The Consulate was the government of France from 1799 to 1804—from the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire until the start of the Napoleonic Empire. By extension, the term The Consulate also refers to this period of French history. The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the template to the right. ... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin Gallia, Greek Galatia) is the region of Western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Gaul in the Roman Empire Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in what would become modern day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and western Germany. ... For other uses, see Franks (disambiguation). ... France in the Middle Ages is, for the purpose of this article, the history of the region roughly corresponding to modern day France from the death of Charlemagne in 814 to the middle of the 15th century. ... Early Modern France is the portion of French history that falls in the early modern period from the mid 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance to the eve of the French Revolution). ... The History of France from 1789 to 1914 (the long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes the periods of the First French Empire, the Restoration under Louis XVIII and Charles X (1814-1830), the July Monarchy under Louis Philippe dOrléans (1830... The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period in the history of France. ... The Estates-General (or States-General) of 1789 (French: Etats-Généraux de 1789) was the first meeting since 1614 of the French Estates-General, a general assembly consisting of representatives from all but the poorest segment of the French citizenry. ... During the French Revolution, the National Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale) was a transitional body between the Estates-General and the National Constituent Assembly that existed from June 17 to July 9 of 1789. ... The Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789 was an important symbolic development in the French Revolution. ... The National Constituent Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale constituante) was formed from the National Assembly on July 9, 1789, during the first stages of the French Revolution. ... The National Constituent Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale constituante) was formed from the National Assembly on July 9, 1789, during the first stages of the French Revolution. ... The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ... The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ... During the French Revolution, the Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from October 1, 1791 to September 1792. ... The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ... This article is about a legislative body and constitutional convention during the French Revolution. ... The Reign of Terror (5 September 1793 – 28 July 1794) or simply The Terror (French: la Terreur) was a period in the French Revolution characterized by brutal repression. ... Executive Directory (in French Directoire exécutif), commonly known as the Directory (or Directoire) held executive power in France from November 2, 1795 until November 10, 1799: from the end of the Convention to the beginning of the Consulate. ... This is a glossary of the French Revolution. ... Timeline of the French Revolution. ... The French Revolutionary Wars occurred between the outbreak of war between the French Revolutionary government and Austria in 1792 and the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. ... This is a partial list of people involved in the French Revolution. ... This is a partial list of historians of the French Revolution. ... The First French Empire, commonly known as the French Empire or the Napoleonic Empire, covers the period of the domination of France and much of continental Europe by Napoleon I of France. ... Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814, the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. ... The July Monarchy was established in France with the reign of Louis Philippe of France. ... The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican regime of France from February 25, 1848 to December 2, 1852. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... A map of France under the Third Republic, featuring colonies. ... The History of France from 1914 to today spans the political regimes of the Third French Republic, the Vichy Regime, the French Fourth Republic and the French Fifth Republic, and includes World War I and World War II. For specific information on todays France, see France or Portal:France. ... 1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1804 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Executive Directory (in French Directoire exécutif), commonly known as the Directory (or Directoire) held executive power in France from November 2, 1795 until November 10, 1799: from the end of the Convention to the beginning of the Consulate. ... Napoléon Bonaparte in the coup détat of 18 brumaire. ... The First French Empire, commonly known as the French Empire or the Napoleonic Empire, covers the period of the domination of France and much of continental Europe by Napoleon I of France. ...

During this period, Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul had established himself as the dominant power in France, but had not yet declared himself Emperor. Bonaparte as general Napoleon Bonaparte ( 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution and was the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from November 11, 1799 to May 18, 1804, then as Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français... A title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. ... An emperor is a (male) monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. ...

