The period of the French Revolution is very important in the history of France and the world. It covers the years between 1789 and 1799, in which democrats and republicans overthrew the absolute monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church was forced to undergo radical restructuring. While France would oscillate between republic, empire, and monarchy for 75 years after the First Republic fell to a coup by Napoleon Bonaparte, the revolution nonetheless spelled a definitive end to the ancien régime, and eclipses both subsequent revolutions in France in the popular imagination. It is widely seen as a turning point in European history, from the age of absolutism to that of the citizenry, and even of the masses, as the dominant political force. Gaul Main article: Gaul Settled mainly by the Gauls and other Celtic peoples (apart from a shrinking area of Basque population in the southwest and Ligurian population on the southern coast), the area of modern France comprised the bulk of the region of Gaul (Latin: Gallia) under the rule of... Gallia (in English Gaul) is the Latin name for the region of Western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... The Franks were one of several west Germanic tribes who entered the late Roman Empire from Frisia as foederati and established a lasting realm in an area that covers most of modern-day France and the region of Franconia in Germany, forming the historic kernel of both these two modern... During the latter years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of his kingdom. ... France under the Ancien Régime, the socio-political system which persisted throughout the rule of the Valois and Bourbon dynasties, was a nation half-way between feudalism and modernity, ruled over by a powerful absolute monarchy which relied on the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the... The Estates-General of 1789 was the first meeting of the French Estates-General, a general assembly consisting of representatives from all but the poorest segment of the French citizenry, since 1614. ... During the French Revolution, the National Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale) was a transitional body between the Estates-General and the National Constituent Assembly which existed from June 17 to July 9 of 1789. ... The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789 was an important development in, and later a symbol of, the French Revolution. ... The National Constituent Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale constituante) was formed from the National Assembly on July 9, 1789, during the first stages of the French Revolution. ... The National Constituent Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale constituante) was formed from the National Assembly on July 9, 1789, during the first stages of the French Revolution. ... The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ... The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ... During the French Revolution, the Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from 1 October 1791 to September 1792. ... The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ... This article is about a legislative body and constitutional convention during the French Revolution. ... The Reign of Terror (June 1793 - July 1794) was a period in the French Revolution characterized by brutal repression. ... Executive Directory (in French Directoire exécutif), commonly known as the Directory (or Directoire) held executive power in France from 2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799: from the end of the Convention to the beginning of the Consulate. ... The Consulate marks a period of French constitutional history between 1799 and 1804 - from the fall of the Directory and the First French Republic to the start of the Napoleonic Empire. ... This is a glossary of the French Revolution. ... Timeline of the French Revolution. ... The French Revolutionary Wars occurred between the outbreak of war between the French Revolutionary government and Austria in 1792 and the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. ... This is a partial list of people involved in the French Revolution. ... This is a partial list of historians of the French Revolution. ... The First French Empire, commonly known as the French Empire, the Napoleonic Empire or simply as The Empire, covers the period of the domination of France and much of continental Europe by Napoleon I of France. ... Following the ousting of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814, the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. ... The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican regime of France from February 25, 1848 to December 2, 1852. ... The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. ... A map of France under the Third Republic, featuring colonies. ... The France of today is a prosperous nation with its economy currently ranked 5th in the world. ... Gaul Main article: Gaul Settled mainly by the Gauls and other Celtic peoples (apart from a shrinking area of Basque population in the southwest and Ligurian population on the southern coast), the area of modern France comprised the bulk of the region of Gaul (Latin: Gallia) under the rule of... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... 1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... The term democracy indicates a form of government where all the states decisions are exercised directly or indirectly by a majority of its citizenry through a fair elective process. ... This article is on the political theory of republicanism. ... Absolute monarchy is an idealized form of government, a monarchy where the ruler has the power to rule his or her country and citizens freely with no laws or legally-organized direct opposition telling him or her what to do, although some religious authority may be able to discourage the... Saint Peters Basilica in Rome. ... The French people proclaimed Frances First Republic on 21 September 1792 as a result of the French Revolution and of the abolition of the French monarchy. ... Bonaparte as general, by Antoine-Jean Gros. ...

Causes

See main article Causes of the French Revolution. The causes of the French Revolution, the uprising which brought the regime of King Louis XVI to an end, were manifold. ...

Many factors led to the revolution; to some extent the old order succumbed to its own rigidity in the face of a changing world; to some extent, it fell to the ambitions of a rising bourgeoisie, allied with aggrieved peasants, wage-earners, and individuals of all classes who had come under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. As the revolution proceeded and as power devolved from the monarchy to legislative bodies, the conflicting interests of these initially allied groups would become the source of conflict and bloodshed. Bourgeois at the end of the thirteenth century Bourgeois redirects here; for the composer with that name, see Derek Bourgeois. ... The Age of Enlightenment (or The Enlightenment for short) was an intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe. ...

Certainly, causes of the revolution must include all of the following:

• Resentment of royal absolutism.
• Resentment of the seigneurial system by peasants, wage-earners, and, to a lesser extent, the bourgeoisie
• The rise of enlightenment ideals.
• An unmanageable national debt, both caused by and exacerbating the burden of a grossly inequitable system of taxation.
• Food scarcity in the months immediately before the revolution.
• Resentment at noble privilege and dominance in public life by the ambitious professional classes.
• Influence of the American Revolution.

