Freedom Rider is also a song by Traffic and later Rascal Flatts

Civil Rights activists called Freedom Riders rode in interstate buses into the segregated southern United States to test the United States Supreme Court decision Boynton v. Virginia, (1960) 364 U.S. The first Freedom Ride left Washington D.C. on May 4, 1961, and was scheduled to arrive in New Orleans on May 17. Riders were arrested for trespassing, unlawful assembly, violating state and local Jim Crow laws, etc. Most of the subsequent rides were sponsored by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) while others belonged to the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, pronounced Snick). The Freedom Rides followed on the heels of dramatic "sit-ins" against segregated lunch counters conducted by students and youth throughout the South, and boycotts beginning in 1960. The 1964 summer-1965 Freedom Ride was an important event in the history of civil rights for Indigenous Australians. ... For the article about the song and character John Barleycorn, see John Barleycorn. ... Traffic was a rock band from Birmingham, England, formed in late 1966 by Steve Winwood with Jim Capaldi, Chris Wood and Dave Mason. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... The Supreme Court of the United States (sometimes colloquially referred to by the acronym SCOTUS[1]) is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. ... This is a chronological list of notable cases decided by the Supreme Court of the United States. ... Boynton v. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... “CORE” redirects here. ... The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (or SNCC, pronounced snick) was one of the principle organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. ...

Arguably, the Riders did not engage in civil disobedience because the Supreme Court's decision in Boynton v. Virginia granted them a legal right to disregard local segregation ordinances regarding interstate transportation facilities. But their rights were not enforced, and were considered criminal acts throughout most of the South. For example, upon the Riders' arrival in Mississippi, their journey ended with imprisonment for exercising their legal rights in interstate travel, and similar arrests took place in other southern cities. Freedom Riders knew that they faced arrest by authorities determined to stop their protests and possible mob violence and before starting they committed themselves to a strategy of non-violent resistance. For other uses, see Civil disobedience (disambiguation). ... Boynton v. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... Riots in Newark, New Jersey Riots occur when crowds of people have gathered and are committing crimes or acts of violence. ... Nonviolent resistance (or nonviolent action) is the practice of applying power to achieve socio-political goals through symbolic protests, economic or political noncooperation, civil disobedience and other methods, without the use of physical violence. ...

The Freedom Riders faced much resistance against their cause, but ultimately received strong support from people both inside and outside the South for their efforts.

Starting Point

The Freedom Rides were inspired by the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, led by civil rights activists Bayard Rustin and George Houser. Like the Freedom Rides of 1961, the Journey of Reconciliation was intended to test an earlier Supreme Court ruling that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel. Rustin and a few of the other riders, chiefly members of CORE, were arrested and sentenced to serve on a chain gang in North Carolina for violating local Jim Crow laws regarding segregated seating on public transportation.^[1] Bayard Rustin at news briefing on the Civil Rights March on Washington, August 27, 1963 Bayard Rustin (March 17, 1912 – August 24, 1987) was an African-American civil rights activist, important largely behind the scenes in the civil rights movement of the 1960s and earlier and principal organizer of the... Born in 1916, George Houser was the son of missionaries, and spent portions of his early life in the Far East. ... An African-American drinks out of a water fountain marked for colored in 1939 at a street car terminal in Oklahoma City. ... “CORE” redirects here. ... 1894 illustration of chain gang performing manual labour. ... Official language(s) English Demonym North Carolinian Capital Raleigh Largest city Charlotte Largest metro area Charlotte metro area Area  Ranked 28th in the US  - Total 53,865 sq mi (139,509 km²)  - Width 150 miles (340 km)  - Length 560[1] miles (900 km)  - % water 9. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial...

The first Freedom Ride began on May 4, 1961. Led by CORE Director James Farmer 13 riders (7 Black, 6 white) left Washington DC on Greyhound and Trailways buses. Their plan was to ride through Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, ending with a rally in New Orleans Louisiana. Most of the Riders were from CORE, two were from SNCC. Many were in their 40s and 50s. James L. Farmer, Jr. ... The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (or SNCC, pronounced snick) was one of the principle organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. ...

