General Motors EV1
Manufacturer:	General Motors
Production Years:	1996/97 660 units (Gen 1) 1998/99 457 units (Gen 2)
Production Location:	GM Lansing Craft Center, Lansing Mi
Production Quantity (2 runs):	1117
Predecessor:	Prototype: Impact
Class:	Subcompact Battery Electric 2-seat commuter vehicle
Drive wheels	Front
Motor location:	Front
Traction Motor:	3-phase AC Induction
Controller cooling:	Liquid
Charger:	Outboard AC Magnecharge
Charging connector:	6.6 kW Inductive paddle - requires specialized 220 VAC charging station
Charger cooling:	Air
Opportunity charging:	with portable 110vac charger carried in trunk (VRLA only)
Charge time	VRLA: 5.5-6 hours NiMH: 6-8 hours
Battery cooling:	Gen1: air blower Gen2: Vehicle air conditioner
Pack voltage:	VRLA: 312 V NiMH: 343 V
Battery type:	26 modules: VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead Acid), 1310 lb NiMH, 1147 lb All Gen 1 (1997) vehicles were first equipped with Delphi VRLA batteries, which were later replaced with Panasonic VRLA batteries. A few Gen 2 (1999) vehicles were originally equipped with Panasonic VRLA batteries, but most Gen 2 vehicles were equipped with Ovonics NiMH batteries.
Battery capacity:	VRLA (Delphi) 53 Ah; (Panasonic) 60Ah NiMH: 77 Ah
Battery location:	"T" (between and behind seats)
Range:	VRLA: 55-95 miles NiMH: 75-150 miles
Maximum speed:	80 mph (computer limited)
Performance:	0-60 time -<8 seconds.
Mileage:	? miles/100 kWh 0.179 kWh/mi charged 0.373 kWh/mi charge cycle General Motors EV1 photo by rmhermen File links The following pages link to this file: Electric vehicle General Motors EV1 Categories: GFDL images ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ... The Magnecharger was an induction battery electric vehicle charger used by the General Motors EV1 and other Category:Production_Electric_vehicles. ... Modern, high capacity NiMH rechargeable batteries A nickel metal hydride (or NiMH) battery is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCad) battery but which does not contain expensive (and environmentally risky) cadmium. ...
Transmission:	single speed reduction integrated with motor and differential
Axles:	Halfshafts with constant velocity joints
Similar:	ACP tzero Honda EV Plus
Seating:	Bucket seats for driver and one passenger
Included:	Heat pump (heater/AC), power steering, power brakes, power windows, keyless entry pad, keyless ignition pad, AM/FM CD player, Antilock Brakes, Airbags and Three-Point Belts for Driver and Passenger, Aluminum Wheels, Low Rolling Resistance Tires
MSRP:	Unknown - Lease only. Estimated at $33,995 to $43,995
This article is part of the General Motors automobile series.

EV1 may also apply to the Saab EV-1 The AC Propulsion tzero with the top off The tzero is a hand-made electric sports car produced by the U.S. company AC Propulsion. ... The Honda EV Plus was the first production electric car from a major automaker with non lead acid batteries. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Saab EV-1 Saab EV-1, or Saab 900 Turbo EV-1, was developed by Saab in 1985 as a fully functional and roadworthy future design study (EV-1 stands for Experimental Vehicle One). ...

The EV1 was the first production quality battery electric vehicle produced by General Motors in the United States and at the time, was the only vehicle in the history of the company to bear the "General Motors" badge. The Toyota RAV4 EV is powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ... A marque (French for brand and pronounced as mark) is a brand name, most commonly used for automobile brands. ...

GM leased over 800 EV1 cars out of about 1100 manufactured[1] with the proviso that after the three-year leases were up, the cars reverted to the company. They were available in California and Arizona and could be serviced at designated Saturn dealers. Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Area  Ranked 3rd  - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 km²)  - Width 250 miles (400 km)  - Length 770 miles (1,240 km)  - % water 4. ... Official language(s) None Capital Phoenix Largest city Phoenix Area  Ranked 6th  - Total 113,998 sq mi (295,254 km²)  - Width 310 miles (500 km)  - Length 400 miles (645 km)  - % water 0. ... General Motors launched its Saturn automobile manufacturing company in 1990, largely in response to the success of Japanese small-car imports in the United States. ...