Fall of the Directory government

French military disasters in 1798 and 1799 had shaken the Directory, and eventually shattered it. The start of the political downfall of the Directory is usually dated from 18 June 1799, (30 Prairial Year VIII by the French Republican calendar) when Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès with the help of Paul Barras successfully ridded himself of the other then-sitting directors. An irregularity having emerged in the election of Jean Baptiste Treilhard, who retired in favor of Gohier. Within days, Philippe-Antoine Merlin (Merlin de Douai) and Louis-Marie de La Revellière (La Revellière-Lépeaux) were driven to resign; Moulin and Ducos replaced them. The three new directors were generally seen as non-entities. June 18 is the 169th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (170th in leap years), with 196 days remaining. ... 1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar is a calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about twelve years from late 1793. ... Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, 1817, by Jacques-Louis David Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (May 3, 1748 – June 20, 1836) was a French abbé and statesman, one of the chief theorists of the revolutionary and Napoleonic era. ... Paul François Jean Nicolas Barras Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras (June 30, 1755 – January 29, 1829) was a French revolutionary and the main executive leader of the Directory regime of 1795 - 1799. ... Jean-Baptiste Treilhard (1742-1810), French revolutionist, was born at Brives (Corrze). ... Louis-Jérôme Gohier (1746-1830) was a French politician born at Semblancay (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of February 1746, the son of a notary. ... Philippe Antoine, count Merlin (October 30, 1754 - December 26, 1838), was a French politician and lawyer, known as Merlin of Douai. He was born at Arleux (Nord), and was called to the Flemish bar in 1775. ... French politician (1747–1816) - Homme politique, philosophe, etc. ...

A few more military disasters, royalist insurrections in the south, Chouan disturbances in Normandy, Orleanist intrigues and the end was certain. In order to soothe the populace and protect the frontier, more than the French Revolution's usual terrorist measures (such as forced taxation or the law of hostages) was necessary. The new Directory government, led by Sieyès, decided that the necessary revision of the constitution would require "a head" (his own) and "a sword" (a general to back him). Jean Victor Moreau being unattainable as his sword, Sieyès favoured Barthelemy Catherine Joubert; but, when Joubert was killed at the Battle of Novi (15 August 1799), he turned to General Napoleon Bonaparte. The House of Bourbon is an important European royal house. ... Chouans were insurrectionary royalists in France, in particular Brittany, during the French Revolution, and even for a time under the Empire, when their head-quarters were in London Their names derive from their muster by night at the sound of the chat-huant, the screech owl, a nocturnal bird of... Flag of Normandy Mont Saint Michel is a historic pilgrimage site and a symbol of Normandy Normandy is a geographical region in northern France. ... Orleanists comprised a French political faction or party which arose out of the Revolution, and ceased to have a separate existence shortly after the establishment of the Third Republic in 1872. ... The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period in the history of France. ... For the state of pronounced fear, see terror. ... Jean Victor Marie Moreau (February 4, 1763 - September 2, 1813), French general, was born at Morlaix in Brittany. ... Barthélemy Catherine Joubert (14 April 1769 - 15 August 1799), French general, the son of an advocate, was born at Pont de Vaux (Ain). ... The battle of Novi was a battle in the French Revolutionary Wars that was fought on August 15, 1799. ... August 15 is the 227th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (228th in leap years), with 138 days remaining. ... 1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Bonaparte as general Napoleon Bonaparte ( 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution and was the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from November 11, 1799 to May 18, 1804, then as Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français...

