The Freedom Rides were a series of nonviolent, direct demonstrations performed in 1961 as part of the U.S. civil rights movement. Volunteers, African American and white, many of whom were college students, called Freedom Riders, rode in interstate buses into the segregated southern United States to test the 1960 decision Boynton v. Virginia, (1960) 364 U.S. 454, which outlawed racial segregation in interstate transportation facilities, including bus stations and railroad terminals. A total of 436 Freedom Riders were arrested for trespassing, unlawful assembly, violating state and local Jim Crow laws, etc. All but a very small number were sponsored by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) while the others belonged to the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). They followed on the heels of dramatic "sit-ins" against segregated lunch counters conducted by students and youth throughout the South beginning in 1960. 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (the link is to a full 1961 calendar). ... Martin Luther King is perhaps most famous for his I Have a Dream speech, given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom This article is about the civil rights movement following the Brown v. ... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1960 calendar). ... This is a chronological list of notable cases decided by the Supreme Court of the United States. ... Boynton v. ... The Rex Theatre for Colored People, Leland, Mississippi, June 1937 Racial segregation is creamy jizz of different races in daily life when both are doing equal tasks, such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a rest room, attending school, going to the movies, or in... The Jim Crow Laws were state and local laws enacted in the Southern and Border States of the United States and enforced between 1876 and 1965 and affected African Americans and many other races. ... CORE redirects here. ... The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (or SNCC, pronounced snick) was one of the primary institutions of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. ...

The rides

Thirteen black and white Freedom Riders rode into Washington, D.C. on May 4, 1961, in two buses (one Greyhound and one Trailways) which were to take the group of mixed black and white protesters throughout the South to New Orleans.

The names of that summer's Riders included James L. Farmer, William Mahoney, John Lewis, Jim Zwerg, James Peck, George Bundy Smith, Frederick Leonard, and William Sloane Coffin, among others totaling 436. Three-fourths of the Riders were under 30. They were mostly male and evenly divided between black and white. James Leonard Farmer Jr. ... Categories: Stub | 1940 births | U.S. civil rights history | African American politicians | Members of the U.S. House of Representatives ... There are several people named James Peck: James H. Peck (1790-1836), Misourri judge impeached for abuse of contempt John James Peck (1821-1878), US soldier and president of the New York State Life Insurance Company James Peck, professor of economics at Ohio State [1] James Peck (1914-1993), pacificst... George Bundy Smith was born in New Orleans in 1937. ... Rev. ...

Arguably, the Riders did not engage in civil disobedience since they had a legal right to disregard segregation laws in the states they visited concerning interstate transportation facilities. However, the reality was that their rights were not enforceable and remained criminal acts throughout much of the South. In fact, upon the Riders' arrival in Mississippi, their journey ended with their imprisonment for exercising their legal rights in accordance with the Supreme Court's decision in Boynton v. Virginia. Despite the Supreme Court decision, the prevailing enforcement patterns and local judicial decisions in the South meant that local and state governments regarded the Riders' actions as unlawful and, most importantly, they had to rely on non-violent resistance in facing both mob violence and mass arrest by authorities determined to stop the protest. The Freedom Riders faced much resistance against their cause but ultimately developed strong support from people both inside and outside the South for their efforts. An anti-war activist is arrested for civil disobedience on the steps of the Supreme Court of the United States on February 9, 2005. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Nonviolent resistance (or nonviolent action) is the practice of applying power to achieve socio-political goals through symbolic protests, economic or political noncooperation, civil disobedience and other methods, without the use of physical violence. ...

Violence and the rides

The worst violence that occurred during the Freedom Rides was when the buses approached Birmingham, Alabama. Police chief Eugene "Bull" Connor openly conspired with Ku Klux Klan members to beat and harass Freedom Riders. The Greyhound bus was firebombed in Anniston, Alabama, forcing Riders to exit whereupon they were viciously beaten.

Meanwhile, a second group of riders left Nashville, Tennessee on May 14, 1961 headed for Birmingham, Alabama, where they joined with the first group of Freedom Riders on May 20, 1961. The U.S. Attorney General, Robert Kennedy, sent his assistant, John Seigenthaler Sr., to accompany the Freedom Riders. When the Trailways bus reached Birmingham, the other Freedom Riders were also viciously beaten by Klan members under police protection including FBI informant Gary Thomas Rowe Jr. Rowe loved nothing more than a good fight and was later implicated in Viola Liuzzo's murder during mass demonstrations in Selma, Alabama. Freedom Rider Jim Zwerg was badly injured and temporarily disfigured. Seigenthaler was knocked unconscious when he went to the aid of one of the passengers. The riders were forced to take refuge from mobs in a church. Nickname: Music City Location in Davidson County and the state of Tennessee Coordinates: Country United States State Tennessee Counties Davidson County Founded: 1779 Incorporated: 1806  - Mayor Bill Purcell (D) Area    - City 1362. ... May 14 is the 134th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (135th in leap years). ... 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (the link is to a full 1961 calendar). ... Nickname: The Magic City, Pittsburgh of the South, BHam, The Ham Location in Jefferson County in the state of Alabama Coordinates: Country United States State Alabama County Jefferson, Shelby  - Mayor Bernard Kincaid (D) Area    - City  151. ... May 20 is the 140th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (141st in leap years). ... 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (the link is to a full 1961 calendar). ... The United States Attorney General is the head of the United States Department of Justice concerned with legal affairs and is the chief law enforcement officer of the United States government. ... Robert Kennedy Robert Francis Bobby Kennedy, also called RFK (November 20, 1925–June 6, 1968) was the younger brother of President John F. Kennedy, and was appointed by his brother as Attorney General for his administration. ... Press photo of Seigenthaler John Lawrence Seigenthaler (pronounced , born July 27, 1927) is an American journalist, writer, and political figure. ...

All 19 protesters boarded a plane for New Orleans the next day rather than continue to subject themselves to the relentless violence of an angry mob. Nashville Student Movement demonstraters, led by Diane Nash and John Lewis, picked up where the original Freedom Riders left off by sending cars full of replacements to sit in at the Greyhound bus station in Birmhingham where Bull Connor deported them back to Tennessee before arresting them upon their return. These courageous acts kept the Freedom Rides going at a critical juncture in the civil rights movement.

Thus the Freedom Rides established great credibility with progressive blacks and whites throughout the United States who became motivated to engage in direct action for civil rights. Perhaps most significantly, Freedom Riders impressed blacks living in rural areas throughout the South who later formed the backbone of the civil rights movement. This credibility inspired many subsequent civil rights campaigns, including voter registration, freedom schools, and the black power movement.

During their journey, the original group of 13 grew to as many as 1,000, but the ride ended on May 25, 1961 in Jackson, Mississippi, where they were met by an angry mob of white segregationists and imprisoned by the local police in a deal made, without the Riders' knowledge, by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy who received a guarantee of their safety in return. May 25 is the 145th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (146th in leap years). ... 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (the link is to a full 1961 calendar). ... Nickname: Crossroads of the South, Jacktown Coordinates: Country United States State Mississippi County Hinds Founded 1822  - Mayor Frank Melton Area    - City  106. ...

During the summer of 1961, Freedom Riders also campaigned against other forms of racial discrimination. They sat together in segregated restaurants, lunch counters and hotels. This was especially effective when it concerned large companies who, fearing boycotts in the North, began to desegregate their businesses. 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (the link is to a full 1961 calendar). ...

United States Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy petitioned the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to draft regulations to end racial segregation in bus terminals. The ICC was reluctant, but in September of 1961 it issued the necessary orders, and the new policies went into effect on November 1, 1961. The Interstate Commerce Commission (or ICC) was a regulatory body in the United States created by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, which was signed into law by President Grover Cleveland. ... November 1 is the 305th day of the year (306th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 60 days remaining. ... 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (the link is to a full 1961 calendar). ...

Bibliography

• Raymond Arsenault, Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Justice (Oxford University Press, 2006).