The purpose of the EV1 was, in part, to satisfy California's Zero-emissions vehicle mandate initiated in 1990. The ZEV program specified that by 1998, 2% of all new cars sold were to have zero emissions. GM stated that they spent over $1 billion developing and marketing the EV1, though much of this cost was defrayed by the Clinton Administration's $1.25 Billion Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) project[2] [3]. General Motors EV1 A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV will produce no emissions or pollution from the vehicle when stationary or operating. ...

In late 2003, GM cancelled the EV1 program. [4] [5] Despite unfulfilled waiting lists and positive feedback from the lessees, GM stated that it could not sell enough of the cars to make the EV1 profitable.[6] GM also cited a lack of demand, however, every EV1 that was offered for lease was placed in service.

The price for the car used to compute lease payments was $33,995 to $43,995, which made for lease payments of $299 to over $574 per month. "One industry official said each EV1 cost the company about $80,000, including research and development costs." [7] The vehicle's lease prices also depended on available state rebates. At that time, the cost for the electricity used to power the car was computed to be 1/3 to 1/2 the cost of the equivalent amount of gasoline. Current increases in gas prices have made electricity relatively even less expensive.

Technology

The EV1 was a 'purpose built' electric vehicle, not a conversion of an existing vehicle or drivetrain. General Motors used many advanced technologies including:

• Aluminum frame
• Dent resistant side-panels
• Anti-lock brakes
• Traction control
• Heat pump instead of a compressor based Air-conditioner
• Keyless entry / keyless ignition
• Special one-way thermal glass to allow for better insulation
• Regenerative braking
• Self-repairing tires
• Very low drag coefficient (~0.19)
• Super light alloy mag wheels
• Low-rolling resistance tires

Most of these technologies were included to improve the overall efficiency of the EV1.

The first generation EV1s used lead-acid batteries in 1996 (as model year 1997) and a second generation batch with nickel metal hydride batteries in 1999. Some of the GEN 1 EV1's were refurbished and upgraded to Panasonic Lead Acid batteries. A sealed lead acid battery. ... 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year for the Eradication of Poverty. ... Modern, high capacity NiMH rechargeable batteries A nickel metal hydride (or NiMH) battery is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCad) battery but which does not contain expensive (and environmentally risky) cadmium. ... 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations. ...

The "GEN I" cars got 55 to 95 miles (90 to 150 km) per charge with the Delco manufactured lead-acid batteries, 75 to 150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge with "Gen 2" Ovionic nickel-metal hydride batteries, and 75 to 100 miles (120 to 160 km) with the "Gen2 Panasonic Lead-Acid batteries. Recharging took as much as eight hours for a full charge (although one could get an 80% charge in two to three hours [8]). The battery pack consisted of 26 12-volt lead-acid batteries holding 67.4 MJ (18.7 kWh) of energy or 26 13.2-volt nickel-metal hydride batteries which held 95.1 MJ (26.4 kWh) of energy.

A modified EV1 prototype set a land speed record for production electric vehicles going 183 mph (295 km/h) in 1994. 1970 land speed record being set at Bonneville Salt Flats by Gary Gabelich Land Speed Records from 1898 The information below is for self-propelled wheeled vehicles travelling over open ground. ... 1994 (MCMXCIV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal. // Events January Bill Clinton January 1 : North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) goes into effect. ...

Consumer Experience

The process of obtaining an EV1 was difficult. The vehicle could not be purchased; only a closed-end lease for 3 years with no renewal or residual purchase options was offered, and test drives were often by appointment. Only certain Saturn dealerships in California carried the EV1, and only an EV1 specialist could assist in leasing an EV1.

Before reviewing leasing options, a potential lessee would be taken through a 'Pre-qualification' process to learn how the EV1 was different from other vehicles. He then went on a waiting list with no scheduled delivery date. After two to six months, the lessee would be allotted a vehicle. He then had to arrange for charger installation at his home; this took one to two weeks.

Once past these hassles, the EV1 experience was encouraging and unique. The EV1 had the lowest wind resistance of any production vehicle in history. As a result, at highway speeds, the only audible noise was often the steady thrum of the tires, with nothing from wind or motors. At lower speeds, and at stoplights, there was no noise at all, save for a slight whine from the single-speed gear reduction unit. Performance was excellent, with 0-60 times in the 8 second range. Top speed was limited to 80 MPH, though the EV1's propulsion system and aerodynamic shape were theoretically capable of 190 MPH with modified gearing. Speed, range, and various other numbers were displayed by futuristic digital readouts spanning a thin strip curving atop the dashboard.