Although Guillaume Marie Anne Brune and André Masséna retrieved the fight at the Battle of Bergen and of Zürich, and although the Allies of the Second Coalition lingered on the frontier as they had done after the Battle of Valmy, still the fortunes of the of Directory were not restored. Success was reserved for Bonaparte, suddenly landing at Fréjus with the prestige of his victories in the East, and now, after Roche's death, appearing as sole master of the armies. Lithograph of Guillaume Marie Anne Brune by Delpech Guillaume Marie Anne Brune (March 13, 1763 – August 2, 1815) was a marshal of France. ... André Masséna, Marshal of France André Masséna (May 6, 1758 – April 4, 1817), Duke of Rivoli, Prince of Essling, was a French soldier in the armies of Napoleon and a Marshal of France. ... The Battle of Bergen was fought on September 19, 1799, and resulted in a French-Dutch victory under General Brune and General Daendels against the Russians and British under the Duke of York who had landed in the North of Holland. ... A number of battles have been fought at or near Zürich in Switzerland: Zürich was besieged during the Old Zürich War, 1443–1446 There were two Battles of Zürich during the war between revolutionary France and the Second Coalition (1798 – 1800) First Battle of Zürich... The name Second Coalition (1798 - 1800) designates the second major concerted effort of multiple European powers to contain Revolutionary France. ... The Battle of Valmy (September 20, 1792) formed a turning point in the wars associated with the French Revolution. ... Roman ruins, aquaduct Fréjus is a coastal town and commune, in the Var département, in southern France. ... The term Eastern world refers very broadly to the various cultures, social structures and philosophical systems of the East, namely Asia (including China, India, Japan, and surrounding regions). ...

In the coup of 18 Brumaire Year VIII (9 November 1799). France and the army fell together at Napoleon's feet. By a two-fold coup d’état, parliamentary and military power went into the hands of a single man. There was little resistance to this move; after years of turmoil and revolution, France was tired and appeared to accept the sacrifice of the liberty and democracy that she had known for so short a time in return for simple stability and a strong hand at the reins of government. Napoléon Bonaparte in the coup détat of 18 brumaire. ... November 9 is the 313th day of the year (314th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 52 days remaining. ... 1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... A coup détat (pronounced kÅ« dā ta), or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ...

On the night of the 19 Brumaire (10 November 1799) a remnant of the Council of Ancients abolished the Constitution of the Year III, ordained the Consulate, and legalised the coup d’état in favour of Bonaparte. For the next fifteen years, the history of France and a great part of Europe was to be summed up in the person of a single man. November 10 is the 314th day of the year (315th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 51 days remaining. ... 1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... The Council of Ancients or Council of Elders (French: Conseil des Anciens) was the upper house of the Directory (French: Directoire), the legislature of France from August 22, 1795 until November 9, 1799, roughly the second half of the period generally referred to as the French Revolution. ... The Constitution of 1795, Constitution of 22 August 1795, Constitution of the Year III, or Constitution of 5 Fructidor was a national constitution of France ratified by the National Convention on August 22, 1795 (5 Fructidor of the Year III under the French Revolutionary Calendar) during the French Revolution. ... A coup détat (pronounced kÅ« dā ta), or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ...

The New Government

The initial 18 Brumaire coup seemed to be a victory for Sieyès, rather than for Bonaparte. Sieyès was a proponent of a new system of government for the Republic, and the coup initially seemed certain to bring his system into force. Bonaparte's cleverness lay in counterposing Pierre Claude François Daunou's plan to that of Sieyès, and in retaining only those portions of both which could serve his ambition. Pierre Claude François Daunou Pierre Claude François Daunou (August 18, 1761 - June 20, 1840) was a French statesman and historian. ...

The new government was composed of three parliamentary assemblies: the Council of State which drafted bills, the Tribunate which discussed them without voting them, and the Legislative Assembly which voted them without discussing them. Popular suffrage was retained, though mutilated by the lists of notables (on which the members of the Assemblies were to be chosen by the conservative Senate). Executive authority was vested in three consuls, who were elected for ten years. Insert non-formatted text hereInsert non-formatted text here:This article is about the legislative institution. ... Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... A title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. ...

Napoleon vetoed Sieyès' original idea of having a single Grand Elector as supreme executive and Head of State. Sieyès had intended to reserved this important position for himself, and by denying him the job Napoleon helped reinforce the authority of the consuls, an office which he would assume. Nor was Napoleon content simply to be part of an equal triumvirate. As the years would progress he would move to consolidate his own power as First Consul, and leave the two other consuls, Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès and Charles François Lebrun, as well as the Assemblies, weak and subservient. Queen Elizabeth II, is the Head of State in many Commonwealth countries including the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Jamaica, New Zealand, the Bahamas and many more, as well as crown colonies and overseas territories of the United Kingdom. ... The term triumvirate is commonly used to describe an alliance between three equally powerful political or military leaders. ... A title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. ... Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès, Duke of Parma, (18 October 1753 - 8 March 1824), French lawyer and statesman, is best remembered as the author of the Code Napoléon, which still forms the basis of French law. ... Charles François Lebrun, duc de Plaisance, prince de lempire (19 March 1739 - 16 June 1824) was a French statesman. ...

