NationMaster - Encyclopedia: France in the nineteenth century

The History of France from 1789 to 1914 (the long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes the periods of the First French Empire, the Restoration under Louis XVIII and Charles X (1814–1830), the July Monarchy under Louis Philippe d'Orléans (1830–1848), the Second Republic (1848–1852), the Second Empire under Napoleon III (1852–1871), and the first decades of the Third Republic (1871–1940). Image File history File links Flag_of_France. ... The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right. ... Ancient history is the study of the written past from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages. ... Prehistoric France is the period in the human occupation (including early hominins) of the geographical area covered by present-day France which extended through prehistory and ended in the Iron Age with the Celtic La TÃ¨ne culture. // France includes Olduwan (Abbevillian) and Acheulean sites from early or non-modern... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given, in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Gaul in the Roman Empire Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in what would become modern day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and western Germany. ... For other uses, see Franks (disambiguation). ... There are other articles with similar names; see Merovingian (disambiguation). ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Also see: France in the Middle Ages. ... The House of Capet includes any of the direct descendants of Robert the Strong. ... The Valois Dynasty succeeded the Capetian Dynasty as rulers of France from 1328-1589. ... Early Modern France is the portion of French history that falls in the early modern period from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance to the eve of the French Revolution). ... The Valois Dynasty succeeded the Capetian Dynasty as rulers of France from 1328-1589. ... The Valois Dynasty succeeded the Capetian Dynasty as rulers of France from 1328-1589. ... Also see: Early Modern France The House of Bourbon is an important European royal house. ... The History of France from 1914 to the present, includes the later years of the Third French Republic (1871-1941), the Vichy Regime (1940-1944), the years after LibÃ©ration (1944-1946), the French Fourth Republic (1946-1958) and the French Fifth Republic (since 1958) and also includes World War... Motto: (Liberty, equality, brotherhood, or death!) Anthem: La Marseillaise (unofficial) Capital Paris Language(s) French Government Republic Various - 1792-1795 National Convention (rule by legislature) - 1794-1799 Directory - 1799-1804 First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte Legislature National Convention French Directory French Consulate History - Storming of the Bastille/French Revolution 14 July... This article is about a legislative body and constitutional convention during the French Revolution. ... Executive Directory (in French Directoire exÃ©cutif), commonly known as the Directory (or Directoire) held executive power in France from November 2, 1795 until November 10, 1799: following the Convention and preceding the Consulate. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Map of the First French Empire in 1811, with the Empire in dark blue and sattelite states in light blue Capital Paris Language(s) French Government Monarchy Emperor - 1804-1814/1815 Napoleon I Napoleon II Legislature Parliament - Upper house Senate - Lower house Corps lÃ©gislatif History - French Consulate - Established 18... Capital Paris Language(s) French Government Monarchy King - 1814-1824 Louis XVIII - 1824-1830 Charles X Legislature Parliament History - Bourbon Restoration 1814 - July Revolution 21 January, 1830 Currency French Franc Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814, the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. ... The July Monarchy was established in France with the reign of Louis Philippe of France. ... The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the coup by Louis Napoleon which initiatied the Second Empire. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... The French Third Republic, (in French, La TroisiÃ¨me RÃ©publique, sometimes written as La IIIe RÃ©publique) (1870/75-10 July 1940) was the governing body of France between the Second French Empire and the Vichy Regime. ... Motto: Travail, famille, patrie (Work, family, country) unoccupied zone of Vichy France (until November 1942) Capital Vichy Language(s) French Religion Roman Catholicism Government Republic President of the Council - 1940 - 1944 Philippe PÃ©tain Legislature National Assembly Historical era World War II - Battle of France June 16, 1940 - Battle of... // Main article: Provisional Government of the French Republic Between 1944 and 1946 France was ruled by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (Gouvernement provisoire de la RÃ©publique franÃ§aise, GPRF). ... The Provisional Government of the French Republic was an interim government which governed France from 1944 to 1946. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The Fifth Republic is the fifth and current republican constitution of France, which was introduced on October 5, 1958. ... The Kingdom of France was organized into provinces until March 4, 1790, when the establishment of the dÃ©partement system superseded provinces. ... This is a history of the economy of France. ... Disclaimer: It must be noted that reference to French people as an ethnic group is not present in French official terminology. ... Henry IV at the Battle of Ivry, by Peter Paul Rubens. ... Map of the first (light blue) and second (dark blue â€” plain and hachured) French colonial empires France had colonial possessions, in various forms, from the beginning of the 17th century until the 1960s. ... The visual and plastic arts of France have had an unprecedented diversity -- from the Gothic cathedral of Chartres to Georges de la Tours night scenes to Monets Waterlilies and finally to Duchamps radical Fontaine -- and have exerted an unparalleled influence on world cultural production. ... French literature is, generally speaking, literature written in the French language, particularly by citizens of France; it may also refer to literature written by people living in France who speak other traditional non-French languages. ... Masterpiece painting by EugÃ¨ne Delacroix called Liberty Leading the People portrays the July Revolution using the stylistic views of Romanticism. ... This is a timeline of French history. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... 1914 (MCMXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The Long 19th Century refers to the period between 1789-1914, that is between the French Revolution which established a non-monarchial republic in Europe, to the beginnings of the World War I , the conclusion of which late in 1918 and via the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 eliminated many... The French Revolution (1789â€“1799) was a period of political and social upheaval in the political history of France and Europe as a whole, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna... Map of the First French Empire in 1811, with the Empire in dark blue and sattelite states in light blue Capital Paris Language(s) French Government Monarchy Emperor - 1804-1814/1815 Napoleon I Napoleon II Legislature Parliament - Upper house Senate - Lower house Corps lÃ©gislatif History - French Consulate - Established 18... Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814, the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. ... Louis XVIII (November 17, 1755 - September 16, 1824) was King of France and Navarre from 1814 (although he declared that he considered his reign to have begun in 1795) until his death in 1824, with a brief break in 1815 due to Napoleons return in the Hundred Days. ... Charles X (October 9, 1757 â€“ November 6, 1836) ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated rather than become a constitutional monarch. ... 1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Liberty Leading the People by EugÃ¨ne Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution 1830 (MDCCCXXX) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... The July Monarchy was established in France with the reign of Louis Philippe of France. ... Louis-Philippe of France (October 6, 1773–August 26, 1850), served as the Orleanist king of the French from 1830 to 1848. ... Year 1848 (MDCCCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the coup by Louis Napoleon which initiatied the Second Empire. ... 1852 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. ... Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte (April 20, 1808 - January 9, 1873) was the son of King Louis Bonaparte and Queen Hortense de Beauharnais; both monarchs of the French puppet state, the Kingdom of Holland. ... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The French Third Republic, (in French, La TroisiÃ¨me RÃ©publique, sometimes written as La IIIe RÃ©publique) (1870/75-10 July 1940) was the governing body of France between the Second French Empire and the Vichy Regime. ... 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1940 calendar). ...

Geography

At the time of the French Revolution, France had expanded to nearly her modern territorial limits. The nineteenth century would complete the process by the annexation of the Duchy of Savoy and the city of Nice (first during the First Empire, and then definitvely in 1860) and some small papal (like Avignon) and foreign possessions. France's territorial limits were greatly extended during the Empire through Napoléon Bonaparte's military conquests and re-organization of Europe, but these were reversed by the Vienna Congress. With the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, France lost her provinces of Alsace and portions of Lorraine to Germany (see Alsace-Lorraine); these lost provinces would only be regained at the end of World War I. // Western Europe, bordering the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay) and English Channel, between Belgium and Spain, southeast of the UK; bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Italy and Spain. ... Flag of Savoy This article is about the historical region of Savoy. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... 1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday. ... City flag City coat of arms Location Coordinates Time Zone CET (GMT +1) Administration Country France RÃ©gion Provence-Alpes-CÃ´te dAzur DÃ©partement Vaucluse (prÃ©fecture) Arrondissement Avignon Canton Chief town of 4 cantons Intercommunality CommunautÃ© dagglomÃ©ration du Grand Avignon Mayor Marie-JosÃ©e Roig... Bonaparte as general Napoléon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution and was the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from November 11, 1799 to May 18, 1804, then as Emperor of the French (Empereur... The Congress of Vienna (October 1, 1814 - June 9, 1815) was a conference between ambassadors from the major powers in Europe that was chaired by the Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich and held in Vienna, Austria. ... Combatants Second French Empire North German Confederation allied with south German states (later German Empire) Commanders Napoleon III # Otto Von Bismarck Helmuth von Moltke the Elder Strength 400,000 at the beginning of the war 1,200,000 Casualties 150,000 dead or wounded 284,000 captured 350,000 civilian... 1870 (MDCCCLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... (New rÃ©gion flag) (Region logo) Location Administration Capital Strasbourg Regional President Adrien Zeller (UMP) (since 1996) Departments Bas-Rhin Haut-Rhin Arrondissements 13 Cantons 75 Communes 903 Statistics Land area1 8,280 kmÂ² Population (Ranked 14th) - January 1, 2006 est. ... Lorraine coat of arms location of the Lorraine province Lorraine (French: Lorraine; German: Lothringen) is a historical area in present-day northeast France. ... Imperial Province of ElsaÃŸ-Lothringen Alsace-Lorraine (German: , generally Elsass-Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 after the annexation of most of Alsace and parts of Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna...

In 1830 France invaded Algeria, and in 1848 this north African country was fully integrated into France as a département. The late nineteenth century saw France embark on a massive program of overseas imperialism — including French Indochina (modern day Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos) and Africa (the Scramble for Africa brought France most of North-West and Central Africa) — which brought it in direct competition with British interests. The dÃ©partements (or departments) are administrative units of France and many former French colonies, roughly analogous to English counties. ... French Indochina (French: LIndochine franÃ§aise, Vietnamese: ÄÃ´ng DÆ°Æ¡ng thuá»™c PhÃ¡p) was the part of the French colonial empire in Indochina in southeast Asia, consisting of a federation of protectorates (Tonkin and Annam, which now form Vietnam, as well as Cambodia and Laos) and one directly... Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ...