Only minor trouble was encountered in Virginia and North Carolina, but John Lewis was attacked in Rock Hill, and some of the Riders were arrested in Charlotte NC, and Winnsboro SC. For other persons named John Lewis, see John Lewis (disambiguation). ...

Mob Violence in Anniston and Birmingham

In Anniston, Alabama, a mob attacked the Greyhound bus and slashed its tires. When the crippled bus had to stop several miles outside of town, it was firebombed by the mob chasing it in cars. [1] As the bus burned, the mob held the doors shut, intent on burning the riders to death. An undercover law enforcement officer finally drew his gun and forced the doors to be opened. The Riders were viciously beaten as they fled the burning bus. Nickname: The Model City Location in Alabama Coordinates: County Calhoun Settled April 1872 Incorporated 3 July 1883 Mayor Hoyt W. “Chip” Howell, Jr. ...

When the Trailways bus reached Birmingham it too was attacked by a mob of Ku Klux Klan members aided and abetted by the police under the orders of Commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor. As the riders exited the bus they were mercilessly beaten by the mob with baseball bats, iron pipes and bicycle chains. Among the Klansmen attacking the riders was FBI informant Gary Thomas Rowe. White Freedom Riders were particularly singled out for frenzied beatings. Two riders were hospitalized, including white Freedom Rider Jim Peck who required 52 stitches to close the wounds in his head.[2] Nickname: Location in Jefferson County in the state of Alabama Coordinates: , Country State Counties Jefferson, Shelby Incorporated December 19, 1871 Government  - Type Mayor - Council  - Mayor Bernard Kincaid (Current) Larry Langford (Mayor-Elect) Area  - City 151. ... Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally during the 1920s. ... Theophilus Eugene Bull Connor (July 11, 1897, Selma, Alabama – March 10, 1973) was a Democratic police official in the Southern U.S. state of Alabama during the American Civil Rights Movement, a member of the Ku Klux Klan, and a staunch advocate of racial segregation. ...

That night, the hospitalized Freedom Riders were kicked out of the Hospital at 2 AM because the staff feared the mob outside the hospital. Local civil rights leader Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth organized several cars of blacks who defied the mob to rescue the injured Freedom Riders. Fred Shuttlesworth (b. ...

When reports of the bus burning and beatings reached US Attorney General Robert Kennedy, he urged restraint on the part of Freedom Riders and sent an assistant, John Seigenthaler, to Alabama to try to calm the situation. Robert Kennedy Robert Francis Bobby Kennedy, also called RFK (November 20, 1925–June 6, 1968) was the younger brother of President John F. Kennedy, and was appointed by his brother as Attorney General for his administration. ... John Seigenthaler, speaking in Nashville John Lawrence Seigenthaler (IPA pronunciation: ; born July 27, 1927) is an American journalist, writer, and political figure. ...

With all of the original Freedom Riders injured, and the Trailways and Greyhound drivers afraid to drive any bus containing Freedom Riders, it was suggested that the Freedom Rides be discontinued. Most of the original Freedom Riders flew to New Orleans to attend a previously scheduled rally. New Orleans is the largest city in the state of Louisiana, United States of America. ...

Nashville student and SNCC leader Diane Nash, felt that if violence were allowed to halt the Freedom Rides, the movement would be set back years. She pushed to find replacements to resume the ride, and on May 17th a new set of riders, students from Nashville, took a bus to Birmingham where they were arrested by Bull Connor and jailed. These students kept their spirits up in jail by singing Freedom Songs. Out of frustration, Police Chief Bull Connor drove them back up to the Tennessee line and dropped them off, stating "I just couldn't stand their singing." They immediately return to Birmingham. Diane Judith Nash (born May 15, 1938 in Chicago) was a founder of the now defunct SNCC, a key force in the American civil rights movement. ... Theophilus Eugene Bull Connor (July 11, 1897, Selma, Alabama – March 10, 1973) was a Democratic police official in the Southern U.S. state of Alabama during the American Civil Rights Movement, a member of the Ku Klux Klan, and a staunch advocate of racial segregation. ...