The storming of the Bastille, July 14 1789

Proto-revolutionary activity started when the French king Louis XVI (reigned 1774–1792) faced a crisis in the royal finances. The French crown, which fiscally exactly equated to the French state, owed considerable debt. During the régimes of Louis XV (ruled 1715–1774) and Louis XVI several different ministers, including Turgot (Controller-General of Finances 1774–1776) and Jacques Necker (Director-General of Finance 1777–1781), unsuccessfully proposed to revise the French tax system to a more uniform system. Such measures encountered consistent resistance from the parlements (law courts), dominated by the "Robe Nobility," which saw themselves as the nation's guardians against despotism, as well as from court factions, and both ministers were ultimately dismissed. Charles Alexandre de Calonne, who became Controller-General of the Finances in 1783, pursued a strategy of conspicuous spending as a means of convincing potential creditors of the confidence and stability of France's finances. Absolutism is a political theory which argues that one person (generally, a monarch) should hold all power. ... The seigneurial system was the semi-feudal system of noble privilege in France and its colonies. ... The Age of Enlightenment (or The Enlightenment for short) was an intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe. ... Debt is that which is owed. ... File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Louis XVI (August 23, 1754 – January 21, 1793), was King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, and then King of the French in 1791-1792. ... 1774 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Louis XV (February 15, 1710 – May 10, 1774), called the Well-Beloved (French: le Bien-Aimé), was King of France from 1715 to 1774. ... Events September 1 - King Louis XIV of France dies after a reign of 72 years, leaving the throne of his exhausted and indebted country to his great-grandson Louis XV. Regent for the new, five years old monarch is Philippe dOrléans, nephew of Louis XIV. September - First of the... 1774 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune, often referred to as Turgot (May 10, 1727 – March 18, 1781), was a French statesman and economist. ... Jacques Necker Jacques Necker (September 30, 1732 – April 9, 1804) was a French statesman and finance minister of Louis XVI. Early life Necker was born in Geneva, Switzerland. ... Parlements (pronounced in French) in ancien régime France — contrary to what their name would suggest to the modern reader — were not democratic or political institutions, but law courts . ... Charles Alexandre, vicomte de Calonne (1734 _ October 30, 1802) was a French statesman. ... 1783 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

However, Calonne, having conducted a lengthy review of France's financial situation, determined that it was not sustainable, and proposed a uniform land tax as a means of setting France's finances in order in the long term. In the short-term, he hoped that a show of support from a hand-picked Assembly of Notables would restore confidence in French finances, and allow further borrowing until the land tax began to make up the difference and allow the beginning of repayment of the debt.

Although Calonne convinced the king of the necessity of his reforms, the Assembly of Notables refused to endorse his measures, insisting that only a truly representative body — preferably the Estates-General of the Kingdom, could approve new taxes. The King, seeing that Calonne himself was now a liability, dismissed him and replaced him with Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne, the Archbishop of Toulouse, who had been a leader of the opposition in the Assembly. Brienne now adopted a thorough-going reform position, granting various civil rights (including freedom of worship to Protestants), and promising the convocation of the Estates-General within five years, but also attempted in the meanwhile to go ahead with Calonne's plans. When the measures were opposed in the Parlement of Paris (in part, at least, thanks to the King's tactlessness), Brienne went on the attack, attempting to disband the parlements entirely and collect the new taxes in spite of them. This led to massive resistance across many parts of France, including the famous "Day of the Tiles" in Grenoble. Even more importantly, the chaos across France convinced the short-term creditors on whom the French treasury depended to maintain its day to day operations to withdraw their loans, leading to a near-default, which forced Louis and Brienne to surrender. The word States-General, or Estates-General, refers in English to : the Etats-Généraux of France before the French Revolution the Staten-Generaal of the Netherlands. ... View of Grenoble, 2002, with the snowy peaks of the Dauphiné Alps Location within France Grenoble (Occitan: Grasanòbol) is a city and commune in south-east France, situated at the foot of the Alps, at the confluence of the Drac into the Isère River. ...

The king agreed on August 8, 1788 to convene the Estates-General in May 1789 — for the first time since 1614. Brienne resigned on August 25, 1788, and Necker again took charge of the nation's finances. He used his position not to propose new reforms, but only to prepare for the meeting of the nation's representatives. August 8 is the 220th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (221st in leap years), with 145 days remaining. ... 1788 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Events April 5 - In Virginia, Native American Pocahontas marries English colonist John Rolfe. ... August 25 is the 237th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (238th in leap years), with 128 days remaining. ... 1788 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

History

The Estates-General of 1789

For a more detailed description of the events of August 8, 1788 – June 17, 1789, see Estates-General of 1789. August 8 is the 220th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (221st in leap years), with 145 days remaining. ... 1788 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... June 17 is the 168th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (169th in leap years), with 197 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The Estates-General of 1789 was the first meeting of the French Estates-General, a general assembly consisting of representatives from all but the poorest segment of the French citizenry, since 1614. ...

The calling of the Estates-General led to growing concern on the part of the opposition that the government would attempt to gerrymander an assembly to its liking. In order to avoid this, the Parlement of Paris, having returned in triumph to the city, proclaimed that the Estates-General would have to meet according to the forms observed at its last meeting. Although it would appear that the magistrates were not specifically aware of the "forms of 1614" when they made this decision, this provoked an uproar. The 1614 Estates had consisted of equal numbers of representatives of each estate, and voting had been by order, with the First Estate (the clergy), the Second Estate (the nobility), and the Third Estate (everybody else) each receiving one vote. In France of the ancien régime and the age of the French Revolution, the term First Estate (Fr. ... In France of the ancien régime and the age of the French Revolution, the term Second Estate (Fr. ... In France of the ancien régime and the age of the French Revolution, the term Third Estate (tiers état) indicated the generality of people which were not part of the clergy (the First Estate) nor of the nobility (the Second Estate). ...

Almost immediately the "Committee of Thirty", a body of liberal Parisians, mostly noblemen, began to agitate against this, arguing for a doubling of the Third Estate and voting by head (as had already been done in various provincial assemblies). The parlement soon backed down, claiming that only the election procedures — deputies to be elected by sénéchaussées and bailliages rather than by provinces — need be determined by the precedent of 1614. Necker, speaking for the government, conceded further that the third estate should be doubled, but the question of voting by head was left for the meeting of the Estates themselves. But the resentments brought forward by the dispute remained powerful, and pamphlets, like the Abbé Sieyès's What is the Third Estate, which argued that the privileged orders were parasites, and that the Third Estate itself was the nation, kept these resentments alive. A bailiwick is the area of jurisdiction of a bailiff. ...