Demographics

Between 1795 and 1866, metropolitan France (that is, without overseas or colonial possessions) was the second most populous country of Europe, behind Russia, and the fourth most populous country in the world (behind China, India, and Russia); between 1866 and 1911, metropolitan France was the third most populous country of Europe, behind Russia and Germany. Unlike other European countries, France did not experience a strong population growth from the middle of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century. The French population in 1789 is estimated at roughly 28 million; by 1850, it was 36 million and in 1880 it was around 39 million. Disclaimer: It must be noted that reference to French people as an ethnic group is not present in French official terminology. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... 1866 (MDCCCLXVI) is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ...

Until 1850, population growth was mainly in the countryside, but a period of massive urbanization began under the Second Empire. Unlike in England, industrialization was a late phenomenon in France. The Napoleonic wars had hindered early industrialization and France's economy in the 1830s (limited iron industry, under-developed coal supplies, a massive rural population) had not developed sufficiently to support an industrial expansion of any scope. French rail transport only began hesitantly in the 1830s, and would not truly develop until the 1840s. By the revolution of 1848, a growing industrial workforce began to participate actively in French politics, but their hopes were largely betrayed by the policies of the Second Empire. The loss of the important coal, steel and glass production regions of Alsace and Lorraine would cause further problems. The industrial worker population increased from 23% in 1870 to 39% in 1914. Nevertheless, France remained an extremely rural society into the 20th century (more than 40% of the population were still farmers in 1914). Combatants Allies: Austrian Empire[1] Kingdom of Portugal Kingdom of Prussia[1] Russian Empire[2] Kingdom of Spain[3] Kingdom of Sweden United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland[4] French Empire - Kingdom of Holland - Kingdom of Italy - Kingdom of Naples - Duchy of Warsaw - Kingdom of Bavaria[5] - Kingdom of... This is part of the history of rail transport by country series During the early 19th century railway construction began in France with short mineral lines. ...

In the 19th century, France was a country of immigration for peoples and political refugees from Eastern Europe (Germany, Poland, Hungary, Russia, Ashkenazi Jews) and from the Mediterranean (Italy, Spanish Sephardic Jews and North-African Mizrahi Jews). Languages Yiddish, Hebrew, Russian, English Religions Judaism Related ethnic groups Sephardi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and other Jewish ethnic divisions Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim (Standard Hebrew: sing. ... In the strictest sense, a Sephardi (ספרדי, Standard Hebrew Səfardi, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardî; plural Sephardim: ספרדים, Standard Hebrew Səfardim, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardîm) is a Jew original to the... Mizrahi Jews, or Mizrahim (×ž×–×¨×—×™ Easterner, Standard Hebrew , Tiberian Hebrew ; plural ×ž×–×¨×—×™× Easterners, Standard Hebrew , Tiberian Hebrew ) sometimes also called Edot HaMizrah (Congregations of the East) are Jews descended from the Jewish communities of the Middle East. ...

France was the first country in Europe to emancipate its Jewish population during the French Revolution. In 1872, there were an estimated 86,000 Jews living in France (by 1945 this would increase to 300,000), many of whom integrated (or attempted to integrate) into French society, although the Dreyfus affair would reveal anti-semitism in certain classes of French society (see History of the Jews in France). The Dreyfus affair was a political scandal which divided France during the 1890s and early 1900s. ... The current Jewish community in France numbers around 606,561, according to the World Jewish Congress and 500,000 according to the Appel UnifiÃ© Juif de France (France Jewish community main organism), and is found mainly in the metropolitan areas of Paris, Marseille and Strasbourg. ...

With the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, 5000 French refugees from these regions immigrated to Algeria in the 1870s and 1880s, as did too other Europeans (Spain, Malta) seeking opportunity. In 1889, non-French Europeans in Algeria were granted French citizenship (Arabs would however only win political rights in 1947).

Unlike other European countries, France did not experience a strong population growth in the mid and late 19th century and first half of the 20th century (see Demographics of France). This would be compounded by the massive French losses of World War I — roughly estimated at 1.4 million French dead including civilians (see World War I casualties) (or nearly 10% of the active adult male population) and four times as many wounded (see World War I Aftermath). Disclaimer: It must be noted that reference to French people as an ethnic group is not present in French official terminology. ... Pie chart showing deaths by alliance and military/civilian. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna...

Language

Linguistically, France was a patchwork. In 1792, perhaps 50% of the French population did not speak or understand French. The southern half of the country continued to speak one of the Occitan languages (such as Provençal) and other inhabitants spoke Breton, Catalan, Basque, Flemish, Franco-provençal, Alsatian and Corsican. In the north of France, regional dialects of the various langues d'oïl continued to be spoken in rural communities. France would only become a linguistically unified country by the end of the 19th century, and in particular through the educational policies of Jules Ferry during the French Third Republic. From an illiteracy rate of 33% among peasants in 1870, by 1914 almost all French could read and understand the national language, although 50% continued to understand or speak a regional language of France (in today's France, only an estimated 10% still understand a regional language). French (français, langue française) is one of the most important Romance languages, outnumbered in speakers only by Spanish and Portuguese. ... French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended from Latin) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in Northern France. ... Occitan, known also as Lenga dÃ²c or Langue doc (Occitan: occitan, lenga dÃ²c) is a Romance language spoken in Occitania (i. ... ProvenÃ§al (ProvenÃ§au in ProvenÃ§al language) is one of several dialects spoken by a minority of people in southern France and other areas of France and Italy. ... Breton (Breton: Brezhoneg) is a Celtic language spoken by some of the inhabitants of Brittany (Breizh) and Loire-Atlantique (historically part of Brittany) in France. ... Catalan IPA: (catalÃ IPA: or []) is a Romance language, the national language of Andorra, and a co-official language in the autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Land of Valencia (under the name of Valencian) and the Balearic Islands in Spain, and in the city of LAlguer in the Italian... Basque (native name: Euskara) is the language spoken by the Basque people who inhabit the Pyrenees in North-Central Spain and the adjoining region of South-Western France. ... The term Flemish language can designate: the official language of Flanders, which is Dutch with only very small variations; any of the regional dialects of Dutch spoken in Belgium; these are more different from Dutch than the official language of Flanders; one of these dialects, the West Flemish. ... Franco-ProvenÃ§al (FrancoprovenÃ§al) or Arpitan (in vernacular: patouÃ¨s) (in Italian: francoprovenzale, provenzale alpina, arpitano, patois; French: francoprovenÃ§al, arpitan, patois) is a Romance language with several dialects in a linguistic sub-group separate from Langue dOÃ¯l and Langue dOc. ... This inscription in Alsatian on a window in Eguisheim, Alsace, reads: Dis Hausz sted in Godes Hand - God bewar es vor Feyru (This house stands in Gods hand - God beware it for fire) Alsatian (French Alsacien, German ElsÃ¤ssisch) is a Low Alemannic German dialect spoken in Alsace, a... Corsican (Corsu or Lingua Corsa) is a Romance language spoken on the island of Corsica (France), alongside French, which is the official language. ... The geographical spread of the OÃ¯l languages (except French) can be seen in shades of green and yellow in this map Langues doÃ¯l is the linguistic and historical designation of the Gallo-Romance languages which originated in the northern territories of Roman Gaul now occupied by northern... Jules Ferry, French statesman Jules FranÃ§ois Camille Ferry (April 5, 1832 â€“ March 17, 1893) was a French statesman. ... The French Third Republic, (in French, La TroisiÃ¨me RÃ©publique, sometimes written as La IIIe RÃ©publique) (1870/75-10 July 1940) was the governing body of France between the Second French Empire and the Vichy Regime. ... There are a number of languages of France. ... A regional language is a language spoken in a part of a country - it may be a small area, a federal state or province, or a wider area. ...

Identity

Through the educational, social and military policies of the Third Republic, by 1914 the French had been converted (as the historian Eugen Weber has put it) from a "country of peasants into a nation of Frenchmen".^{[citation needed]} By 1914, most French could read French and regional languages had been greatly suppressed; the role of the Catholic church in public life had been radically altered; a sense of national identity and glory was actively taught. The anti-clericalism of the Third Republic profoundly changed French religious habits: in one case study for the city of Limoges comparing the years 1899 with 1914, it was found that baptisms decreased from 98% to 60%, and civil marriages before a town official increased from 14% to 60%. Yet, the eradication of regionalisms and the anti-clerical nature of the Third Republic would create a backlash in the second half of the century. Eugen Weber (April 24, 1925 â€“ ) is the coolest guy on earth and a prominent historian on the side. ... There are a number of languages of France. ... Location within France Limoges (LimÃ²tges in Occitan) is a city and commune in France, the prÃ©fecture of the Haute-Vienne dÃ©partement, and the administrative capital of the Limousin rÃ©gion. ...

History

French Revolution (1789–1792)

Louis XVI of France's reign saw a temporary revival of French fortunes, but the over-ambitious projects and military campaigns of the 18th century had produced chronic financial problems. Deteriorating economic conditions, popular resentment against the complicated system of privileges granted the nobility and clerics, and a lack of alternate avenues for change were among the principal causes for convoking the Estates-General which convened in Versailles in 1789. On 28 May 1789 the Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, and then voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People". The French Revolution (1789â€“1799) was a period of political and social upheaval in the political history of France and Europe as a whole, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on... Louis XVI (23 August 1754 â€“ 21 January 1793) ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, and then as King of the French from 1791 to 1792. ... In France under the Ancien RÃ©gime, the States-General or Estates-General (French: Ã‰tats gÃ©nÃ©raux), was a legislative assembly (see The States) of the different classes (or estates) of French subjects. ... Versailles (pronounced in French), formerly the de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important administrative and judicial center. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... May 28 is the 148th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (149th in leap years). ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, 1817, by Jacques-Louis David Emmanuel Joseph SieyÃ¨s (May 3, 1748 â€“ June 20, 1836) (IPA: or ) was a French abbÃ© and statesman, one of the chief theorists of the French Revolution, French Consulate, and First French Empire. ... In France of the ancien régime and the age of the French Revolution, the term Third Estate (tiers état) indicated the generality of people which were not part of the clergy (the First Estate) nor of the nobility (the Second Estate). ... During the French Revolution, the National Assembly (French: AssemblÃ©e nationale) was a transitional body between the Estates-General and the National Constituent Assembly that existed from June 17 to July 9 of 1789. ...

