Genealogy is the study and tracing of family pedigrees. This involves collecting the names of relatives, both living and deceased, and establishing the relationships between them based on primary, secondary and/or circumstantial evidence or documentation, thus building up a cohesive family tree. Genealogy is sometimes also referred to as family history, although these terms may be used distinctly: the former being the basic study of who is related to whom; the latter involving more "fleshing out" of the life and family histories of the individuals involved. A family of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso in 1997 A family consists of a domestic group of people (or a number of domestic groups), typically affiliated by birth or marriage, or by comparable legal relationships — including domestic partnership, adoption, surname and (in some cases) ownership (as occurred in the Roman Empire). ... Example pedigree chart A pedigree chart is a chart which tells you all of the known phenotypes for an organism and its ancestors, most commonly humans, show dogs, and race horses. ... Circumstantial evidence is indirect evidence. ... In general terms, documentation is any communicable material (such as text, video, audio, etc. ... Example of family tree A family tree is generally the totality of ones ancestors, or more specifically, a chart used in genealogy to show the family connections between individuals, consisting of the individuals names (usually accompanied by dates, and often also places and occupations) connected by various types of... Family history without qualification refers to the context of Genealogy Family history used in a medical context appears as Family history (medicine) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

In this article the terms genealogist, researcher, and family historian refer to every participant, from the inexperienced hobbyist to the seasoned professional.

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Genealogy

Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wiktionary is a Wikimedia Foundation project intended to be a free wiki dictionary (hence: Wiktionary) (including thesaurus and lexicon) in every language. ... Image File history File links Wikibooks-logo-en. ... Wikibooks logo Wikibooks, previously called Wikimedia Free Textbook Project and Wikimedia-Textbooks, is part of the Wikimedia Foundation. ...

Overview

Genealogists collect oral histories and preserve family stories to discover ancestors and living relatives. Genealogists also attempt to understand not just where and when people lived but also their lifestyle, biography, and motivations. This often requires — or leads to — knowledge of antique law, old political boundaries, immigration trends, and historical social conditions.

Genealogists and family historians often join a Family History Society where novices can learn from more experienced researchers, and everyone benefits from shared knowledge. A Family History Society is a society, often charitable or non-profit making, where genealogists and family historians can profit from shared knowledge. ...

Even an unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history. The search for living relatives often leads to family reunions, both of distant cousins and of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by war, immigration, foster homes and adoption. The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive or reveal family secrets. The United States detonated an atomic bomb over Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, effectively ending World War II. The bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima (on August 6) immediately killed between 100,000 and 200,000 people and are the only known instances nuclear weapons have ever been used in war. ... Foster care is a system by which adults care for orphans or other children who are not living with their biological parents, for example due to child abuse. ... Adoption is the legal act of permanently placing a child with a parent or parents other than the birth parents. ...

In its original form, genealogy was mainly concerned with the ancestry of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with heraldry, in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in the quarterings of their coat of arms. Many of the claimed ancestries are considered by modern scholars to be fabrications, especially the claims of kings and emperors who trace their ancestry to gods or the founders of their civilization. For example, the Anglo-Saxon chroniclers traced the ancestry of several English kings back to the god Woden (the English version of the Norse god Odin).^[1] If these descents were true, Queen Elizabeth II would be a descendant of Woden, via the kings of Wessex. (see euhemerism). Kinship and descent is one of the major concepts of cultural anthropology. ... Heraldry is the science and art of designing, displaying, describing and recording coats of arms and badges, as well as the formal ceremonies and laws that regulate the use and inheritance of arms. ... A modern coat of arms is derived from the medi val practice of painting designs onto the shield and outer clothing of knights to enable them to be identified in battle, and later in tournaments. ... The famous parade helmet found at Sutton Hoo, probably belonging to King Raedwald of East Anglia circa 625. ... Michelangelos depiction of God in the painting Creation of the Sun and Moon in the Sistine Chapel Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Vishnu, one of the manifestations of the ultimate reality or God in Hinduism This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... A god of the Anglo-Saxon /Early English tribes brought with them from continental Europe, around the 5th and 6th centuries until conversion to Christianity in the 8th and 9th centuries CE. Woden is the carrier-off of the dead, but not necessarily with the attributes of his Norse equivalent... Norse or Scandinavian mythology comprises the pre-Christian religion, beliefs and legends of the Scandinavian people, including those who settled on Iceland, where the written sources for Norse mythology were assembled. ... For other meanings of Odin, Woden or Wotan see Odin (disambiguation), Woden (disambiguation), Wotan (disambiguation). ... Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Windsor) (born 21 April 1926) is Queen of sixteen independent nations known as the Commonwealth Realms. ... Wessex was one of the seven major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (the Heptarchy) that preceded the Kingdom of England. ... Euhemerus (flourished around 316 BCE) was a Greek mythographer at the court of Cassander, the king of Macedonia. ...

In fiction, it is common to give a character a complicated fictional genealogy to make his or her background more interesting. A picturesque one is the genealogy for Godwulf of Asgard. A fictional genealogy is an elaborate fictional family or set of inter-related fictional families. ... Godwulf of Asgard (also spelled Godulf, sometimes Gudolfr, or simply Godwulf) is a mythical figure from Norse mythology. ...

Modern research

Genealogy, an extremely popular hobby, received a big boost in the late 1970s with the premiere of the television adaptation of Alex Haley's fictionalized account of his family line, Roots: The Saga of an American Family. With the advent of the Internet, the number of resources available to genealogists has vastly increased; however, some of these sources must be treated with caution due to issues of accuracy. The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1971 to 1980, inclusive. ... Alex Haley Alexander Palmer Haley (August 11, 1921 – February 10, 1992) was an African American writer (though he was also proud of his Irish and Cherokee ancestry). ... Categories: Literature stubs | 1976 books | American novels | Books starting with S ...