When the Estates-General convened in Versailles on May 5, 1789, lengthy speeches by Necker and Lamoignon, the keeper of the seals, did little to give guidance to the deputies, who were remanded to separate meeting places to credential their members. The question of whether voting was ultimately to be by head or by order was again put aside for the moment, but the Third Estate now demanded that credentialling itself should take place as a group. Negotiations with the other estates to achieve this, however, were unsuccessful, as a bare majority of the clergy and a large majority of the nobility continued to support voting by order. Versailles, formerly the capital city of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important administrative and judicial center. ... May 5 is the 125th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (126th in leap years). ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

The National Assembly

For a more detailed description of the events of June 17, 1789 – July 9, 1789, see National Assembly. June 17 is the 168th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (169th in leap years), with 197 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... July 9 is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 175 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... During the French Revolution, the National Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale) was a transitional body between the Estates-General and the National Constituent Assembly which existed from June 17 to July 9 of 1789. ...

On May 28, 1789, the Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the Communes (English: "Commons"), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, completing the process on June 17. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People". The National Assembly's first act was to pass the Declaration of the Rights of Man. They invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear that they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them. May 28 is the 148th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (149th in leap years). ... Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, 1817, by Jacques-Louis David Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (May 3, 1748 – June 20, 1836) was a French abbé and statesman, one of the chief theorists of the revolutionary and Napoleonic era. ... June 17 is the 168th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (169th in leap years), with 197 days remaining. ... During the French Revolution, the National Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale) was a transitional body between the Estates-General and the National Constituent Assembly which existed from June 17 to July 9 of 1789. ...

Louis XVI shut the Salle des États where the Assembly met. The Assembly moved their deliberations to the king's tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did forty-seven members of the nobility. By June 27 the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities. On July 9, the Assembly reconstituted itself as the National Constituent Assembly. Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of the Tennis Court Oath. ... June 20 is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 194 days remaining. ... June 27 is the 178th day of the year (179th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 187 days remaining. ... The Eiffel Tower has become a symbol of Paris throughout the world. ... July 9 is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 175 days remaining. ... The National Constituent Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale constituante) was formed from the National Assembly on July 9, 1789, during the first stages of the French Revolution. ...

In Paris, the Palais Royal and its grounds became the site of a continuous meeting. Some of the military leaned toward the popular cause. Gardens of the Palais-Royal: The illustration, from an 1863 guide to Paris, enlarges the apparent scale. ...

The National Constituent Assembly

The storming of the Bastille

For a more detailed discussion, see Storming of the Bastille. The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789 was an important development in, and later a symbol of, the French Revolution. ...

On July 11, 1789, King Louis, acting under the influence of the conservative nobles of his privy council, as well as his wife, Marie Antoinette, and brother, the Comte d'Artois, banished the reformist minister Necker and completely reconstructed the ministry. Much of Paris, presuming this to be the start of a royal coup, moved into open rebellion. Some of the military joined the mob; others remained neutral. July 11 is the 192nd day (193rd in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 173 days remaining. ... A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a nation, especially in a monarchy. ... Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France and Archduchess of Austria (born November 1755 – executed 16 October 1793) Daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, wife of Louis XVI and mother of Louis XVII. She was guillotined at the height of the French Revolution. ... Charles X, King of France and of Navarre (October 9, 1757 – November 6, 1836) was born at the Palace of Versailles. ...

On July 14, 1789, after four hours of combat, the insurgents seized the Bastille prison, killing the governor, Marquis Bernard de Launay and several of his guard. Although the Parisians released only seven prisoners — four forgers, two lunatics, and a dangerous sexual offender — the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the ancien régime. Returning to the Hôtel de Ville (city hall), the mob accused the prévôt des marchands (roughly, mayor) Jacques de Flesselles of treachery; his assassination took place en route to an ostensible trial at the Palais Royal. July 14 is the 195th day (196th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 170 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The Bastille The Bastille was a prison in Paris, known formally as Bastille Saint-Antoine—Number 232, Rue Saint-Antoine. ... Marquis Bernard de Launay was the commander of the Bastille when it was taken in on July 14, 1789. ... A provost (introduced into Scots from French) was the leader of a Scottish burgh council, the equivalent of a mayor in other parts of the English-speaking world. ... Gardens of the Palais-Royal: The illustration, from an 1863 guide to Paris, enlarges the apparent scale. ...

The king and his military supporters backed down, at least for the time being. Lafayette took up command of the National Guard at Paris; Jean-Sylvain Bailly — president of the National Assembly at the time of the Tennis Court Oath — became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the commune. The king visited Paris, where, on July 27, he accepted a tricolore cockade, as cries of "Long live the Nation" changed to "Long live the King". Marie-Joseph-Paul-Roch-Yves-Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette (September 6, 1757–May 20, 1834), was a French aristocrat most famous for his participation in the American Revolutionary War and early French Revolution. ... Jean Sylvain Bailly Jean-Sylvain Bailly (September 15, 1736 – November 12, 1793), French astronomer and orator, was one of the leaders of the early part of the French Revolution. ... Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of the Tennis Court Oath. ... July 27 is the 208th day (209th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 157 days remaining. ... The term tricolore can refer to: the Flag of France (in French, le drapeau tricolore or, rarely, le tricolore) the Flag of Italy (in Italian: il tricolore) the Flag of Russia (in Russian: триколор) a tricolour banner or flag which has three colours, usually in approximately equal size (horizontally or... A cockade is a rosette, knot of ribbons, or other symbol of distinctive colours which is usually worn on a hat. ...

Nonetheless, after this violence, nobles — little assured by the apparent and, as it proved, temporary reconciliation of king and people — started to flee the country as émigrés, some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France.

Necker, recalled to power, experienced but a short-lived triumph. An astute financier but a less astute politician, he overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people's favour in his moment of apparent triumph.

Insurrection and the spirit of popular sovereignty spread throughout France. In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title-deeds and no small number of châteaux, as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the Great Fear). Popular sovereignty is the doctrine that government is created by and subject to the will of the people, who are the source of all political power. ... A château ( French for castle; plural châteaux) is a manor house or residence of the lord of the manor or a country house of gentry, usually French, with or without fortifications. ...

The abolition of feudalism

For a more detailed discussion, see The abolition of feudalism. The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ...

On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly abolished feudalism, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. August 4 is the 216th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (217th in leap years), with 149 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Defining feudalism is difficult because there is no generally accepted agreement on what it means. ... A tithe (from Old English teogotha tenth) is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a voluntary contribution or as a tax or levy, usually to support a religious organization. ...