Mob Violence in Montgomery

The Freedom Riders who had answered SNCC's (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) call from across the Eastern US joined John Lewis and Hank Thomas, the two young SNCC members of the original Ride who had remained in Birmingham. On May 19, they attempted to resume the ride, but terrified by the howling mob surrounding the bus depot, the drivers refused. Harassed and besieged by the KKK mob, the riders waited all night for a bus.

Under intense public pressure from the Kennedy administration, Greyhound was forced to provide a driver and Alabama Governor Patterson reluctantly promised to protect the bus from KKK mobs and snipers on the road between Birmingham and Montgomery. On the morning of May 20, the Freedom Ride resumed, with the bus carrying the riders streaking toward Montgomery at 90 miles an hour protected by a contingent of the Alabama State Highway Patrol. John Malcolm Patterson (born September 27, 1921) is an American politician who was the forty-ninth Governor of Alabama, from 1959 to 1963. ...

However, when they reached the Montgomery city limits, the Highway Patrol abandoned them. At the bus station, a huge white mob was waiting and viciously beat the Freedom Riders with baseball bats and iron pipes. The local police allowed the beatings to go on uninterrupted. Again, white Freedom Riders, branded "nigger-Lovers," were singled out for particularly brutal beatings. Reporters and news photographers were also attacked and their cameras destroyed, but there is a famous picture taken later of Jim Zwerg in the hospital, beaten and bruised. [3]. Justice Department official Seigenthaler was beaten and left unconscious lying in the street. Ambulances refused to take the wounded to the hospital. Local blacks rescued them, and a number of the Freedom Riders were hospitalized.

The following night, Sunday May 21st, more than 1200 people packed Reverend Abernathy's 1st Baptist church to honor the Freedom Riders. Among the speakers were Dr. King, Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth, and James Farmer. Outside, an enormous mob of more than 3,000 whites attacked blacks and the handful of Federal marshals protecting the church from assault and fire bombs. With city and state police making no effort to restore order, Kennedy threatened to commit Federal troops, but Governor Patterson forestalled that by ordering the Alabama National Guard to disperse the mob. Ralph David Abernathy (March 11, 1926 – April 17, 1990) was an American civil rights activist and leader. ... Martin Luther King redirects here. ... John Kennedy and JFK redirect here. ...

Into Mississippi

The next day, Monday May 22, more Freedom Riders from CORE and SNCC arrived in Montgomery to continue the rides and replace the wounded riders still in hospital. Behind the scenes, the Kennedy administration arranged a deal with the governors of Alabama and Mississippi. The governors agreed that state police and National Guard would protect the Riders from mob violence (thereby ending embarrassing media coverage of bloody lawlessness), and in return the Federal government would not intervene to stop local police from arresting Freedom Riders for violating segregation ordinances when the buses arrived at the depots (even though such arrests violated the Supreme Court's Boynton decision).

On Wednesday morning, May 24, Freedom Riders boarded buses for the journey to Jackson MS. Surrounded by Highway Patrol and National Guard, the buses arrived in Jackson without incident, and the riders were immediately arrested when they tried to use the "white-only" facilities at the depot. In Montgomery, Freedom Riders including Yale University Chaplin William Sloane Coffin, Shuttlesworth, Abernathy, Wyatt Tee Walker, and others were similarly arrested for violating local segregation ordinances. Rev. ... Wyatt Tee Walker (born 1929) was a United States black civil rights leader. ...