A portrait of the three Consuls, with Napoleon in the center.

By consolidating power Bonaparte was able to transform the aristocratic constitution of Sieyès into an unavowed dictatorship. The Three French Consuls File links The following pages link to this file: French Consulate ... The Three French Consuls File links The following pages link to this file: French Consulate ... Dictatorship - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

On February 7, 1800 a public referendum confirmed Napoleon as First Consul, a position which would give him executive powers above the other two consuls. The (clearly rigged) election showed 99.9% approval for the motion. February 7 is the 38th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1800 (MDCCC) was an common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ...

While this near-unanimity is certainly open to question, Napoleon was genuinely popular among many voters, and after a period of strife many in France were reassured by his dazzling but unconvincing and unsuccessful offers of peace to the victorious Second Coalition, his rapid disarmament of La Vendée, and his talk of stability of government, order, justice and moderation. He gave everyone a feeling that France was governed once more by a real statesman, and that a competent government was finally in charge. The name Second Coalition (1798 - 1800) designates the second major concerted effort of multiple European powers to contain Revolutionary France. ... Vendée is a département in west central France, on the Atlantics Bay of Biscay. ... JUSTICE is a human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. ... The term statesman is a respectful term used to refer to diplomats, politicians, and other notable figures of state. ...

Government under the Consulate and Napoleon's consolidation of Power

Bonaparte had now to rid himself of Sieyès and of those republicans who had no desire to hand over the republic to one man, particularly of Moreau and Masséna, his military rivals. The victory of Marengo (14 June 1800) momentarily in the balance, but secured by Desaix and Kellermann, offered a further opportunity to his jealous ambition by increasing his popularity. The royalist plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise on 24 December 1800 allowed him to make a clean sweep of the democratic republicans, who despite their innocence were deported to Guiana, and to annul the Assemblies and instead making the senate omnipotent in constitutional matters. Republicanism is the idea of a nation being governed as a republic. ... In a broad definition, a republic is a state whose political organization rests on the principle that the citizens or electorate constitute the ultimate root of legitimacy and sovereignty. ... The Battle of Marengo was fought in Italy on June 14, 1800 as the decisive battle of the war of the Second Coalition. ... June 14 is the 165th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (166th in leap years), with 200 days remaining. ... 1800 (MDCCC) was an common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Louis Charles Antoine Desaix de Veygoux Louis Charles Antoine Desaix de Veygoux (1768 - June 14, 1800), was a French military leader. ... François Christophe de Kellermann François Christophe Kellermann or de Kellermann (28 May 1735 - 23 September 1820), duke of Valmy and marshal of France, came of a Saxon family, long settled in Strasbourg and ennobled. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... December 24 is the 358th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (359th in leap years). ... 1800 (MDCCC) was an common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Guiana (also known as the Guiana highlands or the Guiana shield) forms a portion of the northern coast of South America. ... A senate is a deliberative body, often the upper house or chamber of a legislature. ...