While there would follow retreats, regrets, and much argument over the racbat au denier 30 ("redemption at a thirty-years' purchase") specified in the legislation of August 4, the course now remained set, although the full process would take another four years. August 4 is the 216th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (217th in leap years), with 149 days remaining. ...

Dechristianisation

For a more detailed discussion, see Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution. Dechristianisation during the French Revolution occurred during a twelve year period between 1789 and 1801. ...

The revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the Roman Catholic Church to the State. Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished of the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops known as the "dîme", cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property: under the Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. Subsequent legislation attempted to subordinate the clergy to the State, making them State employees. The ensuing years saw violent repression of the clergy, including the imprisonment and massacre of priests throughout France. The Concordat of 1801 between the National Assembly and the Church ended the dechristianisation period and established the rules for a relationship between the Catholic Church and the French State that lasted until it was abrogated by the Third Republic on the separation of church and state on December 11, 1905. Saint Peters Basilica in Rome. ... A tax is an involuntary fee paid by individuals or businesses to a state, or to functional equivalents of a state, including tribes, secessionist movements or revolutionary movements. ... A tithe (from Old English teogotha tenth) is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a voluntary contribution or as a tax or levy, usually to support a religious organization. ... The law of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (Fr. ... Roman Catholic priest LCDR Allen R. Kuss (USN) aboard USS Enterprise A priest or priestess is a holy man or woman who takes an officiating role in worship of any religion, with the distinguishing characteristic of offering sacrifices. ... After successfully committing a coup détat against the French Directory in 1799, and then one month later declaring himself First Consul with the support of a popular vote, Napoleon Bonaparte was convinced that coming to terms with the Catholic Church would be crucial to the success of his ventures. ... A map of France under the Third Republic, featuring colonies. ... The separation of church and state is a concept in modern thought and practice, whereby the structures of state or national government are kept separate from those of religious institutions. ... December 11 is the 345th day (346th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1905 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

The appearance of factions

For a more detailed discussion, please see National Constituent Assembly. The National Constituent Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale constituante) was formed from the National Assembly on July 9, 1789, during the first stages of the French Revolution. ...

Factions within the Assembly began to become clearer. The aristocrat Jacques Antoine Marie Cazalès and the abbé Jean-Sifrein Maury led what would become known as the right wing, the opposition to revolution. The "Royalist democrats" or monarchiens, allied with Necker, inclined toward organising France along lines similar to the British constitutional model: they included Jean Joseph Mounier, the Comte de Lally-Tollendal, the Comte de Clermont-Tonnerre, and Pierre Victor Malouet, Comte de Virieu. Etymology The Ancient Greek term Aristocracy meant a system of government with rule by the best. This is the first definition given in most dictionaries. ... Jean-Sifrein Maury (June 26, 1746 - 1817), was a French cardinal and archbishop of Paris. ... In politics, right-wing, the political right, or simply the right, are terms which refer, with no particular precision, to the segment of the political spectrum in opposition to left-wing politics. ... The United Kingdom has an uncodified constitution, which means it is not all contained in a single document. ... Jean Joseph Mounier (November 12, 1758 - 28 January 1806), was a French politician. ...

The "National Party", representing the centre or centre-left of the assembly, included Honoré Mirabeau, Lafayette, and Bailly; while Adrien Duport, Barnave and Alexander Lameth represented somewhat more extreme views. Almost alone in his radicalism on the left was the Arras lawyer Maximilien Robespierre. Adrien Duport (1759 - 1798) was a French politician. ... Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave (October 22, 1761 - November 29, French politician, one of the greatest orators of the first French Revolution. ... Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth (October 20, 1760 - March 18, French soldier and politician. ... Arras (Dutch: Atrecht) is a city and commune in northern France, préfecture (capital) of the Pas-de-Calais département. ... Portrait of Maximilien Robespierre Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre, (May 6, 1758 – July 28, 1794), known also to his contemporaries as the Incorruptible, is one of the best known of the leaders of the French Revolution. ...

The abbé Sieyès led in proposing legislation in this period and successfully forged consensus for some time between the political centre and the left. Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, 1817, by Jacques-Louis David Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (May 3, 1748 – June 20, 1836) was a French abbé and statesman, one of the chief theorists of the revolutionary and Napoleonic era. ... In politics, left-wing, political left, leftism, or simply the left, are terms that refer (with no particular precision) to the segment of the political spectrum typically associated with any of several strains of socialism, social democracy, or liberalism (especially but not exclusively in the American sense of the word...

In Paris, various committees, the mayor, the assembly of representatives, and the individual districts each claimed authority independent of the others. The increasingly middle-class National Guard under Lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right, as did other self-generated assemblies. During the early years of the French Revolution, the National Guard (fr: Garde Nationale) was a military force separate from the regular army. ...

Looking to the United States Declaration of Independence for a model, on August 26, 1789 the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Like the U.S. Declaration, it comprised a statement of principles rather than a constitution with legal effect. U.S. Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence is a document in which the Thirteen Colonies declared themselves independent of the Kingdom of Great Britain and explained their justifications for doing so. ... August 26 is the 238th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (239th in leap years). ... Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, (French: La Déclaration des droits de lhomme et du citoyen), is one of the fundamental documents of the French Revolution, defining a set of individual rights (and collective...

Towards a constitution

For a more detailed discussion, see Towards a constitution. The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ...

The National Constituent Assembly functioned not only as a legislature, but also as a body to draft a new constitution. Chamber of the Estates-General, the Dutch legislature. ...

Necker, Mounier, Lally-Tollendal and others argued unsuccessfully for a senate, with members appointed by the crown on the nomination of the people. The bulk of the nobles argued for an aristocratic upper house elected by the nobles. The popular party carried the day: France would have a single, unicameral assembly. The king retained only a "suspensive veto": he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it absolutely. A coq is a deliberative body, often the upper house or chamber of a legislature. ... An upper house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house. ...

The people of Paris thwarted Royalist efforts to block this new order: they marched on Versailles on October 5, 1789. After various scuffles and incidents, the king and the royal family allowed themselves to be brought back from Versailles to Paris. October 5 is the 278th day of the year (279th in Leap years). ...