Louis XVI shut the Salle des États where the Assembly met. The Assembly moved their deliberations to the king's tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did forty-seven members of the nobility. By 27 June the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles. On 9 July the Assembly reconstituted itself as the National Constituent Assembly. Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of the Tennis Court Oath. ... June 20 is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 194 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... June 27 is the 178th day of the year (179th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 187 days remaining. ... July 9 is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 175 days remaining. ... The National Constituent Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale constituante) was formed from the National Assembly on July 9, 1789, during the first stages of the French Revolution. ...

On 11 July 1789 King Louis, acting under the influence of the conservative nobles, as well as his wife, Marie Antoinette, and brother, the Comte d'Artois, banished the reformist minister Necker and completely reconstructed the ministry. Much of Paris, presuming this to be the start of a royal coup, moved into open rebellion. Some of the military joined the mob; others remained neutral. On 14 July 1789, after four hours of combat, the insurgents seized the Bastille prison, killing the governor and several of his guards. The king and his military supporters backed down, at least for the time being. After this violence, nobles started to flee the country as émigrés, some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France. Insurrection and the spirit of popular sovereignty spread throughout France. In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title-deeds and no small number of châteaux, as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the Great Fear). July 11 is the 192nd day (193rd in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 173 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France and Archduchess of Austria (born November 1755 – executed 16 October 1793) Daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, wife of Louis XVI and mother of Louis XVII. She was guillotined at the height of the French Revolution. ... Charles X (October 9, 1757 â€“ November 6, 1836) ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated rather than become a constitutional monarch. ... Jacques Necker Jacques Necker (September 30, 1732 â€“ April 9, 1804) was a French statesman of Swiss origin and finance minister of Louis XVI. // Necker was born in Geneva, Switzerland. ... July 14 is the 195th day (196th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 170 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The Bastille The Bastille ( ) was a fight in Paris, known formally as Bastille Saint-Antoineâ€”Number 232, Rue Saint-Antoineâ€”best known today because of the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, which along with the Tennis Court Oath is considered the beginning of the French Revolution. ... Ã‰migrÃ© is a French term that shows how Martin B. loves stephanie. ... Poplar sovereignty is the doctrine that the state is created by and subject to the will of the people, who are the source of all political power. ... A château ( French for castle; plural châteaux) is a manor house or residence of the lord of the manor or a country house of gentry, usually French, with or without fortifications. ...

On 4 August 1789, the National Assembly abolished feudalism, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. The revolution also brought about a massive shifting of powers from the Roman Catholic Church to the State. Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops known as the "dîme", cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property: under the Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. Further legislation abolished monastic vows. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on 12 July 1790, turned the remaining clergy into employees of the State and required that they take an oath of loyalty to the constitution. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy also made the Catholic church an arm of the secular state. August 4 is the 216th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (217th in leap years), with 149 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... torin was here ... A tithe (from Old English teogoÃ¾a tenth) is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a (usually) voluntary contribution or as a tax or levy, usually to support a Jewish or Christian religious organization. ... The Roman Catholic Church or Catholic Church (see terminology below) is the Christian Church in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, currently Pope Benedict XVI. It traces its origins to the original Christian community founded by Jesus Christ and led by the Twelve Apostles, in particular Saint Peter. ... Year 1790 (MDCCXC) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... A tax is a financial charge or other levy imposed on an individual or a legal entity by a state or a functional equivalent of a state (for example, tribes, secessionist movements or revolutionary movements). ... A tithe (from Old English teogoÃ¾a tenth) is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a (usually) voluntary contribution or as a tax or levy, usually to support a Jewish or Christian religious organization. ... Monastic vows are the public vows of poverty, chastity and obedience professed by the monks in the Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox tradition. ... The law of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (Fr. ... July 12 is the 193rd day (194th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 172 days remaining. ... Year 1790 (MDCCXC) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... The law of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (Fr. ...

Looking to the United States Declaration of Independence for a model, on 26 August 1789 the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Like the U.S. Declaration, it comprised a statement of principles rather than a constitution with legal effect. The Assembly replaced the historic provinces with eighty-three départements, uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population; it also abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the ancien régime — armorial bearings, liveries, etc. — which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the émigrés. A copy of the 1823 William J. Stone reproduction of the Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence was an act of the Second Continental Congress, adopted on July 4, 1776, which declared that the United Colonies) were independent of the Kingdom of Great Britain. ... August 26 is the 238th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (239th in leap years). ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: Revolutionary patriotism borrows familiar iconography of the Ten Commandments Wikisource has original text related to this article: Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (French: La... The Kingdom of France was organized into provinces until March 4, 1790, when the establishment of the dÃ©partement system superseded provinces. ... The dÃ©partements (or departments) are administrative units of France and many former French colonies, roughly analogous to English counties. ... Ã‰migrÃ© is a French term that shows how Martin B. loves stephanie. ...

Louis XVI opposed the course of the revolution and on the night of 20 June 1791 the royal family fled the Tuileries. However, the next day the overconfident king had the imprudence to show himself. Recognised and arrested at Varennes in the Meuse late on 21 June, he returned to Paris under guard. With most of the Assembly still favouring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication. June 20 is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 194 days remaining. ... 1791 (MDCCXCI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 11-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Varennes or Varennes-en-Argonne is a city in the French département of Meuse. ... Meuse is a dÃ©partement in northeast France, named after the Meuse River. ... June 21 is the 172nd day of the year (173rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 193 days remaining. ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: For other uses, see Republic (disambiguation). ...

Meanwhile, a renewed threat from abroad arose: Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick William II of Prussia, and the king's brother Charles-Phillipe, comte d'Artois issued the Declaration of Pilnitz which considered the cause of Louis XVI as their own, demanded his total liberty and the dissolution of the Assembly, and promised an invasion of France on his behalf if the revolutionary authorities refused its conditions. The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. France declared war on Austria (20 April 1792) and Prussia joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The French Revolutionary Wars had begun. Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II. Leopold II (born Peter Leopold Joseph) (May 5, 1747 â€“ March 1, 1792) was the penultimate Holy Roman Emperor from 1790 to 1792 and Grand Duke of Tuscany. ... Frederick William II (German: ; September 25, 1744 â€“ November 16, 1797) was the fourth king of Prussia, reigning from 1786 until his death. ... Charles X (October 9, 1757 â€“ November 6, 1836) ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated rather than become a constitutional monarch. ... The Declaration of Pillnitz on August 27, 1791, was a statement issued at the Castle of Pillnitz in Saxony by Emperor Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia. ... April 20 is the 110th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (111th in leap years). ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Motto: Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital KÃ¶nigsberg, later Berlin Political structure Duchy, Kingdom, Republic Duke1 - 1525â€“68 Albert I - 1688â€“1701 Frederick III King1 - 1701â€“13 Frederick I - 1888â€“1918 William II Prime Minister1,2... Combatants Great Britain Austria Prussia Spain Russian Empire Sardinia France The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts, beginning in 1792 and lasting until the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states. ...

First Republic (1792–1799)

In the Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France. This article needs cleanup. ...

On 10 August 1792 in France the King Louis XVI was arrested. After the first great victory of the French revolutionary troops at the battle of Valmy on 20 September 1792 the First Republic was proclaimed the day after on 21 September 1792. On August 10, 1792, during the French Revolution, a mob â€“ with the backing of a new municipal government of Paris that came to be known as the insurrectionary Paris Commune â€“ besieged the Tuileries palace. ... Louis XVI (23 August 1754 â€“ 21 January 1793) ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, and then as King of the French from 1791 to 1792. ... Combatants France Prussia Commanders Dumouriez Kellermann Duke of Brunswick Strength 47,000 35,000 Casualties 300 184 The Battle of Valmy (September 20, 1792) saw the inexperienced armies of revolutionary France drive out an invading allied army. ... September 20 is the 263rd day of the year (264th in leap years). ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Motto: (Liberty, equality, brotherhood, or death!) Anthem: La Marseillaise (unofficial) Capital Paris Language(s) French Government Republic Various - 1792-1795 National Convention (rule by legislature) - 1794-1799 Directory - 1799-1804 First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte Legislature National Convention French Directory French Consulate History - Storming of the Bastille/French Revolution 14 July... September 21 is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years). ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

17 January 1793 saw King Louis condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety" by a weak majority in Convention. The 21 January execution led to more wars with other European countries. Louis' Austrian-born queen, Marie Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on 16 October. January 17 is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1793 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... January 21 is the 21st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... October 16 is the 289th day of the year (290th in leap years). ...

When war went badly, prices rose and the sans-culottes (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans-culottes. An alliance of Jacobin and sans-culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical. Painted rendition of a sans-culottes. ... A coup dÃ©tat (pronounced ), or simply coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government through unconstitutional means by a part of the state establishment â€” mostly replacing just the high-level figures. ...