The home charging installation was about 1.5'x2'x5' with integrated heatsinks and resembled a gasoline pump. Charging itself was entirely inductive, and accomplished by placing a plastic paddle in the front port of the EV1. The process was safe and efficient.

Cancellation

In 2001, the California Air Resources Board modified the ZEV Mandate to allow manufacturers to claim partial ZEV credit for hybrid vehicles. General Motors and DaimlerChrysler then sued the state of California and CARB, alleging the new ZEV rules violated a federal law barring states from regulating fuel economy.[9] In response, CARB removed the requirement for electric vehicles from the ZEV mandate in 2003, and GM canceled the EV1 program soon thereafter. 2004 Toyota Prius, a hybrid gas-electric vehicle Honda Insight, the first hybrid gas-electric vehicle sold in North America 2006 Honda Civic Hybrid A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle using an on-board Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fueled propulsion power source for vehicle propulsion. ...

[10] Upon lease expiration, the cars were put into storage at a facility in Burbank, California. GM donated a small fraction of the total of EV1s to colleges and universities for engineering students, and to several museums, including the Smithsonian Institution. As of June 19th, 2006 the car has been removed from the Smithsonian.[11] In March 2005, the last 78 in storage were transferred to the GM Desert Proving Grounds in Mesa, Arizona, for disposal, crushing, and recycling. This article or section should be merged with Burbank, Los Angeles County, California This article is about the Burbank in Southern California. ... The Smithsonian Institution Building or Castle on the National Mall serves as the Institutions headquarters. ... GM Desert Proving Grounds in Mesa, Arizona is a facility for the testing of HVAC, propulsion, and various automotive systems in a harsh climate. ... Mesa is a city in Maricopa County, Arizona and part of the Phoenix-Mesa-Scottsdale Metropolitan Area. ...

EV1s crushed by General Motors shortly after production

Over 100 people offered to purchase the electric cars and waive such liability as they were able, but GM refused. GM more recently stated that they would be subject to product liability and their policies would require them to provide service and replacement parts for ten years. [12] Image File history File links Evcrushed. ... Image File history File links Evcrushed. ... General Motors Corporation, also known as GM, is the worlds largest automaker and has been the global industry sales leader for 75 years. ...

GM states that the electric-car venture was not a failure, and that the EV1 was doomed when the expected breakthrough in battery technology never materialized.[13] There were numerous additional practical and economic reasons for the EV1's cancellation.

Many consumers and government officials openly questioned General Motors commitment to the EV1 program. Inadequate marketing and artificially constrained supply have led some to believe the EV1 program was intended to fail, and to prove the electric vehicles were not feasible. Also cited was GM's insistence on repossessing and destroying all EV1s, rather than selling them at the termination of the program, and GM's ties with the oil industry. Some GM insiders [14] later provided documentation of long waiting lists that went unfulfilled. [15]

A documentary about the demise of the EV1 and other electric vehicles entitled Who Killed the Electric Car? debuted on June 30, 2006. Several weeks before the debut of this movie, the Smithsonian Institution announced that its EV1 display was being permanently removed and the EV1 car put into storage. Although GM is a major financial contributor to the museum, both parties denied that this fact contributed to the removal of the display.[16] Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 documentary film which investigates, murder mystery style, the birth, limited commercialization and subsequent death of the electric vehicle in the United States. ...

Not all of the EV1s have been destroyed. A select few can still be seen on the road, most commonly in Warren, Michigan, where GM's tech center is located [17]. According to the interview with Rick Wagoner in Motor Trend, the cancellation of EV1 program is the central regret of his tenure as GM's CEO. Warren is a city in Macomb County in the U.S. state of Michigan. ... Rick Wagoner G. Richard Wagoner, Jr. ... Motor Trend is one of the oldest automotive magazines still publishing. ...