The Assembly replaced the historic provinces with eighty-three départements, uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population. The kingdom of France was organized into provinces until March 4, 1790, when the establishment of the département system superseded provinces. ... The départements (or departments) are administrative units of France, roughly analogous to British counties and are now grouped into 22 metropolitan and four overseas régions. ...

Originally summoned to deal with a financial crisis, to date the Assembly had focused on other matters and only worsened the deficit. Mirabeau now led the move to address this matter, with the Assembly giving Necker complete financial dictatorship.

Toward the Civil Constitution of the Clergy

For a more detailed discussion, see Civil Constitution of the Clergy. The law of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (Fr. ...

To no small extent, the Assembly addressed the financial crisis by having the nation take over the property of the Church (while taking on the Church's expenses), through the law of December 2, 1789. In order to rapidly monetize such an enormous amount of property, the government introduced a new paper currency, assignats, backed by the confiscated church lands. December 2 is the 336th day (337th on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Assignats were banknotes issued by the National Constituent Assembly in France during the French Revolution. ...

Further legislation on February 13, 1790 abolished monastic vows. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on July 12, 1790 (although not signed by the king until December 26, 1790), turned the remaining clergy into employees of the State and required that they take an oath of loyalty to the constitution. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy also made the Catholic church an arm of the secular state. February 13 is the 44th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... A Roman Catholic monk A monk is a person who practices monasticism, adopting a strict religious and ascetic lifestyle, usually in community with others following the same path. ... The law of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (Fr. ... July 12 is the 193rd day (194th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 172 days remaining. ... December 26 is the 360th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, 361st in leap years. ... 1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... The law of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (Fr. ...

In response to this legislation, the archbishop of Aix and the bishop of Clermont led a walkout of clergy from the National Constituent Assembly. The pope never accepted the new arrangement, and it led to a schism between those clergy who swore the required oath and accepted the new arrangement ("jurors" or "constitutional clergy") and the "non-jurors" or "refractory priests" who refused to do so. The Pope is the Catholic Bishop and patriarch of Rome, and head of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches. ...

From the anniversary of the Bastille to the death of Mirabeau

For a more detailed discussion of the events of July 14, 1790 – September 30, 1791, see From the anniversary of the Bastille to the death of Mirabeau. July 14 is the 195th day (196th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 170 days remaining. ... 1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... September 30 is the 273rd day of the year (274th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 92 days remaining, as the final day of September. ... 1791 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ...

The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the ancien régime — armorial bearings, liveries, etc. — which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the émigrés.

On July 14, 1790 and for several days following, crowds in the Champ-de-Mars celebrated the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille; Talleyrand performed a mass; participants swore an oath of "fidelity to the nation, the law, and the king"; the king and the royal family actively participated. July 14 is the 195th day (196th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 170 days remaining. ... 1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... View of Champ de Mars from the top of the Eiffel Tower The Champ_de_Mars is a vast public area in Paris, France, located in the 7th arrondissement, between the Eiffel Tower to the northwest and the École Militaire to the southeast. ...

The electors had originally chosen the members of the States-General to serve for a single year, but by the Tennis Court Oath, the communes had bound themselves to meet continuously until France had a constitution. Right-wing elements now argued for a new election, but Mirabeau carried the day, asserting that the status of the assembly had fundamentally changed, and that no new election should take place before completing the constitution. In France under the ancien gime, the States-General or Estates-General (in French: tats-G raux), was an assembly of the different classes of French citizenry. ... Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of the Tennis Court Oath. ...

In late 1790, several small counter-revolutionary uprisings broke out and efforts took place to turn all or part of the army against the revolution. These uniformly failed. The royal court, in François Mignet's words, "encouraged every anti-revolutionary enterprise and avowed none." [1]

The army faced considerable internal turmoil: General Bouillé successfully put down a small rebellion, which added to his (accurate) reputation for counter-revolutionary sympathies.

The new military code, under which promotion depended on seniority and proven competence (rather than on nobility) alienated some of the existing officer corps, who joined the ranks of the émigrés or became counter-revolutionaries from within.

This period saw the rise of the political "clubs" in French politics, foremost among these the Jacobin Club: according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, one hundred and fifty-two clubs had affiliated with the Jacobins by August 10, 1790. As the Jacobins became more of a broad popular organization, some of its founders abandoned it to form the Club of '89. Royalists established first the short-lived Club des Impartiaux and later the Club Monarchique. They attempted unsuccessfully to curry public favour by distributing bread; nonetheless, they became the frequent target of protests and even riots, and the Paris municipal authorities finally closed down the Club Monarchique in January 1791. The Jacobin Club, the most famous of the political clubs of the French Revolution, had its origin in the Club Breton, which formed at Versailles shortly after the opening of the Estates General in 1789. ... The Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) in many ways represents the sum of knowledge at the beginning of the 20th century. ... August 10 is the 222nd day of the year (223rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1791 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ...

Amidst these intrigues, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. A new judicial organization made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The king would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers' organisations: any individual gained the right to practise a trade through the purchase of a license; strikes became illegal.

In the winter of 1791 the Assembly considered, for the first time, legislation against the émigrés. The debate pitted the safety of the State against the liberty of individuals to leave. Mirabeau carried the day against the measure, which he referred to as "worthy of being placed in the code of Draco." [2] homer simpson was the first law scribe of ancient Athens, Greece. ...

However, Mirabeau died on March 2, 1791. In Mignet's words, "No one succeeded him in power and popularity," and before the end of the year, the new Legislative Assembly would adopt this "draconian" measure. March 2 is the 61st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (62nd in leap years). ... 1791 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ...

The Flight to Varennes

For a more detailed discussion, see Flight to Varennes. The Flight to Varennes (June 20-21, 1791) forms a dramatic, romantic and symbolic event in the history of the French Revolution. ...

Louis XVI, opposed to the course of the revolution, but rejecting the potentially treacherous aid of the other monarchs of Europe, cast his lot with General Bouillé, who condemned both the emigration and the assembly, and promised him refuge and support in his camp at Montmedy. Montmédy is a commune of the Meuse département, in northeastern France. ...