The Committee of Public Safety came under the control of Maximilien Robespierre, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793–1794). At least 1200 people met their deaths under the guillotine — or otherwise — after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. In 1794 Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. On 27 July 1794 the French people revolted against the excesses of the Reign of Terror in what became known as the Thermidorian Reaction. It resulted in moderate Convention members deposing and executing Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. The Convention approved the new "Constitution of the Year III" on 17 August 1795; a plebiscite ratified it in September; and it took effect on 26 September 1795. The Committee of Public Safety (French: ComitÃ© de salut public), set up by the National Convention on April 6, 1793, formed the de facto executive government of France during the Reign of Terror (1793 - 1794) of the French Revolution. ... Anonymous Portrait of Maximilien Robespierre c. ... The Reign of Terror (5 September 1793 â€“ 28 July 1794) or simply The Terror (French: la Terreur) is a phase in the French Revolution during which many rival factions struggled between themselves, leading to mutual radicalization and to massive executions by the means of the guillotine. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The Maiden, an older Scottish design. ... Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre, (May 6, 1758–July 28, 1794), known also to his contemporaries as the Incorruptible, is one of the best known of the leaders of the French Revolution. ... July 27 is the 208th day (209th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 157 days remaining. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with 9 Thermidor. ... August 17 is the 229th day of the year (230th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ... September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

The new constitution installed the Directoire and created the first bicameral legislature in French history. On 9 November 1799 (18 Brumaire of the Year VIII) Napoleon staged the coup which installed the Consulate; this effectively led to his dictatorship. Executive Directory (in French Directoire exÃ©cutif), commonly known as the Directory (or Directoire) held executive power in France from November 2, 1795 until November 10, 1799: following the Convention and preceding the Consulate. ... In government, bicameralism is the practice of having two legislative or parliamentary chambers. ... November 9 is the 313th day of the year (314th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 52 days remaining. ... 1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... NapolÃ©on Bonaparte in the coup dÃ©tat of 18 brumaire. ... For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ... A coup détat, or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

The Empire (1804–1814)

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, a brilliant military general who had participated in the French Revolutionary Wars of 1796, 1797 and 1798, seized power as First Consul (see French Consulate), and in 1802 he was made First Consul for life. Bonaparte attracted more power and gravitated towards imperial status, gathering support on the way for his internal rebuilding of France and its institutions. He gradually dampened opposition and — using exile, systematic bureacratic oppression, and constitutional means — in 1804, the Senate granted him the title of emperor. The French Empire (or the Napoleonic Empire) (1804–1814) was marked by the French domination and reorganization of continental Europe (the Napoleonic Wars) and by the final codification of the republican legal system (the Napoleonic Code). Map of the First French Empire in 1811, with the Empire in dark blue and sattelite states in light blue Capital Paris Language(s) French Government Monarchy Emperor - 1804-1814/1815 Napoleon I Napoleon II Legislature Parliament - Upper house Senate - Lower house Corps lÃ©gislatif History - French Consulate - Established 18... Bonaparte as general Napoleon Bonaparte ( 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution and was the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from November 11, 1799 to May 18, 1804, then as Emperor of the French (Empereur des... The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1795, with the French in an increasingly strong position as members of the First Coalition made separate peaces. ... The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1796, with France fighting the First Coalition including Austria and Great Britain. ... 1798 was a relatively quiet period in the French Revolutionary Wars. ... A title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Map of the First French Empire in 1811, with the Empire in dark blue and sattelite states in light blue Capital Paris Language(s) French Government Monarchy Emperor - 1804-1814/1815 Napoleon I Napoleon II Legislature Parliament - Upper house Senate - Lower house Corps lÃ©gislatif History - French Consulate - Established 18... Combatants Allies: Austrian Empire[1] Kingdom of Portugal Kingdom of Prussia[1] Russian Empire[2] Kingdom of Spain[3] Kingdom of Sweden United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland[4] French Empire - Kingdom of Holland - Kingdom of Italy - Kingdom of Naples - Duchy of Warsaw - Kingdom of Bavaria[5] - Kingdom of... First page of the 1804 original edition The Napoleonic Code, or Code NapolÃ©on (originally called the Code civil des FranÃ§ais) was the French civil code, established at the behest of NapolÃ©on I. It was drafted rapidly by a commission of four eminent jurists and entered into force...

By 1804, Britain alone stood outside French control and was an important force in encouraging and financing resistance to France. Napoleon lacked the resources to attempt an invasion of Britain or to defeat the Royal Navy at sea, and his one attempt to do so ended with defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Napoleon resorted instead to economic warfare and instituted an embargo (the Continental System), forbidding his allies and conquests from trading with the British. Combatants United Kingdom First French Empire, Spain Commanders The 1st Viscount Nelson â€ Pierre Charles Silvestre de Villeneuve Strength 27 ships of the line 33 ships of the line Casualties 449 dead, 1,214 wounded 4,480 dead, 2,250 wounded, 7,000 captured, 21 ships captured, 1 ship blown up... For delayed access after publication, see Embargo (academic publishing). ... The Continental System was a foreign-policy cornerstone of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the Napoleonic Wars. ...

Portugal was the only European country that openly refused to join the Continental system. After the Treaties of Tilsit of July 1807, Napoleon attempted to capture the Portuguese Fleet and the House of Braganza, occupy the Portuguese ports and expel the British from Portuguese soil, and failed. King John VI of Portugal took his fleet and fled to Brazil with a Royal Navy escort. The Portuguese population rose in revolt against the French invaders, the Duke of Wellington's British Army intervened and the Peninsular War began in 1808. The Treaties of Tilsit were two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the town of Tilsit in July, 1807. ... John VI, King of Portugal KG KGF (Portuguese JoÃ£o, pron. ... Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS (c. ... Combatants Spain United Kingdom Portugal French Empire The Peninsular War was a major conflict during the Napoleonic Wars, fought on the Iberian Peninsula by an alliance of Spain, Portugal, and Britain against the Napoleonic French Empire. ...

Ultimately the embargo failed. Its effect on Great Britain and on British trade is uncertain, but the embargo is thought to have been more harmful on the continental European states. Russia in particular chafed under the embargo, and in 1812, that country reopened trade with Britain, provoking Napoleon's invasion of Russia. The disaster of the march on Moscow would lead to Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Nations in 1813 and his abdication in 1814. For the overture by Tchaikovsky, see 1812 Overture; For the wars, see War of 1812 (USA - United Kingdom) or Patriotic War of 1812 (France - Russia) For the Siberia Airlines plane crashed over the Black Sea on October 4, 2001, see Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 1812 was a leap year starting... Kazan Cathedral in St Petersburg and the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow were built to commemorate the Russian victory against Napoleon. ... Map of battle by 18 October 1813, from Meyers Encyclopaedia The Battle of Leipzig (October 16-19, 1813), also called the Battle of the Nations, was the largest conflict in the Napoleonic Wars and one of the worst defeats suffered by Napoleon Bonaparte. ... Year 1813 (MDCCCXIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar). ... 1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ...

After an initial forced exile on the island of Elba, Napoleon briefly returned to power (the Hundred Days of 1815), but the imperial dream was finally crushed by the defeat of Waterloo and Napoleon was definitively exiled to the island of Saint Helena in the south Atlantic. Elba (bottom centre) from space, February 1994. ... The Hundred Days (French Cent-Jours) or the Waterloo Campaign commonly refers to the period between 20 March 1815, the date on which Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Paris after his return from Elba, and 8 July 1815, the date of the restoration of King Louis XVIII. The phrase Cent jours... Combatants France Seventh Coalition: Prussia United Kingdom United Netherlands Hannover Nassau Brunswick Commanders NapolÃ©on Bonaparte Michel Ney Duke of Wellington Gebhard von BlÃ¼cher Strength 73,000 67,000 Coalition 60,000 Prussian (48,000 engaged by about 18:00) Casualties 25,000 dead or wounded; 7,000 Captured...

Restoration (1814–1830)

Following the ouster of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814, the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. The ensuing period is called in French "The Restoration" and is characterized by a sharp conservative reaction and the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as a power in French politics. Louis XVIII, brother of the deposed Louis XVI, ruled from 1814–1824 and was succeeded by his brother Charles X in 1824. Following the ouster of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814, the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. ... Bonaparte as general Napoleon Bonaparte ( 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution and was the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from November 11, 1799 to May 18, 1804, then as Emperor of the French (Empereur des... 1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Also see: Early Modern France The House of Bourbon is an important European royal house. ... Louis XVIII (November 17, 1755 - September 16, 1824) was King of France and Navarre from 1814 (although he declared that he considered his reign to have begun in 1795) until his death in 1824, with a brief break in 1815 due to Napoleons return in the Hundred Days. ... Louis XVI (23 August 1754 â€“ 21 January 1793) ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, and then as King of the French from 1791 to 1792. ... 1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Charles X (October 9, 1757 â€“ November 6, 1836) ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated rather than become a constitutional monarch. ... 1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

Despite the return of the House of Bourbon to power, France was much changed from the era of the Ancien Regime. The egalitarianism and liberalism of the revolutionaries remained an important force and the autocracy and hierarchy of the earlier era could not be fully restored. The economic changes, which had been underway long before the revolution, had been further enhanced during the years of turmoil and were firmly entrenched by 1815. These changes had seen power shift from the noble landowners to the urban merchants. The administrative reforms of Napoleon, such as the Napoleonic Code and efficient bureaucracy, also remained in place. These changes produced a unified central government that was fiscally sound and had much control over all areas of French life, a sharp difference from the situation the Bourbons had faced before the Revolution. Ancien R gime means Old Regime or Old Order in French; in English, the term refers primarily to the social and political system established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties, and secondarily to any regime which shares the formers defining features: a feudal system under the control... First page of the 1804 original edition The Napoleonic Code, or Code NapolÃ©on (originally called the Code civil des FranÃ§ais) was the French civil code, established at the behest of NapolÃ©on I. It was drafted rapidly by a commission of four eminent jurists and entered into force...