This established a pattern followed by subsequent Freedom Rides in which they traveled to Jackson where they were arrested and jailed. The strategy became one of trying to fill the jails. Once the Jackson City and Hinds County jails were filled to overflowing, Freedom Riders were transferred to the infamous Parchman Penitentiary ("Parchman Farm"). There abusive treatment included placement in the Maximum Security Unit (Death Row), issuance of only underwear, no exercise, no mail, and, when Freedom Riders refused to stop singing Freedom Songs, they took away mattresses, sheets and toothbrushes and removed the screens from the windows. When the cell block became filled with mosquitoes, they hosed everyone down with DDT at 2 AM. Mississippi State Penitentiary, also known as Parchman Farm, is the oldest prison and the only maximum security prison in the state of Mississippi, USA. It is located on 18,000 acres (73 km²) in Parchman, Mississippi, and was built in 1901. ... For other uses, see DDT (disambiguation). ...

Impact

The Kennedys called for a "cooling off period" and condemned the Rides as unpatriotic because they embarrassed the nation on the world stage. Attorney General Robert Kennedy — the chief law enforcement officer of the land — was quoted as saying that he "Does not feel that the Department of Justice can side with one group or the other in disputes over Constitutional rights."

Defying the Kennedys, CORE, SNCC, and SCLC rejected any "cooling off period." They formed a Freedom Riders Coordinating Committee to keep the Rides rolling through June, July, August, and September. During those months, more than 60 different Freedom Rides criss-crossed the South[4], most of them converging on Jackson where every Rider was arrested, more than 300 in total, plus an unknown number of riders arrested in other southern towns. It is estimated that almost 450 riders participated in one or more Freedom Rides. About 75% were male, and the same percentage were under the age of 30, mostly evenly divided between black and white. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference Logo. ...

During the summer of 1961, Freedom Riders also campaigned against other forms of racial discrimination. They sat together in segregated restaurants, lunch counters and hotels. This was especially effective when it targeted large companies who, fearing boycotts in the North, began to desegregate their businesses. An African-American drinks out of a water fountain marked for colored in 1939 at a street car terminal in Oklahoma City. ...

In mid-June, a group of Freedom Riders were scheduled to end their ride in Tallahassee, Florida, with plans to fly home from the Tallahassee airport. They were provided a police escort to the airport from the City's bus facilities. At the airport, they decided to eat at a restaurant that was signed "For Whites Only". The owners decided to close, rather than serve the Freedom Riders. Although the restaurant was privately owned, it was leased from the County government. Canceling their plane reservations, the Riders decided to wait until the restaurant re-opened so they could be served. They waited until 11:00 pm that night, and returned the following day. During this time, hostile crowds gathered, threatening violence. On June 16th, 1961, the Freedom Riders were arrested in Tallahassee for unlawful assembly.^[2] That arrest became known as Dresner v. City of Tallahassee, which made its way to the US Supreme Court in 1963, in which a hearing was refused, based on technical reasons.^[3]

Eventually, bowing to public opinion, the Kennedy administration got the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to issue yet another desegregation order. The ICC was reluctant, but in September of 1961 it issued the necessary orders, and the new policies went into effect on November 1, 1961. After the new ICC rule took effect, passengers were permitted to sit wherever they pleased on interstate buses and trains, "white" and "colored" signs came down in the terminals, separate drinking fountains, toilets, and waiting rooms were consolidated, and the lunch counters begin serving people regardless of skin color. The Interstate Commerce Commission (or ICC) was a regulatory body in the United States created by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, which was signed into law by President Grover Cleveland. ...

The Freedom Rides established great credibility with blacks and whites throughout the United States who became motivated to engage in direct action for civil rights. Perhaps most significantly, Freedom Riders impressed blacks living in rural areas throughout the South who later formed the backbone of the civil rights movement. This credibility inspired many subsequent civil rights campaigns, including voter registration, freedom schools, and the black power movement. ‹ The template below is being considered for deletion. ...

Bibliography

• Raymond Arsenault, Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice (Oxford University Press, 2006).
• David Fankhauser, FREEDOM RIDES: Recollections by David Fankhauser

A web page with personal description of the experiences of a Freedom Rider, with illustrations. He has given specific permission to cite this copyrighted page: FREEDOM RIDES

References

2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 119th day of the year (120th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External Links

Freedom Rides ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans

Get On the Bus: The Freedom Riders of 1961 National Public Radio

A Brief History of the Freedom Riders by David Lisker