On the night of June 20, 1791 the royal family fled the Tuileries. However, the next day the overconfident king had the imprudence to show himself. Recognised and arrested at Varennes (in the Meuse département) late on 21 June, he returned to Paris under guard. June 20 is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 194 days remaining. ... Varennes or Varennes-en-Argonne is a city in the French département of Meuse. ... Meuse is a département in northeast France, named after the Meuse River. ... The départements (or departments) are administrative units of France, roughly analogous to British counties and are now grouped into 22 metropolitan and four overseas régions. ... June 21 is the 172nd day of the year (173rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 193 days remaining. ...

Pétion, Latour-Maubourg, and Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave, representing the Assembly, met the royal family at Épernay and returned with them. From this time, Barnave became a counsellor and supporter of the royal family. Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave (October 22, 1761 - November 29, French politician, one of the greatest orators of the first French Revolution. ...

When they reached Paris, the crowd remained silent. The Assembly provisionally suspended the king. He and Queen Marie Antoinette remained held under guard. Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France and Archduchess of Austria (born November 1755 – executed 16 October 1793) Daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, wife of Louis XVI and mother of Louis XVII. She was guillotined at the height of the French Revolution. ...

The last days of the National Constituent Assembly

For a more detailed discussion, please see The last days of the National Constituent Assembly. The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ...

With most of the Assembly still favouring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication. A constitutional monarchy is a form of government established under a constitutional system which acknowledges a hereditary or elected monarch as head of state. ... In a broad definition a republic is a state or country that is led by people who do not base their political power on any principle beyond the control of the people living in that state or country. ...

Jacques Pierre Brissot drafted a petition, insisting that in the eyes of the nation Louis XVI was deposed since his flight. An immense crowd gathered in the Champ-de-Mars to sign the petition. Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins gave fiery speeches. The Assembly called for the municipal authorities to "preserve public order". The National Guard under Lafayette's command confronted the crowd. The soldiers first responded to a barrage of stones by firing in the air; the crowd did not back down, and Lafayette ordered his men to fire into the crowd, resulting in the killing of as many as fifty people. In French history, Jacques Pierre Brissot (January 15, 1754 - October 31, 1793), who assumed the name of de Warville, was a leading member of the Girondist movement during the French Revolution. ... View of Champ de Mars from the top of the Eiffel Tower The Champ_de_Mars is a vast public area in Paris, France, located in the 7th arrondissement, between the Eiffel Tower to the northwest and the École Militaire to the southeast. ... Georges Jacques Danton (October 26, 1759 - April 5, 1794) was a leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution. ... Camille Desmoulins Lucie Simplice Camille Benoist Desmoulins (March 2, 1760 - April 5, 1794) was a French journalist and politician who played an important part in the French Revolution. ...

In the wake of this massacre the authorities closed many of the patriotic clubs, as well as radical newspapers such as Jean-Paul Marat's L'Ami du Peuple. Danton fled to England; Desmoulins and Marat went into hiding. Jean-Paul Marat Jean-Paul Marat (May 24, 1743 – July 13, 1793), was a Swiss-born scientist and physician, who made much of his career in England, but is best known as a French Revolutionary. ...

Meanwhile, a renewed threat from abroad arose: Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick William II of Prussia, and the king's brother Charles-Phillipe, comte d'Artois issued the Declaration of Pilnitz which considered the cause of Louis XVI as their own, demanded his total liberty and the dissolution of the Assembly, and promised an invasion of France on his behalf if the revolutionary authorities refused its conditions. Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II Leopold II (born Peter Leopold Joseph) (Vienna, May 5, 1747 – Vienna, March 1, 1792) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1790 to 1792 and Grand-duke of Tuscany. ... Frederick William II (September 25, 1744 – November 16, 1797), king of Prussia, was known in German as Friedrich Wilhelm II. Frederick William was the son of Augustus William (the second son of King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia) and of Louise Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg, sister of the wife of... Charles X, King of France and of Navarre (October 9, 1757 – November 6, 1836) was born at the Palace of Versailles. ... The Declaration of Pillnitz on August 27, 1791, was a statement issued at the Castle of Pillnitz in Saxony by Emperor Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia. ...

If anything, the declaration further imperilled Louis. The French people expressed no respect for the dictates of foreign monarchs, and the threat of force merely resulted in the militarization of the frontiers.

Even before the "Flight to Varennes" the Assembly members had determined to debar themselves from the legislature that would succeed them, the Legislative Assembly. They now gathered the various constitutional laws they had passed into a single constitution, showed remarkable fortitude in choosing not to use this as an occasion for major revisions, and submitted it to the recently restored Louis XVI, who accepted it, writing "I engage to maintain it at home, to defend it from all attacks from abroad; and to cause its execution by all the means it places at my disposal". The king addressed the Assembly and received enthusiastic applause from members and spectators. The Assembly set the end of its term for September 29, 1791. During the French Revolution, the Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from 1 October 1791 to September 1792. ... September 29 is the 272nd day of the year (273rd in leap years). ... 1791 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ...

Mignet has written, "The constitution of 1791... was the work of the middle class, then the strongest; for, as is well known, the predominant force ever takes possession of institutions... In this constitution the people was the source of all powers, but it exercised none." [3]

The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the Monarchy

For a more detailed description of the events of October 1, 1791 – September 19, 1792, see main article The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy. October 1 is the 274th day of the year (275th in Leap years). ... 1791 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... September 19 is the 262nd day of the year (263rd in leap years). ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. ...

The Legislative Assembly

Under the Constitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy. The king had to share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers. During the French Revolution, the Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from 1 October 1791 to September 1792. ...

The Legislative Assembly first met on October 1, 1791 and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. In the words of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: "In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot." October 1 is the 274th day of the year (275th in Leap years). ... The Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) in many ways represents the sum of knowledge at the beginning of the 20th century. ...

The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165 Feuillants (constitutional monarchists) on the right, about 330 Girondins (liberal republicans) and Jacobins (radical revolutionaries) on the left, and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with either faction. Feuillant, a French word derived from the Latin for leaf, has been used as a tag by two different groups. ... In politics, right-wing, the political right, or simply the right, are terms which refer, with no particular precision, to the segment of the political spectrum in opposition to left-wing politics. ... The Girondists (in French Girondins, and sometimes Brissotins), comprised a political faction in France within the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention during the French Revolution. ... In the context of the French Revolution, a Jacobin originally meant a member of the Jacobin Club (1789-1794). ... In politics, left-wing, political left, leftism, or simply the left, are terms that refer (with no particular precision) to the segment of the political spectrum typically associated with any of several strains of socialism, social democracy, or liberalism (especially but not exclusively in the American sense of the word...