Louis XVIII, for the most part, accepted that much had changed. However, he was pushed on his right by the Ultra-royalists, led by the comte de Villèle, whom condemned the Doctrinaires' attempt to reconcile the Revolution with the monarchy through a constitutional monarchy. Instead, the Chambre introuvable elected in 1815 bannished all Conventionnels whom had voted Louis XVI's death and passed similar reactionary laws. Louis XVIII was forced to dissolve this Chamber, dominated by the Ultras, in 1816, fearing a popular uprising. The liberals thus governed until the 1820 assassination of the duc de Berry, brother of the king and known supporter of the Ultras, which brought Villèle's ultras back to power (vote of the Anti-Sacrilege Act in 1825, and of the loi sur le milliard des émigrés, Act on the émigrés' billions). Charles X of France, however, took a far more conservative line. He attempted to compensate the aristocrats for what they had lost in the revolution, curbed the freedom of the press, and reasserted the power of the church. In 1830 the discontent caused by these changes and Charles X' authoritarian nomination of the Ultra prince de Polignac as minister culminated in an uprising in the streets of Paris, known as the 1830 July Revolution (or, in French, the "Three Glorious" days of 27, 28 and 29 July). Charles was forced to flee and a member of the Orléans branch of the family, Louis-Philippe d'Orléans, ascended the throne, and ruled, not as "King of France" but as "King of the French" (an evocative difference for contemporaries). Louis XVIII (November 17, 1755 - September 16, 1824) was King of France and Navarre from 1814 (although he declared that he considered his reign to have begun in 1795) until his death in 1824, with a brief break in 1815 due to Napoleons return in the Hundred Days. ... In politics, right-wing, the political right, or simply the right, are terms which refer, with no particular precision, to the segment of the political spectrum in opposition to left-wing politics. ... The term Ultra-Royalists or simply Ultras refers to a reactionary faction which sat in the French parliament from 1815 to 1830 under the Bourbon Restoration. ... Jean-Baptiste Guillaume Joseph Marie Anne SÃ©raphin, comte de VillÃ¨le (April 14, 1773 - March 13, 1854), was a French statesman. ... Doctrinaires was the name given to the leaders of the moderate and constitutional Royalists in France after the second restoration of Louis XVIII in 1815. ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... La Chambre introuvable is the name given by king Louis XVIII of France to the 1815-1816 Chamber of Deputies dominated by Ultra-royalists who completely refused the inheritance of the French Revolution. ... This article is about a legislative body and constitutional convention during the French Revolution. ... Reactionary (or reactionist) is a political epithet, generally used as a pejorative, originally applied in the context of the French Revolution to counter-revolutionaries who wished to restore the real or imagined conditions of the monarchical Ancien RÃ©gime. ... Charles Ferdinand, duc de Berry (1778 - February 13, 1820) was the younger son of Charles X of France and Marie-Thérèse de Savoie. ... The Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825â€“1830) was a French law against blasphemy and sacrilege passed in January 1825 under King Charles X. The law was never applied (except for a minor point) and finally revoked under King Louis-Philippe in the first months of the July monarchy. ... Charles X (October 9, 1757 â€“ November 6, 1836) ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated rather than become a constitutional monarch. ... Liberty Leading the People by EugÃ¨ne Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution 1830 (MDCCCXXX) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Jules Auguste Armand Marie, prince de Polignac (Versailles, 1780 â€“ March 29, 1847(dubious; discuss) ), was a French statesman. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... (Redirected from 27 July) July 27 is the 208th day (209th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 157 days remaining. ... (Redirected from 28 July) July 28 is the 209th day (210th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 156 days remaining. ... July 29 is the 210th day (211th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 155 days remaining. ... Duke of OrlÃ©ans is one of the most important titles in the French peerage, dating back at least to the 14th century. ... Louis Philippe (real name: Philippe Auclair) is a London-based French singer, songwriter, arranger and producer who has been active from the mid-80s onwards. ...

July Monarchy (1830–1848)

Louis-Philippe's "July Monarchy" (1830–1848) is generally seen as a period during which the haute bourgeoisie was dominant. Louis-Philippe, who had flirted with liberalism in his youth, rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of the Bourbons and surrounded himself with merchants and bankers. Ruling as a constitutional monarch, Louis-Philippe left much of the governing to the parliament. The period was one of economic growth, and also major change in the Catholic Church, as it dropped much of its rigidly reactionary views. At the same time the church became seen as less of an enemy by the left. The July Monarchy was established in France with the reign of Louis Philippe of France. ... Louis Philippe (real name: Philippe Auclair) is a London-based French singer, songwriter, arranger and producer who has been active from the mid-80s onwards. ... A constitutional monarchy is a form of government established under a constitutional system which acknowledges a hereditary or elected monarch as head of state. ...

Despite this, the July Monarchy remained a time of turmoil. A large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. On the left, republicanism remained a powerful force. Late in his reign Louis-Philippe became increasingly rigid and dogmatic and his Prime Minister, François Guizot, had become deeply unpopular, but Louis-Philippe refused to remove him. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy and the creation of the Second Republic. Legitimists are Royalists in France who believe that the King of France and Navarre must be chosen according to the simple application of the Salic Law. ... FranÃ§ois Pierre Guillaume Guizot (October 4, 1787 -September 12, 1874) was a French historian, orator and statesman. ... // Observations of liberals As 1848 began, liberals in France awaited the death of King Louis Philippe, expecting a new revolution after his death. ... The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican regime of France from February 25, 1848 to December 2, 1852. ...

Revolution of 1848

The Revolution of 1848 had major consequences for all of Europe: popular democratic revolts against authoritarian regimes broke out in Austria and Hungary, in the German Confederation and Prussia, and in the Italian States Milan, Venice, Turin and Rome. —Alexis de Tocqueville, Recollections The European Revolutions of 1848, in some countries known as the Spring of Nations, were the bloody consequences of a variety of changes that had been taking place in Europe in the first half of the 19th century. ... The German Confederation (German: Deutscher Bund) was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to organize the surviving states of the Holy Roman Empire, which had been abolished in 1806. ... Motto: Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital KÃ¶nigsberg, later Berlin Political structure Duchy, Kingdom, Republic Duke1 - 1525â€“68 Albert I - 1688â€“1701 Frederick III King1 - 1701â€“13 Frederick I - 1888â€“1918 William II Prime Minister1,2... Milan (Italian: ; Lombard: MilÃ¡n (listen)) is one of the biggest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. ... Venice (Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venezsia) is the capital of region Veneto, and has a population of 271,663 (census estimate January 1, 2004). ... Torino redirects here. ... Nickname: The Eternal City Motto: SPQR: Senatus PopulusQue Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area - City 1285 kmÂ² (580 sq mi) - Urban...

The revolution in France had brought together classes of wildly different interests: the bourgeoisie desired electoral reforms (a democratic republic), socialist leaders (like Louis Blanc, Pierre Joseph Proudhon and the radical Auguste Blanqui) asked for a "right to work" and the creation of national workshops (a social welfare republic) and for France to liberate the oppressed peoples of Europe (Poles and Italians), while moderates (like the aristocrat Alphonse de Lamartine) sought a middle ground. Tensions between groups escalated, and in June 1848, a working class insurrection in Paris cost the lives of 1500 workers and eliminated once and for all the dream of a social welfare constitution. Louis Jean Joseph Charles Blanc (October 29, 1811 - December 6, 1882), was a French politician and historian. ... Pierre Joseph Proudhon. ... Louis Auguste Blanqui (February 8, 1805 _ January 1, 1881) was a French political activist. ... Portrait of Alphonse de Lamartine Lamartine in front of the HÃ´tel de Ville de Paris, on the 25 February 1848, by Philippoteaux Alphonse Marie Louise Prat de Lamartine (Alphonse-Marie-Louis de Prat de Lamartine) (October 21, 1790 - February 28, 1869) was a French writer, poet and politician, born...

Second Republic (1848–1852)

The constitution of the Second Republic which was ratified in September 1848 was extremely flawed and permitted no effective resolution between the President and the Assembly in case of dispute. In December 1848, a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, was elected as President of the Republic, and pretexting legislative gridlock, in 1851, he staged a coup d'état. Finally, in 1852 he had himself declared Emperor Napoleon III of the Second Empire. The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican regime of France from February 25, 1848 to December 2, 1852. ... The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican regime of France from February 25, 1848 to December 2, 1852. ... ... A coup dÃ©tat (pronounced ), or simply coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government through unconstitutional means by a part of the state establishment â€” mostly replacing just the high-level figures. ... Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte (April 20, 1808 - January 9, 1873) was the son of King Louis Bonaparte and Queen Hortense de Beauharnais; both monarchs of the French puppet state, the Kingdom of Holland. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ...

Second Empire (1852–1870)

France was ruled by Emperor Napoleon III of France from 1852 to 1870. The era saw great industrialization, urbanization (including the massive rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann) and economic growth, but Napoleon III's foreign policies would be catastrophic. The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... NapolÃ©on III Emperor of the French (Charles Louis NapolÃ©on Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 â€“ 9 January 1873) was President of the French Republic from 1848 to 1851, then from 2 December 1851 to 2 December 1852 the ruler of a dictatorial government, then Emperor of the French under the... Baron Haussmann, circa 1865 Baron Georges-EugÃ¨ne Haussmann (March 27, 1809 â€“ January 11, 1891) was a French civic planner whose name is associated with the rebuilding of Paris. ...

After participation in the Crimean War, Napoleon intervened in the questions of Italian independence. He declared his intention of making Italy "free from the Alps to the Adriatic", and with the victories of Montebello, Magenta and Solferino France and Austria signed the Peace of Villafranca in 1859. Austria ceded Lombardy to Napoleon III, who in turn ceded it to Victor Emmanuel; Modena and Tuscany were restored to their respective dukes, and the Romagna to the pope, now president of an Italian federation. France received Savoy from Piedmont. Combatants Allies: Second French Empire United Kingdom Ottoman Empire Kingdom of Sardinia Russian Empire Bulgarian volunteers Casualties 90,000 French 35,000 Turkish 17,500 British 2,050 Sardinian killed, wounded and died of disease 256,000 killed, wounded and died of disease The Crimean War (1854â€“1856) was fought... The west face of the Petit Dru above the Chamonix valley near the Mer de Glace. ... The Adriatic Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea separating the Apennine peninsula (Italy) from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. ... View of Montebello and Pico Rivera from Rose Hills Memorial Park in Whittier, notice the Downtown Los Angeles skyline in the distant background Montebello is a city located in Los Angeles County, California, United States. ... The Battle of Magenta was fought on June 4, 1859 during the Franco-Austria, resulting in a French victory under Louis-Napoleon against the Austrians under General Gyulai. ... Combatants French Empire Kingdom of Sardinia Austrian Empire Commanders Napoleon III Victor Emmanuel II Franz Joseph Strength 118,600 about 100,000 Casualties 2,492 dead 12,512 wounded 2,922 captured or missing 3,000 dead 10,807 wounded 8,638 captured or missing The Battle of Solferino, also... Villafranca is a town located in the province of Navarra, in the autonomous community of Navarra, in the North of Spain. ... 1859 (MDCCCLIX) is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar). ... Lombardy (Italian: Lombardia, Lombard: LumbardÃ¬a) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. ... Modena (MÃ²dna in Modenese dialect) is a city and a province on the south side of the Po valley, in Emilia-Romagna, Italy. ... Tuscany (Italian: ) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. ... Emilia-Romagna is an administrative region of Northern Italy comprising the two historic regions of Emilia and Romagna. ... The current Pope is Benedict XVI (born Joseph Alois Ratzinger), who was elected at the age of 78 on 19 April 2005. ... Flag of Savoy This article is about the historical region of Savoy. ...