The Treaty of Lunéville, signed in February 1801 with Austria (which had been disarmed by Moreau’s victory at Hohenlinden), restored peace to Europe, gave nearly the whole of Italy to France, and permitted Bonaparte to eliminate from the Assemblies all the leaders of the opposition in the discussion of the Civil Code. The Concordat of 1801, drawn up not in the Church's interest but in that of his own policy, by giving satisfaction to the religious feeling of the country, allowed him to put down the constitutional democratic Church, to rally round him the consciences of the peasants, and above all to deprive the royalists of their best weapon. The Articles Organiques hid from the eyes of his companions-in-arms and councillors a reaction which, in fact if not in law, restored to a submissive Church, despoiled of her revenues, her position as the religion of the state. The Treaty of Lunéville was signed on February 9, 1801 between the French Republic and the Holy Roman Empire by Joseph Bonaparte and Louis, Count Cobentzel, respectively. ... The Battle of Hohenlinden near Munich was fought on December 3, 1800, during the French Revolutionary Wars. ... A civil code is a systematic compilation of laws designed to comprehensively deal with the core areas of private law. ... The Concordat of 1801 reaffirmed the Catholic Church as the major religion of France, increasing its status which had been reduced following the French Revolution because the French National Assembly had issued the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, in which Church lands had been confiscated and the Church had become... In a detail of Brueghels Land of Cockaigne (1567) a soft-boiled egg has little feet to rush to the luxuriating peasant who catches drops of honey on his tongue, while roast pigs roam wild: the 16th century was a good time for European peasants A peasant, from 15th...

The Peace of Amiens (25 March 1802) with the United Kingdom, of which France's allies, Spain and the Batavian Republic, paid all the costs, finally gave the peacemaker a pretext for endowing himself with a Consulate, not for ten years but for life, as a recompense from the nation. The Rubicon was crossed on that day: Bonaparte’s march to empire began with the constitution of the year "X." The Treaty of Amiens was signed on March 25, 1802 (Germinal 4, year X in the French Revolutionary Calendar) by Joseph Bonaparte and the Marquis Cornwallis as a Definitive Treaty of Peace between France and the United Kingdom. ... March 25 is the 84th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (85th in leap years). ... --69. ... From 1795 to 1806, the Batavian Republic (Bataafse Republiek in Dutch) designated the Netherlands as a republic modelled after the French Republic, to which it was a vassal state. ... Presumed course of the Rubicon The Rubicon (Rubico, in Italian Rubicone) is an ancient Latin name for a small river in northern Italy. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

In August of 1802 a second national referendum was held, this time to confirm Napoleon as "First Consul for Life." Once again a rigged vote claimed 99% approval.

As Napoleon increased his power he borrowed many techniques of the ancien régime in his new form of one-man government. Like the old monarchy he re-introduced plenipotentiaries, an over-centralised, strictly utilitarian administrative and bureaucratic methods, and a policy of subservient pedantic scholasticism towards the nation's universities. He constructed or consolidated the funds necessary for national institutions, local governments, a judiciary system, organs of finance, banking, codes, traditions of conscientious well-disciplined labour force. Ancien Régime means Old Rule or Old Order in French; in English, the term refers primarily to the social and political system established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties. ... A bureaucrat is a member of a bureaucracy, usually within an institution of the government. ... Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus, which means that [which] belongs to the school, and is the school of philosophy taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100–1500. ... The judiciary, also referred to as the judicature, consists of the system of courts of law for the administration of justice and to its principals, the justices, judges and magistrates among other types of adjudicators. ... Finance studies and addresses the ways in which individuals, businesses and organizations raise, allocate and use monetary resources over time, taking into account the risks entailed in their projects. ... For other uses, see Bank (disambiguation). ... In classical economics and all micro-economics labour is a measure of the work done by human beings and is one of three factors of production, the others being land and capital. ...

In addition to his wise reforms, France enjoyed a high level of peace and order under Napoleon that helped to raise the standard of comfort. Provisions, in Paris which had so often suffered from hunger and thirst, and lacked fire and light, had become cheap and abundant; while trade prospered and wages ran high. The pomp and luxury of the nouveaux riches were displayed in the salons of the good Josephine, the beautiful Madame Tallien, and the "divine" Juliette Récamier. A fruit stand at a market. ... Joséphine de Beauharnais, Empress Joséphine Joséphine de Beauharnais (June 23, 1763 - May 29, 1814) was the first wife of Napoléon Bonaparte, and became Empress of France. ... François Gérards Portrait de Madame Tallien, 1804 Thérésa Tallien (July 31, 1773 - January 15, 1835) was a figure of the French Revolution. ... Jeanne Françoise Julie Adélaïde Récamier, by Jacques-Louis David, 1800. ...