Early on, the king vetoed legislation that threatened the émigrés with death and that decreed that every non-juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this would lead to a constitutional crisis. A non-juror is a person who refuses to swear a particular oath. ... A constitutional crisis is a situation in which separate factions within a government disagree about the extent to which each of these factions hold sovereignty; as such, it is distinct from a rebellion, in which factions outside of a government challenge that governments sovereignty. ...

War

The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. The King, the Feuillants and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war. The King (and many Feuillants with him) expected war would increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw an opportunity to exploit any defeat: either result would make him stronger. The Girondins wanted to export the Revolution throughout Europe. Only some of the radical Jacobins opposed war, preferring to consolidate and expand the revolution at home. The Austrian emperor Leopold II, brother of Marie Antoinette, may have wished to avoid war, but he died on March 1, 1792. Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II Leopold II (born Peter Leopold Joseph) (Vienna, May 5, 1747 – Vienna, March 1, 1792) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1790 to 1792 and Grand-duke of Tuscany. ... Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France and Archduchess of Austria (born November 1755 – executed 16 October 1793) Daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, wife of Louis XVI and mother of Louis XVII. She was guillotined at the height of the French Revolution. ... March 1 is the 60th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (61st in leap years). ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

France declared war on Austria (April 20, 1792) and Prussia joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The French Revolutionary Wars had begun. April 20 is the 110th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (111th in leap years). ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Prussia, 1701-1918 The word Prussia (German: Preußen or Preussen, Polish: Prusy, Lithuanian: Prūsai, Latin: Borussia) has had various (often contradictory) meanings: The land of the Baltic Prussians (in what is now parts of southern Lithuania, the Kaliningrad exclave of Russia and... The French Revolutionary Wars occurred between the outbreak of war between the French Revolutionary government and Austria in 1792 and the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. ...

After early skirmishes went badly for France, the first significant military engagement of the war occurred with the Franco-Prussian Battle of Valmy (September 20, 1792). Although heavy rain prevented a conclusive resolution, the French artillery proved its superiority. However, by this time, France stood in turmoil and the monarchy had effectively become a thing of the past. The Battle of Valmy (September 20, 1792) formed a turning point in the wars associated with the French Revolution. ... September 20 is the 263rd day of the year (264th in leap years). ...

Constitutional Crisis

August 10, 1792, Paris Commune

Main articles: 10th of August (French Revolution), September Massacres

On the night of August 10, 1792, insurgents, supported by a new revolutionary Paris Commune, assailed the Tuileries. The king and queen ended up prisoners and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy: little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. Download high resolution version (1000x675, 80 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (1000x675, 80 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... On August 10, 1792, during the French Revolution, a mob – with the backing of a new municipal government of Paris that came to be known as the insurrectionary Paris Commune – besieged the Tuileries palace. ... The September Massacres were a series of bloody incidents which took place in Paris, France in late summer 1792, during the French Revolution. ... August 10 is the 222nd day of the year (223rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... The Paris Commune during the French Revolution was the government of Paris from 1789 until 1795, and especially from 1792 until 1795. ...

What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. When the Commune sent gangs of assassins into the prisons to butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example, the Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until the Convention, charged with writing a new constitution, met on September 20, 1792 and became the new de facto government of France. The next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. This date was later retroactively adopted as the beginning of Year One of the French Revolutionary Calendar. This article is about a legislative body and constitutional convention during the French Revolution. ... September 20 is the 263rd day of the year (264th in leap years). ... The term Year One can just mean the beginning of something, but in political history it usually refers to the institution of radical, revolutionary change. ... The French Revolutionary Calendar or French Republican Calendar is a calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and in use by the French government for 13 years from 1793. ...

The Convention

For a more detailed description of the events of September 20, 1792 – September 26, 1795, see National Convention. September 20 is the 263rd day of the year (264th in leap years). ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 96 days remaining. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... This article is about a legislative body and constitutional convention during the French Revolution. ...

The legislative power in the new republic fell to a National Convention, while the executive power came to rest in the Committee of Public Safety. The Girondins became the most influential party in the Convention and on the Committee. The Committee of Public Safety (French: le Comité de Salut Public), set up by the National Convention on April 6, 1793, formed the de facto executive government of France during the Reign of Terror (1793 - 1794) of the French Revolution. ...

In the Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France. January 17, 1793 saw King Louis condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety" by a weak majority in Convention. The January 21 execution led to more wars with other European countries. Louis' Austrian-born queen, Marie Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on 16 October. This article needs cleanup. ... January 17 is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1793 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... January 21 is the 21st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... October 16 is the 289th day of the year (290th in Leap years). ...

When war went badly, prices rose and the sans-culottes (poor laborers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans-culottes. An alliance of Jacobin and sans-culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical. Observers used the term sans-culottes (French for without knee-breeches), originally during the early years of the French Revolution to refer to the ill-clad and ill-equipped volunteers of the Revolutionary army, and later generally to the ultrademocrats of the Revolution. ... A coup détat (pronounced kū dā ta), or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ...

The Committee of Public Safety came under the control of Maximilien Robespierre, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793–1794). At least 1200 people met their deaths under the guillotine — or otherwise — after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. The slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts or activities (or, as in the case of Jacques Hébert, revolutionary zeal exceeding that of those in power) could place one under suspicion, and the trials did not proceed over-scrupulously. The Committee of Public Safety (French: le Comité de Salut Public), set up by the National Convention on April 6, 1793, formed the de facto executive government of France during the Reign of Terror (1793 - 1794) of the French Revolution. ... Portrait of Maximilien Robespierre Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre, (May 6, 1758 – July 28, 1794), known also to his contemporaries as the Incorruptible, is one of the best known of the leaders of the French Revolution. ... The Reign of Terror (June 1793 - July 1794) was a period in the French Revolution characterized by brutal repression. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Public guillotining in Lons-le-Saunier, 1878 Badische Guillotine Portrait of Dr. Guillotin The guillotine is a machine used for the application of capital punishment by decapitation. ...