Napoleon also tried to establish the emperor Maximilian in Mexico, but in 1867 French troops were forced on a humiliating withdrawal before an ultimatum of the United States (see French intervention in Mexico). Maximilian I, Emperor of Mexico, (July 6, 1832 â€“ June 19, 1867) was a member of Austrias Imperial Habsburg family. ... Combatants Second Mexican Empire Second French Empire United Kingdom Spain Austria-Hungary Belgium Republic of Mexico Strength 38,493 French soldiers, 7000 Austro-Hungarian volunteers, 2000 Belgian volunteers ~80,000 Casualties 6,654 French killed and wounded 12,000 Mexican killed and wounded Emperor Maximilian Napoleon III of France Ju...

A protracted conflict with Prussia lead to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. By the capitulation of Sedan the Empire lost its major source of support (the army), Paris was left unprotected and emptied of troops, and on 4 September 1870 the republican deputies of Paris at the hôtel de ville constituted a provisional government. The Empire had fallen, the emperor was a prisoner in Germany, and France now embarked on the era of the Third Republic. Motto: Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital KÃ¶nigsberg, later Berlin Political structure Duchy, Kingdom, Republic Duke1 - 1525â€“68 Albert I - 1688â€“1701 Frederick III King1 - 1701â€“13 Frederick I - 1888â€“1918 William II Prime Minister1,2... Combatants Second French Empire North German Confederation allied with south German states (later German Empire) Commanders Napoleon III # Otto Von Bismarck Helmuth von Moltke the Elder Strength 400,000 at the beginning of the war 1,200,000 Casualties 150,000 dead or wounded 284,000 captured 350,000 civilian... Combatants Prussia Bavaria France Commanders Wilhelm I Helmuth von Moltke Napoleon III Patrice MacMahon Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot Strength 200,000 774 cannon 120,000 564 cannon Casualties 2,320 dead 5,980 wounded 700 missing (9,000 total) 3,000 dead 14,000 wounded 21,000 captured 82,000 surrendered... September 4 is the 247th day of the year (248th in leap years). ... 1870 (MDCCCLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... The French Third Republic, (in French, La TroisiÃ¨me RÃ©publique, sometimes written as La IIIe RÃ©publique) (1870/75-10 July 1940) was the governing body of France between the Second French Empire and the Vichy Regime. ...

Third Republic (1870–1940), till 1920

The French legislature established the Third Republic which was to last until the military defeat of 1940 (longer than any government in France since the Revolution). The birth of the republic saw France occupied by foreign troops, the capital in a popular socialist insurection — the Paris Commune (which was violently repressed by Adolphe Thiers) — and two provinces (Alsace-Lorraine) annexed to Germany. Feelings of national guilt and a desire for vengeance ("revanchism") would be major preoccupations of the French throughout the next half century. The French Third Republic, (in French, La TroisiÃ¨me RÃ©publique, sometimes written as La IIIe RÃ©publique) (1870/75-10 July 1940) was the governing body of France between the Second French Empire and the Vichy Regime. ... 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1940 calendar). ... Le PÃ¨re Duchesne looking at the statue of Napoleon I on top of the Vendome column: Eh ben ! bougre de canaille, on va donc te foutre en bas comme ta crapule de neveu !â€¦ (Here! savage rascal, we will put you down just like your crook of a nephew!â€¦) The... Imperial Province of ElsaÃŸ-Lothringen Alsace-Lorraine (German: , generally Elsass-Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 after the annexation of most of Alsace and parts of Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War. ... Revanchism (from French revanche, revenge) is a term used since the 1870s to describe political campaigns to reverse territorial losses incurred by a country during previous wars and strifes, sometimes quite distant in time. ...

Paris Commune (1871)

The Third Republic was established on 4 September 1870, following the defeat of Napoleon III during the 1870 war against Prussia. However, the constitutional laws of the new republic were established only in February 1875, after the crushing of the revolutionary Paris Commune by Adolphe Thiers. Image File history File links PereDuchesneIllustre4_1_0_-_Adolphe_Tiers_l'escargot. ... Image File history File links PereDuchesneIllustre4_1_0_-_Adolphe_Tiers_l'escargot. ... A caricature of Adolphe Thiers charging on the Paris Commune, published in Le PÃ¨re DuchÃªne illustrÃ© Louis Adolphe Thiers (April 16, 1797â€“September 3, 1877) was a French statesman and historian. ... The Communards were also an 80s Britpop group Communard is an archaic term that is a synonym of communist. With respect to the history of France, the Communards were the supporters/members of the short-lived Paris Commune formed in the disturbed period immediately after the Franco-Prussian War. ... PÃ¨re Duchesne Le PÃ¨re Duchesne (Old Man Duchesne or Father Duchesne) was an extreme radical newspaper during the French Revolution edited by Jacques HÃ©bert, who brought out 385 issues, from September 1790 until eleven days before his death by guillotine, which took place on the 4th of... Le PÃ¨re Duchesne looking at the statue of Napoleon I on top of the Vendome column: Eh ben ! bougre de canaille, on va donc te foutre en bas comme ta crapule de neveu !â€¦ (Here! savage rascal, we will put you down just like your crook of a nephew!â€¦) The... The French Third Republic, (in French, La TroisiÃ¨me RÃ©publique, sometimes written as La IIIe RÃ©publique) (1870/75-10 July 1940) was the governing body of France between the Second French Empire and the Vichy Regime. ... September 4 is the 247th day of the year (248th in leap years). ... 1870 (MDCCCLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Combatants Second French Empire North German Confederation allied with south German states (later German Empire) Commanders Napoleon III # Otto Von Bismarck Helmuth von Moltke the Elder Strength 400,000 at the beginning of the war 1,200,000 Casualties 150,000 dead or wounded 284,000 captured 350,000 civilian... Le PÃ¨re Duchesne looking at the statue of Napoleon I on top of the Vendome column: Eh ben ! bougre de canaille, on va donc te foutre en bas comme ta crapule de neveu !â€¦ (Here! savage rascal, we will put you down just like your crook of a nephew!â€¦) The... Louis Adolphe Thiers (April 16, 1797 - September 3, 1877) was a French statesman and historian. ...

The Commune started with the uprising of the Parisian population following the siege of Paris in September 1870, and was in place from 18 March 1871 to 28 May 1871. Adolphe Thiers angered the people of Paris by allowing the Prussians a parade in Paris on 17 February 1871, and on 18 March in an attempt to strengthen his government's position and decrease the power of the National Guard, he ordered the French regular troops to remove the cannon which had been moved to Montmartre, a move opposed by the leadership of the National Guard. Many French soldiers agreed with the National Guard, refused to obey the order, and fell in with the Guard in the uprising. Seeing that he had lost control, Thiers ordered the regular forces, police, administrators and specialists to go to Versailles and fled the city followed by all those that obeyed. March 18 is the 77th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (78th in leap years). ... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... May 28 is the 148th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (149th in leap years). ... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... February 17 is the 48th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... March 18 is the 77th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (78th in leap years). ... During the early years of the French Revolution, the National Guard (fr:Garde Nationale) was a military force separate from the regular army. ... Montmartre seen from the centre Georges Pompidou (1897), a painting by Camille Pissarro of the boulevard that led to Montmartre as seen from his hotel room. ... During the early years of the French Revolution, the National Guard (fr:Garde Nationale) was a military force separate from the regular army. ... Versailles (pronounced in French), formerly the de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important administrative and judicial center. ...

The Commune used the socialist red flag rather than the moderate republican tricolore (during the Second Republic in 1848, radicals supporting a socialist alternative government to the moderate republican Second Republic already raised a red flag). In only three months, the Commune voted many social measures, including: Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. ... Historically, and most generally, the red flag is an international symbol for the blood of angry workers. ... Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, with an emphasis on liberty, rule by the people, and the civic virtue practiced by citizens. ... The term tricolore can refer to: the Flag of France (in French, le drapeau tricolore or, rarely, le tricolore) the Flag of Italy (in Italian: il tricolore) the Flag of Romania (in Romanian: tricolorul) the Flag of Russia (in Russian: Ñ‚Ñ€Ð¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð¾Ñ€) a tricolour banner or flag which has three colours, usually... The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the coup by Louis Napoleon which initiatied the Second Empire. ...