But the republicans, and above all the military, continued to view Napoleon as little more than a tyrant. They criticized the regime's bullying police, the prostration before authority, the sympathy lavished on royalists, the recall of the émigrés, the contempt for the Assemblies, the purification of the Tribunate, the platitudes of the servile Senate, and the silence of the press. In strengthening the machinery of state, creating the elite order of the Legion of Honour, the Concordat, and the restoration of indirect taxes, they saw a betrayal of the Revolution. A bully is an individual, thought to be emotionally dysfunctional, who torments others through verbal harassment, physical assault, or other more subtle methods of coercion. ... In politics, authority generally refers to the ability to make laws, independent of the power to enforce them, or the ability to permit something. ... Émigré is a French term that shows how Martin B. loves stephanie. ... Foo is new information or current events. ... Knights badge of the Legion of Honour The Légion dhonneur (Legion of Honor (AmE) or Legion of Honour (ComE)) is an Order of Chivalry first established by Napoléon Bonaparte, First Consul of the French Republic, on May 19, 1802. ... A concordat is an agreement between the pope and a government or sovereign on religious matters. ...

Napoleon was largely able to quell dissent within government by expelling his more vocal critics, such as Benjamin Constant and Madame de Staël. The expedition to San Domingo reduced the republican army to a nullity; constant war helped demoralise and scatter the military's leaders, who were jealous of their "comrade" Bonaparte. The last major challenge to Napoleon's authority came from Moreau, who cleverly compromised in a royalist plot, but soon too did he disappear into exile. Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebeque (October 25, 1767 – December 8, 1830) was a Swiss-born thinker, writer and French politician. ... Madame de Staël Anne Louise Germaine de Staël (April 22, 1766 – July 14, 1817) was a French-speaking Swiss author living in Paris and abroad who determined literary tastes of Europe at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. ... Saint-Domingue was a French colony from 1697 to 1804 that is today the independent nation of Haiti. ...

In contradistinction to this opposition of senators and republican generals, the majority of the French populace remained uncritical of Bonaparte's authority. No suggestion of the possibility of his death was tolerated. After thwarting yet another conspiracy against his rule, led by Cadoudal and Pichegru, and provoked by Bonaparte's refusal to give place to Louis XVIII, and executing the hated duc d'Enghien, Napoleon enjoyed a great outpouring of adulation, which he in turn took advantage of to put the crowning touch to his ambitious dream. Louis XVIII (November 17, 1755 - September 16, 1824) was King of France and Navarre from 1814 (although he declared that he considered his reign to have begun in 1795) until his death in 1824, with a brief break in 1815 due to Napoleons return in the Hundred Days. ... Like many noble titles, the title of Duke of Enghien, Duke dEnghien, or Duc dEnghien may refer to any of several historical figures, but most often refers to Louis_Antoine_Henri de Bourbon_Condé, duc dEnghien, whose execution on trumped_up charges in 1804 during the First French Empire removed any...

The End of the Republic

On 18 May 1804 the French Senate voted to give Bonaparte the title of emperor, a move that was ratified by yet another public referendum on the same day. The Emperor Napoleon I crowned himself later that same year - the Consulate had passed away in favour of the Empire. May 18 the 138th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (139th in leap years). ... 1804 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... An emperor is a (male) monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. ... The First French Empire, commonly known as the French Empire or the Napoleonic Empire, covers the period of the domination of France and much of continental Europe by Napoleon I of France. ...

Link

• French Consuls, Presidents, Marshals, Kings, and Queens

References

This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication in the public domain. Encyclopædia Britannica, the 11th edition The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is perhaps the most famous edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ...