalls a stovepipes function as a vertical conduit, and refers to the piping of raw intelligence data directly to decision makers, bypassing established procedures for review by professional intelligence analysts for validity (a process known as vetting), an important concern since the information... Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of Brainwashing in China is a psychology non-fiction book on brainwashing and mind control, by Robert Jay Lifton, M.D.. The book was published in multiple editions, in 1956 (Hardcover), 1961, 1962 (Hardcover), 1963 (paperback), and 1989 (paperback). ... In linguistics, trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on words, i. ... Steven Poole (born 1972) is a British author and journalist. ...

External links

• Curry, Tom. 2005. "Frist chills talk of judges deal (Page 2)." The question in the poll was not framed as a matter of whether nominee ought to get an up-or-down vote. And that framing of the issue, Republican strategists believe, is the most advantageous one... MSNBC.com.
• CMU.edu (pdf) - 'The Framing effect and risky decision: Examining cognitive functions with fMRI', C. Gonzalez, et al, Journal of Economic Psychology (2005)
• FindArticles.com - 'Risky decision making across three arenas of choice: are younger and older adults differently susceptible to framing effects?', Michael Ronnlund, Erik Karlsson, Erica Laggnas, Lisa Larsson, Therese Lindstrom, Journal of General Psychology (January, 2005)
• HBS.edu - 'Fixing Price Tag Confusion'(interview), Sean Silverthorne (December 11, 2006)
• MSN.com - Framing effect' influences decisions

Emotions play a role in decision-making when information is too complex', Charles Q. Choi, MSNBC (August 3, 2006) MSNBC, a combination of MSN and NBC, is a 24-hour cable news channel in the United States and Canada, and a news website. ...

• NeuroscienceMarketing.com - 'Why Negative Ads Work: Framing, Emotions, and Irrational Decisions'
• Ox.ac.uk - 'Framing',

Progressive Framework Institutes

• The Rockridge Institute was created by George Lakoff in response to Conservative thinktanks.
• http://www.frameworksinstitute.org/

Conservative Framework Institutes

• The Project for a New American Century is credited with framing the invasion of Iraq.
• Focus on the Family is active in spreading the frame of conservative Christian doctorine.