In 1794 Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. On July 27, 1794, the French people revolted against the excesses of the Reign of Terror in what became known as the Thermidorian Reaction. It resulted in moderate Convention members deposing and executing Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. The Convention approved the new "Constitution of the Year III" on 17 August 1795; a plebiscite ratified it in September; and it took effect on September 26, 1795. Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre, (May 6, 1758–July 28, 1794), known also to his contemporaries as the Incorruptible, is one of the best known of the leaders of the French Revolution. ... July 27 is the 208th day (209th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 157 days remaining. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The Thermidorian Reaction was a revolt in the French Revolution against the excesses of Reign of Terror, leading to the arrest and execution of Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. ... August 17 is the 229th day of the year (230th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ... September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 96 days remaining. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

The Directory

For more information on the events of September 26, 1795 – November 9, 1799, see French Directory. September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 96 days remaining. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... November 9 is the 313th day of the year (314th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 52 days remaining. ... 1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Executive Directory (in French Directoire exécutif), commonly known as the Directory (or Directoire) held executive power in France from 2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799: from the end of the Convention to the beginning of the Consulate. ...

The new constitution installed the Directoire (English: Directory) and created the first bicameral legislature in French history. The parliament consisted of 500 representatives (the Conseil des Cinq-Cents (Council of the Five Hundred)) and 250 senators (the Conseil des Anciens (Council of Seniors)). Executive power went to five "directors," named annually by the Conseil des Anciens from a list submitted by the Conseil des Cinq-Cents. Executive Directory (in French Directoire exécutif), commonly known as the Directory (or Directoire) held executive power in France from 2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799: from the end of the Convention to the beginning of the Consulate. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... In government, bicameralism is the practice of having two legislative or parliamentary chambers. ...

The new régime met with opposition from remaining Jacobins and the royalists. The army suppressed riots and counter-revolutionary activities. In this way the army and its successful general, Napoleon Bonaparte gained much power. The word regime (occasionally spelled régime, particularly in older texts) refers to any system of control, or more specifically a system of government. ... Bonaparte as general Napoleon Bonaparte ( 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution and was the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from November 11, 1799 to May 18, 1804, then as Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français...

On November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire of the Year VIII) Napoleon staged the coup which installed the Consulate; this effectively led to his dictatorship and eventually (in 1804) to his proclamation as emperor, which brought to a close the specifically republican phase of the French Revolution. November 9 is the 313th day of the year (314th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 52 days remaining. ... 1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the coup détat by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the government of the Directory to replace it by the Consulate. ... For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ... A coup détat, or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ... The Consulate marks a period of French constitutional history between 1799 and 1804 - from the fall of the Directory and the First French Republic to the start of the Napoleonic Empire. ... In a broad definition a republic is a state or country that is led by people who do not base their political power on any principle beyond the control of the people living in that state or country. ...

See also

• French Revolutionary Calendar
• French Revolutionary Wars
• Glossary of the French Revolution
• History of democracy
• List of people associated with the French Revolution
• List of people granted honorary French citizenship during the French Revolution
• Reactionary
• Timeline of the French Revolution

The French Revolutionary Calendar or French Republican Calendar is a calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and in use by the French government for 13 years from 1793. ... The French Revolutionary Wars occurred between the outbreak of war between the French Revolutionary government and Austria in 1792 and the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. ... This is a glossary of the French Revolution. ... Origins Ancient Greece Main article: History of Athens The word democracy was invented in Athens, to describe the revolutionary system of government used. ... This is a partial list of people involved in the French Revolution. ... During the French Revolution, France granted honorary French citizenship to those deemed champions of the cause. ... A reactionary (sometimes: reactionist) is someone who seeks to restore conditions to those of a previous era. ... Timeline of the French Revolution. ...

Other revolutions in French history

• July Revolution
• The Revolutions of 1848 in France
• Paris Commune of 1871
• May 1968 — a noteworthy rebellion, though not quite a revolution

Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, was a revolt by the middle class against Bourbon King Charles X which forced him out of office and replaced him with the Orleanist King Louis-Philippe. ... The Revolution of 1848 in France Up to 1848 in France As 1848 began, liberals awaited the death of King Louis Philippe, expecting revolution after his death. ... The term Paris Commune originally referred to the government of Paris during the French Revolution. ... May 1968 poster: Be young and shut up In May 1968 a general insurrection broke out across France. ...

References

This article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. This article makes use of the public domain History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814, by François Mignet (1824), as made available by Project Gutenberg. The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ... The Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) in many ways represents the sum of knowledge at the beginning of the 20th century. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ... 1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Project Gutenberg (PG) was launched by Michael Hart in 1971 in order to provide a library, on what would later become the Internet, of free electronic versions (sometimes called e-texts) of physically existing books. ...

Further Reading

• William Doyle: Oxford history of the French Revolution. 2nd ed.   Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002   ISBN 0-19-925298-X
• William Doyle: Origins of the French Revolution. 3rd ed.   Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1999   ISBN 0-19-873175-2   ISBN 0-19-873174-4 (pbk)
• Chronicle of the French Revolution 1788-1799. London: Longman, and, Chronicle Communications, 1989   ISBN 0-582051-94-0
  • The English-language edition of the collaborative work Chronique de la Révolution 1788-1799 (Paris: Larousse, 1988  ISBN 2-03-503250-4), produced under the direction of Jean Favier and others.
• François Furet: La révolution en debat.   Paris: Gallimard, 1999   ISBN 2-07-040784-5
  • a short but important book with a series of articles on the historiography of the revolution.
• Peter McPhee: The French Revolution, 1789-1799. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2002   ISBN 0-19-924414-6
  • a short but up-to-date and useful book which covers many areas including feminism and environment etc.
• Timothy Tackett: Becoming a Revolutionary: the deputies of the French National Assembly and the emergence of a revolutionary culture (1789-1790).   Princeton, N.J. ; Chichester : Princeton University Press, c1996   ISBN 0-691-04384-1
  • the most thorough research on the deputies of the Estates General and the National Assembly.