Projected legislation also separated the Church from the state, made all church property state property, and excluded religion from schools. During the uprising, the churches were only allowed to continue their religious activity if they kept their doors open to public political meetings during the evenings. This made the churches, along with the streets and the cafés, the chief participatory political centres of the Commune. Other projected legislation dealt with educational reforms which would make further education and technical training freely available to all. The Vendôme Column, seen as a symbol of Napoleon's imperialism and of chauvinism, was taken down. Some women organized the first traces of a feminist movement. Thus, Nathanie Le Mel, a religious workwoman, and Elisabeth Dmitrieff, a young Russian aristocrat, created the Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés ("Women Union for the Defense of Paris and Care to the Injured") on 11 April 1871. Considering that their struggle against patriarchy could only be followed in the frame of a global struggle against capitalism, the association revendicated gender equality, wages' equality, right of divorce for women, right to laïque instruction (non-clerical) and for professional formation for girls. They also demanded suppression of the distinction between married women and concubins, between legitimate and natural children, the abolition of prostitution — they obtained the closing of the maisons de tolérance (legal unofficial brothels). The Women Union also participated in several municipal commissions and organized cooperative workshops.^[1] It has been suggested that Work permit be merged into this article or section. ... Bakery foods A baker is someone who bakes and sells bread, cakes and similar foods. ... The Maiden, an older Scottish design. ... A pension is a steady income given to a person (usually after retirement). ... Modern pawnbroker storefront A Pawnbroker is a person who offers loans to individuals who use their personal property as collateral. ... For other uses, see Debt (disambiguation). ... Reformism (also called revisionism or revisionist theory) is the belief that gradual changes in a society can ultimately change its fundamental structures. ... Worker Self-Management is a form of workplace decision-making in which the employees themselves agree on choices (for issues like customer care, general production methods, scheduling, division of labour etc. ... Constantines Conversion, depicting the conversion of Emperor Constantine the Great to Christianity, by Peter Paul Rubens. ... Coffeehouse in Damascus A coffeehouse, coffee shop, or cafÃ© shares some of the characteristics of a bar, and some of the characteristics of a restaurant. ... Place VendÃ´me is a square in the 1st arrondissement of Paris located to the north of the Tuileries Gardens and east of the Ã‰glise de la Madeleine. ... For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ... // Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... Chauvinism is extreme and unreasoning partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs, especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred towards a rival group. ... Feminism is a collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies largely motivated by or concerned with the liberation of women from subordination to men. ... April 11 is the 101st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (102nd in leap years). ... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Patriarchy For other uses, see Patriarchy (disambiguation). ... Capitalism generally refers to an economic system in which the means of production are mostly privately[1] owned and operated for profit, and in which distribution, production and pricing of goods and services are determined in a largely free market. ... Feminism is a body of social theory and a political movement primarily based on, and motivated by, the experiences of women. ... For the record label, see Divorce Records. ... Motto of the French republic on the tympanum of a church, in Aups (Var dÃ©partement) which was installed after the 1905 law on the Separation of the State and the Church. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Whore redirects here. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Taking advantage of his retreat from Paris and of Baron Haussmann's urban modeling of the capital during the Second Empire — construction of wide boulevards linking the train stations and therefore the soldiers coming from the countryside to the capital — Adolphe Thiers led the harsh repression of the Communards. On 27 May 1871, when the last barricade, in the rue Ramponeau in Belleville, fell, Marshal MacMahon issued a proclamation: "To the inhabitants of Paris. The French army has come to save you. Paris is freed! At 4 o'clock our soldiers took the last insurgent position. Today the fight is over. Order, work and security will be reborn." Baron Haussmann, circa 1865 Baron Georges-EugÃ¨ne Haussmann (March 27, 1809 â€“ January 11, 1891) was a French civic planner whose name is associated with the rebuilding of Paris. ... Boulevard Haussmann The Haussmann Renovations, or Haussmannization of Paris was a work led under the initiative of NapolÃ©on III and the Seine prÃ©fet, Haussmann, from 1852 to 1870. ... Boulevard has two generally accepted meanings. ... The Communards were also an 80s Britpop group Communard is an archaic term that is a synonym of communist. With respect to the history of France, the Communards were the supporters/members of the short-lived Paris Commune formed in the disturbed period immediately after the Franco-Prussian War. ... May 27 is the 147th day (148th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with 218 days remaining. ... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Closeup of a collection of blinker equipped barricades A barricade is any object or structure that creates a barrier or obstacle to control, block passage or force the flow of traffic in the desired direction. ... Belleville is the name of several places in North America: Belleville, Ontario, Canada Belleville, Illinois, United States of America Belleville, Kansas, United States of America Belleville, Michigan, United States of America Belleville, New Jersey, United States of America Belleville, Pennsylvania, United States of America Belleville is the name or part... Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta President of France, 1873-1879 Marie Edmé Patrice Maurice MacMahon, duc de Magenta, Marshal of France (July 13, 1808 - October 16, 1893) was a Frenchman of Irish descent. ...

Royalist domination (1871–1879)

Thus, the Republic was born of a double defeat: before the Prussians, and of the revolutionary Commune. The repression of the commune was bloody. Hundreds were executed in front of the Communards' Wall in the Père Lachaise cemetery, while thousands of others were marched to Versailles for trials. The number killed during La Semaine Sanglante (The Bloody Week) can never be established for certain but the best estimates are 30,000 dead, many more wounded, and perhaps as many as 50,000 later executed or imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to New Caledonia. Thousands of them fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, "stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left."^[2] For the imprisoned there was a general amnesty in 1880.^[3] Paris remained under martial law for five years. Communards Wall at the Père Lachaise cemetery The Communards’ Wall (F.: Mur des Fédérés) at the Père Lachaise cemetery is where, on May 28, 1871, one-hundred forty-seven fédérés, combatants of the Paris Commune, were shot and thrown in an... Looking down the hill at the PÃ¨re-Lachaise cemetery The cimetiÃ¨re du PÃ¨re-Lachaise (pronounced pierre la-sh-ez) is the largest cemetery in the city of Paris (there are larger cemeteries in Paris suburbs). ... Versailles (pronounced in French), formerly the de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important administrative and judicial center. ...

Beside this defeat, the Republican movement also had to confront the counterrevolutionaries who rejected the legacy of the 1789 Revolution. Both the Legitimist and the Orleanist royalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension of modernity and atheism, breaking with France's traditions. This lasted until at least the 16 May 1877 crisis, which finally led to the resignation of royalist Marshal MacMahon in January 1879. The death of Henri, comte de Chambord in 1883, who, as the grandson of Charles X, had refused to abandon the fleur-de-lys and the white flag, thus jeopardizing the alliance between Legitimists and Orleanists, convinced many of the remaining Orleanists to rally themselves to the Republic, as Adolphe Thiers had already done. The vast majority of the Legitimists abandoned the political arena or became marginalised, at least until Pétain's Vichy regime. Some of them founded Action Française in 1898, during the Dreyfus Affair, which became an influent movement through-out the 1930s, in particular among the intellectuals of Paris' Quartier Latin. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII's encyclic Rerum Novarum legitimised to the Social Catholic movement, which in France could be traced back to Hughes Felicité Robert de Lamennais' efforts under the July Monarchy. Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, with an emphasis on liberty, rule by the people, and the civic virtue practiced by citizens. ... A counterrevolutionary is anyone who opposes a revolution, particularly those who act after a revolution to try to overturn or reverse it, in full or in part. ... Legitimists are those Royalists in France who believe that the King of France and Navarre must be chosen according to the simple application of the Salic Law. ... Orleanists comprised a French political faction or party which arose out of the Revolution, and ceased to have a separate existence shortly after the establishment of the Third Republic in 1872. ... Monarchism is the advocacy of the establishment, preservation, or restoration of a monarchy. ... Modernity is a term used to describe the condition of being modern. Since the term modern is used to describe a wide range of periods, modernity must be understood in its context. ... The 18th-century French author Baron dHolbach was one of the first self-described atheists. ... The May 16, 1877 crisis (French: Crise du Seize mai) is one of the main political crises of the French Third Republic (1870-1940), with two defining traits: it concerned both the contested supremacy of counterrevolutionary monarchists on the new Republic, and the role and power of the president. ... Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta President of France, 1873-1879 Marie Edmé Patrice Maurice MacMahon, duc de Magenta, Marshal of France (July 13, 1808 - October 16, 1893) was a Frenchman of Irish descent. ... Henri, comte de Chambord Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie DieudonnÃ© dArtois, comte de Chambord (September 29, 1820 â€“ August 24, 1883) was technically King Henri V of France from July 30th to August 9, 1830. ... Fleur de Lys is a Canadian superheroine created in 1984 by Mark Shainblum and Gabriel Morrissette. ... German troops after surrendering to the U.S. Third Army carry the white flag (WW2 photo). ... A caricature of Adolphe Thiers charging on the Paris Commune, published in Le PÃ¨re DuchÃªne illustrÃ© Louis Adolphe Thiers (April 16, 1797â€“September 3, 1877) was a French statesman and historian. ... Philippe Petain Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph PÃ©tain (24 April 1856 â€“ 23 July 1951), generally known as Philippe PÃ©tain or Marshal PÃ©tain, was a French general, later Head of State of Vichy France, from 1940 to 1944. ... Vichy France (French: now called Régime de Vichy or Vichy; called itself at the time État Français, or French State) was the French state of 1940-1944 which was a puppet government under Nazi influence, as opposed to the Free French Forces, based first in London and later... The Action FranÃ§aise is a French Monarchist movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and Henri Vaugeois and whose principal ideologist was Charles Maurras. ... 1898 (MDCCCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... The Dreyfus affair was a political scandal which divided France during the 1890s and early 1900s. ... The Quartier Latin (Latin Quarter) is an area in the 5th arrondissement and parts of the 6th arrondissement of Paris, France, on the left bank (south side) of the Seine, around the Sorbonne University. ... Year 1891 (MDCCCXCI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Pope Leo XIII (March 2, 1810 â€“ July 20, 1903), born Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, having succeeded Pope Pius IX (1846â€“78) on February 20, 1878 and reigning until his death in 1903. ... Rerum Novarum (Translation: Of New Things) is an encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII on May 15, 1891. ... Christian socialism generally refers to those on the Christian left whose politics are both Christian and socialist and who see these two things as being interconnected. ... Hughes FelicitÃ© Robert de Lamennais Hughes FelicitÃ© Robert de Lamennais (June 19, 1782 - February 27, 1854), was a French priest, and philosophical and political writer. ...

"Radicals" (1879–1914)

The initial republic was in effect led by pro-royalists, but republicans (the "Radicals") and bonapartists scrambled for power. The period from 1879–1899 saw power come into the hands of moderate republicans and former "radicals" (around Léon Gambetta); these were called the "Opportunists". The newly found Republican control on the Republic allowed the vote of the 1881 and 1882 Jules Ferry laws on a free, mandatory and laic public education. The term Radical (latin radix meaning root) has been used since the late 18th century as a label in political science for those favoring or trying to produce thoroughgoing or extreme political reforms which can include changes to the social order to a greater or lesser extent. ... In French political history, Bonapartists were monarchists who desired a French Empire under the House of Bonaparte, the Corsican family of Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon I of France) and his nephew Louis (Napoleon III of France). ... Painting of LÃ©on Gambetta by LÃ©on Bonnat LÃ©on Gambetta (April 2, 1838 - December 31, 1882), French statesman, was born at Cahors. ... The Jules Ferry laws are a set of French laws which established first free education (1881) then mandatory and laic education (1882). ... Motto of the French republic on the tympanum of a church. ... // Public education is education mandated for the children of the general public by the government, whether national, regional, or local, provided by an institution of civil government, and paid for, in whole or in part, by taxes. ...