EV1 Drivetrain Prototypes

EV1 shown plugged into charging station

General Motors revealed several prototype variants of the EV1 drivetrain at the 1998 Detroit Auto Show. The models included diesel/electric parallel hybrid, gas turbine/electric series hybrid, fuel cell/electric version and compressed natural gas low emission internal combustion engine version [18][19]. General Motors General Motors EV1 electric car photo by rmhermen File links The following pages link to this file: General Motors EV1 Categories: GFDL images ... General Motors General Motors EV1 electric car photo by rmhermen File links The following pages link to this file: General Motors EV1 Categories: GFDL images ... 1998 (MCMXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year of the Ocean. ... NAIAS 2005, near the Audi exhibit. ... A Diesel engine built by MAN AG in 1906 Rudolf Diesels 1893 patent on his engine design The diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine; more specifically, it is a compression ignition engine, in which the fuel is ignited by being suddenly exposed to the high temperature... 2004 Toyota Prius, a hybrid gas-electric vehicle Honda Insight, the first hybrid gas-electric vehicle sold in North America 2006 Honda Civic Hybrid A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle using an on-board Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fueled propulsion power source for vehicle propulsion. ... This machine has a single-stage radial compressor and turbine, a recuperator, and foil bearings. ... 2004 Toyota Prius, a hybrid gas-electric vehicle Honda Insight, the first hybrid gas-electric vehicle sold in North America 2006 Honda Civic Hybrid A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle using an on-board Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fueled propulsion power source for vehicle propulsion. ... A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i. ... A CNG propelled autorickshaw on the streets of New Delhi, Delhi. ... A colorized automobile engine The internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the burning of a fuel occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. ...

The new platform was a four-passenger variant of the EV1, lengthened by 19". For hybrid and electric vehicles, the battery pack was upgraded to 44 NiMH cells, arranged in "I" formation down the centerline, which could fully recharge in just 2 hours using onboard 220 V induction charger; additional power units were installed in the trunk, thus complementing the 3rd generation 137 hp AC Induction electric motor installed in the hood. Hybrid modifications retained the capability of all-electric ZEV propulsion for up to 40 miles (64.4 km). NIMH or NiMH may refer to: National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the United States National Institutes of Health. ... Zev of B3K is a major character on the television show Lexx. ...

EV1 CNG

The CNG variant was the only non-electric vehicle in the line-up, even though it employed the same up-stretched platform. It used a modified Suzuki 1.0 L turbocharged I3 all-aluminum OHC engine installed under the hood. Due to a very high octane rating of the CNG (supposedly allowing for a greater compression ratio), this small engine was able to deliver 72 hp at 5500 rpm. A Straight-3 is an internal combustion engine with three cylinders arranged in a straight line side by side. ... Overhead cam (OHC) piston engines place the camshaft above the cylinder heads and drive the valves or lifters directly instead of using pushrods. ... The compression ratio is a single number that can be used to predict the performance of any internal-combustion engine. ...

The batteries were replaced with two CNG tanks capable of maximum operating pressure of 3000 psi. The tanks could be refueled from a single nozzle in only 4 minutes. In-tank solenoids shut off the fuel during refueling and engine idle, and a pressure relief device safeguarded against excessive temperature and pressure. With the help of continuously variable transmission, the car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 11 seconds. The maximum range was 350 to 400 miles, and fuel economy was 60 mpg (in gasoline equivalent). A continuously variable transmission (CVT) is a type of automatic transmission that can change the gear ratio (gears are not generally involved) to any arbitrary setting within the limits. ...

EV1 Series Hybrid

The series hybrid prototype had gas turbine engine APU placed in the trunk. A single-stage, single-shaft, recuperated gas turbine unit with a high-speed permanent-magnet AC generator was provided by Williams International; it weighed 220 lb (99.8 kg), measured 20 inches (50.8 cm) in diameter by 22 inches (55.9 cm) long and was running between 100,000 and 140,000 rpm. The turbine could run on multiple fuels, from reformulated gasoline to compressed natural gas. The APU started automatically when the battery charge dropped below 40% and delivered 40 kW of electrical energy, enough to achieve speeds up to 80 mph (128.8 km/h) and to return the car's 44 NiMH cells to a 50% charge level. An Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) is a relatively small self-contained generator used in aircraft to start the main engines, usually with compressed air, and to provide electrical power, hydraulic pressure and air conditioning while the aircraft is on the ground. ... A recuperator is a heat exchanger that helps boost the efficiency of some gas turbine engines. ... Williams International is a manufacturer of small gas turbine engines. ... petrol) or Gasoline is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. ... A CNG propelled autorickshaw on the streets of New Delhi, Delhi. ... NIMH or NiMH may refer to: National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the United States National Institutes of Health. ...

Fuel tank capable of 6.5 gallons (24.6 l) allowed for a highway range of more than 390 miles (627.6 km) and fuel economy of 60 to 100 mpg (3.9 to to 2.4 L/100 km) in hybrid mode, depending on the driving conditions. The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds.

EV1 Parallel Hybrid

The parallel hybrid variant featured 1.3 L turbocharged DTI diesel engine from Isuzu delivering 75 hp, installed in the trunk along with an additional 6.5 hp DC motor/generator; the two motors drove rear wheels through electronically controlled transaxle. When combined with AC induction motor which powers front wheels, all three power units delivered a total output of 219 hp, accelerating the car to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 7 seconds. Single tank of diesel fuel could keep the car running for 550 miles with a fuel economy of 80 mpg. Turbocharger Cut-away A turbocharger is a device used in internal-combustion engines to increase the power output of the engine by increasing the mass of oxygen and fuel entering the engine. ... Isuzu Motors Ltd. ...

A similar technology is used in the 2005 Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid concept. The Astra is a General Motors (GM) small family car, badged as an Opel in continental Europe, a Vauxhall in the United Kingdom, a Holden in Australasia, and a Chevrolet in Latin America. ...

EV1 Fuel Cell

This variant extended all-electric propulsion capabilities with a methanol-powered fuel cell system (developed by Daimler-Benz/Ballard for the Mercedes-Benz NECAR), again installed in the trunk. The system consisted of a fuel processor, an expander/compressor and the fuel cell stack powered by The highway range was about 300 miles, with a fuel economy of 80 mpg (in a gasoline equivalent). The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds. Daimler-Benz AG was founded on May 1, 1924 by the merger of Benz & Cie. ... Ballard Power Systems TSX: BLD NASDAQ: BLDP, located in Burnaby, British Columbia, a suburb of Vancouver, is a company that designs, develops, and manufactures zero-emission proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells. ...

Personal accounts & news stories

• Ev-1 Evolution- by Frank Jamerson, Senor Research Manager for GM: EV-1 Timeline
• 2005.09 http://www.byuracecar.com/about.html
• 2004.01 http://www.evworld.com/view.cfm?section=article&storyid=622 - Eulogy for the EV 1
• 2003.03 http://www.evworld.com/archives/interviews2/ghansen2.html - CARB ZEV Mandate
• 2001-2003 http://www.electrifyingtimes.com/ev1crush.html
• 2002.09 http://www.cleanup-gm.com/ev1.html
• 1996.05 http://saccityweb.com/seva/evupdate/1996/evup0596.html - SEVA EVUpdate Newsletter
• http://www.kirschfdn.org/done/enviro_articles_archived.html
• GM employees surprised how smooth EV1 drives, Bruce Evangel Parmenter
• Car & Driver's Bedard Got It Wrong, Darell Dickey
• My first step into the electric car wars, Bruce Evangel Parmenter
• Eee Vee One Fun, David Dymaxion
• BEV's Story, Bruce Evangel Parmenter
• My day with the GM EV1 - Road Joy, By Brad
• Living in the Past, Getting Beat by the Future, John Wayland
• last rental GM EV1 available until end of Sep, Chris Yoder
• Phil Karn's EV1 webpages Phil's first EV1 is now on display at the Smithsonian Museum of American History
• Emissions-free car on trial, The Boston Globe
• Archived version of the GMEV website.
• Who Killed the Electric Car- a News feature on PBS' NOW show. Also, a timeline on Electric vehicle development
• Who Killed the Electric Car? is a documentary film about the fate of the EV1.
• Down The Memory Hole - Sploid article discussing an alleged conspiracy over the EV1's removal from the market.
• EV-1 at the Smithsonian - Interestingly, this short lived exhibit was removed 6/15/06 just before the independent release (by Sony Pictures Classics) of "Who Killed the Electric Car?" Two weeks later, the Smithsonian denied any link between the movie and the exhibit's removal.
• GM Responds to the film "Who Killed the Electric Car"
• Chelsea Sexton Interview about "Who Killed the Electric Car"