The moderates however became deeply divided over the Dreyfus Affair, and this allowed the Radicals to eventually gain power from 1899 until the Great War. During this period, crises like the potential "Boulangist" coup d'état (see Georges Boulanger) in 1889, showed the fragility of the republic. The Radicals' policies on education (suppression of local languages, compulsory education), mandatory military service, and control of the working classes eliminated internal dissent and regionalisms, while their participation in the Scramble for Africa and in the acquiring of overseas possessions (such as French Indochina) created myths of French greatness. Both of these processes transformed a country of regionalisms into a modern nation state. The Dreyfus affair was a political scandal which divided France during the 1890s and early 1900s. ... The Radical Party (Parti Radical or RÃ©publicains Radicaux et Radicaux-Socialistes, Radical Republicans and Radical Socialists), was a major French political party of the early to mid 20th century, originally considered radical due to its anti-clericalism. ... Georges Ernest Jean-Marie Boulanger (April 29, 1837 - September 30, 1891) was a French general and reactionary politician. ... Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... French Indochina (French: LIndochine franÃ§aise, Vietnamese: ÄÃ´ng DÆ°Æ¡ng thuá»™c PhÃ¡p) was the part of the French colonial empire in Indochina in southeast Asia, consisting of a federation of protectorates (Tonkin and Annam, which now form Vietnam, as well as Cambodia and Laos) and one directly... A nation-state is a specific form of state, which exists to provide a sovereign territory for a particular nation, and which derives its legitimacy from that function. ...

In 1880, Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, Marx's son-in-law, created the French Workers' Party (Parti ouvrier français, or POF), the first Marxist party in France. Two years later, Paul Brousse's possibilistes split. A controversy arose in the French socialist movement and in the Second International concerning "socialist participation in a bourgeois government", a theme which was triggered by independent socialist Alexandre Millerand's participation to Radical-Socialist Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet at the turn of the century, which also included the marquis de Galliffet, best known for his role as repressor of the 1871 Commune. While Jules Guesde was opposed to this participation, which he saw as a trick, Jean Jaurès defended it, making him one of the first social-democrat. Guesde's POF united itself in 1902 with the Parti socialiste de France, and finally in 1905 all socialist tendencies, including Jaurès' Parti socialiste français, unified into the Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière (SFIO), the "French section of the Second International", itself formed in 1889 after the split between anarcho-syndicalists and Marxist socialists which led to the dissolving of the First International (founded in London in 1864). Year 1880 (MDCCCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar). ... Jules Basile Guesde (November 11, 1845 - July 28, 1922) was a French socialist politician. ... Paul Lafargue Paul Lafargue (1842-1911) was a French revolutionary Marxist socialist journalist, political writer and activist; he was Karl Marxs son-in-law, having married his second daughter Laura. ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818, Trier, Germany â€“ March 14, 1883, London) was a German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ... The Parti Ouvrier FranÃ§ais (POF, or French Workers Party) was the first Marxist party in France, created in 1880 by Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, Marxs son-in-law (famous for having written The Right to Be Lazy, which criticized labours alienation). ... Paul Brousse (Montpellier, January 23, 1844-April 1, 1912) was a French socialist, leader of the possibilistes group. ... The phrase Second International has two meanings: For the international association of socialist parties of the late 19th century, see Second International (politics) and a successor organization, the Socialist International For one of the Merriam-Webster dictionaries of American English, see Websters New International Dictionary, Second Edition This is... Alexandre Millerand, French statesman Alexandre Millerand (February 10, 1859 - April 7, 1943 at Versailles, France) was a French socialist and politician. ... The Radical-Socialist Party (Parti RÃ©publicain, Radical et Radical-Socialiste, more commonly called Parti Radical-Socialiste - Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party), was a major French political party of the early to mid 20th century, originally considered radical due to its anti-clericalism, a main trait of republicans during... Pierre Marie René Ernest Waldeck-Rousseau (December 2, 1846 - August 20, 1904) was a French statesman. ... Photo of the marquis de Galliffet by Nadar. ... Jean JaurÃ¨s. ... Social democracy is a political ideology that emerged in the late 19th century out of the socialist movement. ... The Section FranÃ§aise de lInternationale OuvriÃ¨re (SFIO, French section of the Workers International), founded in 1905, was a French socialist political party, designed as the local section of the Second International (i. ... The phrase Second International has two meanings: For the international association of socialist parties of the late 19th century, see Second International (politics) and a successor organization, the Socialist International For one of the Merriam-Webster dictionaries of American English, see Websters New International Dictionary, Second Edition This is... Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism which focuses on the labour movement. ... The International Workingmens Association, sometimes called the First International, was an international organization which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing political groups and trade union organizations which were based on the working class. ...

In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and the United Kingdom to its side, first by means of the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, then the 1904 Entente Cordiale with the U.K, and finally, with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907 this became the Triple Entente, which eventually led Russia and the UK to enter World War I as Allies. The Franco-Russian Alliance, originally a secret agreement, was signed in January 1894 between France and Russia. ... The Entente Cordiale (French for friendly understanding) is a series of agreements signed on April 8, 1904, between the United Kingdom and France. ... Britain and Russia concluded the Anglo-Russian Entente on August 31, 1907, delimiting their respective spheres of interest in Persia and Afghanistan. ... European military alliances in 1915. ... Look up ally in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Distrust of Germany, faith in the army and native French anti-semitism combined to make the Dreyfus Affair (the unjust trial and condemnation of a Jewish military officer for treason) a political scandal of the utmost gravity. The nation was divided between "dreyfusards" and "anti-dreyfusards" and far-right Catholic agitators inflamed the situation even when proofs of Dreyfus' innocence came to light. The writer Emile Zola published an impassioned editorial on the injustice, and was himself condemned by the government for libel. Once Dreyfus was finally pardoned, the progressive legislature enacted the 1905 laws on laïcité which created a complete separation of church and state and stripped churches of most of their property rights. The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... The Dreyfus affair was a political scandal which divided France during the 1890s and early 1900s. ... mile Zola (April 2, 1840 - September 29, 1902) was an influential French novelist, the most important example of the literary school of naturalism, and a major figure in the political liberalization of France. ... Motto of the French republic on the tympanum of a church, in Aups (Var dÃ©partement) which was installed after the 1905 law on the Separation of the State and the Church. ... The first page of the bill, as brought before the Chambre des DÃ©putÃ©s in 1905 1905 caricature depicting the separation of the church and state. ...

The period and the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is often termed the belle époque. Although associated with cultural innovations and popular amusements (cabaret, cancan, the cinema, new art forms such as Impressionism and Art Nouveau), France was nevertheless a nation divided internally on notions of religion, class, regionalisms and money, and on the international front France came repeatedly to the brink of war with the other imperial powers, including Great Britain (the Fashoda Incident). World War I was inevitable, but its human and financial costs would be catastrophic for the French. La Belle Ã‰poque, or beautiful era, was a period in Frances history that began during the late 19th century and lasted until World War I. Occurring at the midpoint of the Third Republic, the Belle Ã‰poque was considered a golden time of beauty, innovation, and peace between France and... Impressionism was a 19th century art movement that began as a loose association of Paris-based artists, who began exhibiting their art publicly in the 1860s. ... Poster by Alfons Mucha Vitebsk Railway Station one of the finest examples of Art Nouveau architecture. ... The Fashoda Incident (1898) was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna...

Colonialism

Map of the first (light blue) and second (dark blue â€” plain and hachured) French colonial empires France had colonial possessions, in various forms, from the beginning of the 17th century until the 1960s. ... // Most of Frances actions in Algeria, not least the invasion of Algiers, were propelled by contradictory impulses. ... Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... French Indochina (French: LIndochine franÃ§aise, Vietnamese: ÄÃ´ng DÆ°Æ¡ng thuá»™c PhÃ¡p) was the part of the French colonial empire in Indochina in southeast Asia, consisting of a federation of protectorates (Tonkin and Annam, which now form Vietnam, as well as Cambodia and Laos) and one directly...

Economy

Literature

This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...

Art

French art of the nineteenth century is, for the purpose of this article, visual and plastic works of art made in France or by French citizens during the following political regimes: Napoleon Bonapartes Consulate (1799-1804) and Empire (1804-1814), the Restoration under Louis XVIII and Charles X (1814...

References

LHumanitÃ© (Humanity), formerly the daily newspaper of the French Communist Party (PCF), was the only French newspaper owned by a political party. ... March 19 is the 78th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (79th in leap years). ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Benedict Richard OGorman Anderson (born August 26, 1936) is professor emeritus of International Studies at Cornell University. ... In 1960 in the UK, the editors of the New Reasoner and the Universities and Left Review merged their boards and formed the New Left Review. ...

Contents

Geography

Demographics

Language

Identity

History

French Revolution (1789–1792)

First Republic (1792–1799)

The Empire (1804–1814)

Restoration (1814–1830)

July Monarchy (1830–1848)

Revolution of 1848

Second Republic (1848–1852)

Second Empire (1852–1870)

Third Republic (1870–1940), till 1920

Paris Commune (1871)

Royalist domination (1871–1879)

"Radicals" (1879–1914)

Colonialism

Economy

Literature

Art

References

See also

Contents

Geography

Demographics

Language

Identity

History GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

French Revolution (1789–1792)

First Republic (1792–1799)

The Empire (1804–1814)

Restoration (1814–1830)

July Monarchy (1830–1848)

Revolution of 1848

Second Republic (1848–1852)

Second Empire (1852–1870)

Third Republic (1870–1940), till 1920

Paris Commune (1871)

Royalist domination (1871–1879)

"Radicals" (1879–1914)

Colonialism

Economy

Literature

Art

References

See also

History