In addition to particular historical events and places, research efforts can focus on other types of relationships among people such as kinship to a particular group, e.g. a Scottish clan; to a particular surname such as in a one-name study (see Guild of One-Name Studies), or to a particular person such as Winston Churchill or Jesse James. Clan map of Scotland Scottish clans give a sense of identity and shared descent to people in Scotland and to their relations throughout the world, with a formal structure of Clan Chiefs officially registered with the court of the Lord Lyon, King of Arms which controls the heraldry and Coat... Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British politician and author, best known as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. ... Jesse James. ...

LDS collections

LDS Genealogy Library in Salt Lake City

Theology of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) includes the practice of baptism for the dead, an ordinance where baptism is performed by living people for and on behalf of those who have died. Mormons believe that this practice enables the living to assist their deceased relatives' progress in the next life, should they accept religious ordinances done on their behalf. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3072x2304, 1963 KB) Summary same as *geneology* Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3072x2304, 1963 KB) Summary same as *geneology* Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... The Salt Lake Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is the largest attraction in the citys Temple Square. ... For other uses, see Mormon (disambiguation). ... Baptism for the dead by proxy (or vicarious baptism) is an ordinance practiced by members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (and schism churches), the Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran, some of the Neo-Apostolic congregations of Europe, and some Native American religions. ... Ordinance can mean: A law made by a non-sovereign body such as a city council or a colony. ... Baptism in early Christian art. ...

In the last century, the LDS Church engaged in a large-scale program of copying all available records of genealogical value onto microfilm. The project entailed the compilation of the International Genealogical Index (IGI). The IGI contains information submitted by Mormon researchers for vicarious ordinances, records obtained from non-Mormon contributors, and data taken from various birth or marriage records that Church members have microfilmed; in all, the IGI contains hundreds of millions of records of individuals who lived between 1500 and 1900, primarily in the United States, Canada and Europe. By making so many resources available, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has helped contribute to the increasing interest in genealogy over the last couple of decades. Information is available free or at a nominal cost. Resources include the Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, and worldwide at Family History Centers near local congregations. FamilySearch, an interactive internet site provides free access to extensive files for personal and family information. [1] Microfilm machines may be available at libraries or record archives. ... The International Genealogical Index (IGI) is a database of genealogical records, compiled from a variety of different sources, and maintained by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. ... The Family History Center is a service and facility provided and operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Mormon Church). ...

Genetic Analysis

Main article: Genetic genealogy

With the discovery that a person's DNA contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from our earliest ancestors, analysis of DNA is just beginning to be used for genealogical research. There are two DNA types of particular interest. One is the mitochondrial DNA which we all possess and which is passed down with only minor mutations through the female line. The other is the Y-chromosome, present only in males, which is passed down with only minor mutations through the male line. Genetic genealogy is the application of genetics to traditional genealogy. ... The general structure of a section of DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid —usually in the form of a double helix— that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life, and most viruses. ... Genetic fingerprinting, DNA testing, DNA typing, and DNA profiling are techniques used to distinguish between individuals of the same species using only samples of their DNA. Its invention by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester was announced in 1985. ... Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA, or less popularly, mDNA) is DNA that is located in mitochondria. ... The Y chromosome is one of the two sex chromosomes in humans and most other mammals (the other is the X chromosome). ...

A genealogical DNA test allows for two individuals to determine with 99.9% certainty that they are related within a certain time frame, or with 100% certainty that they are not related within a certain time frame. Individual genetic test results are being collected in various databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor, for example see Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation, or Family Tree DNA. These tests are limited to either the direct male or the direct female line. // A genealogical DNA test involves examining the nucleotides at specific locations on a persons DNA. The tests results are meant to have no informative medical value and do not determine specific genetic diseases or disorders (see possible exceptions in Medical information below); they are intended only for use in... // A genealogical DNA test involves examining the nucleotides at specific locations on a persons DNA. The tests results are meant to have no informative medical value and do not determine specific genetic diseases or disorders (see possible exceptions in Medical information below); they are intended only for use in...

On a much longer time scale, genetic methods are being used to trace human migratory patterns and to determine biogeographical and ethnic origin. The results can be used to place people within ancient ancestral groups, for example see Genographic Project. Participation in all such projects is, of course, voluntary. Human migration denotes any movement by humans from one locality to another, often over long distances or in large groups. ... Biogeography is the science which deals with patterns of species distribution and the processes that result in such patterns. ... This article or section should be merged with ethnic group Ethnicity is the cultural characteristics that connect a particular group or groups of people to each other. ...

In a related development, non-genetic mathematical models of ancestry have been devised to determine the approximate year when the most recent common ancestor of all living humans existed. The most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of any set of organisms is the most recent individual which is an ancestor of all of them. ...

Sharing data among researchers

Data sharing among genealogical researchers has grown to be a major use of the Internet. Most genealogy software programs can output information about persons and their relationships in GEDCOM format, so it can be shared with other genealogists by e-mail and Internet forums, added to an online database such as GeneaNet, or converted into a family web site using online genealogical tools such as GED2HTML, PhpGedView, and Phpmyfamily. Many genealogical software applications also facilitate the sharing of information on CD-ROMs and DVDs made on personal computers. GEDCOM, an acronym for GEnealogical Data COMmunication, is a specification for exchanging genealogical data between different genealogical systems. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Gaia Online, the largest English language forum-based community as of April 2005 — powered by a modified version of phpBB. An Internet forum is a facility on the World Wide Web for holding discussions, or the web application software used to provide the facility. ... The story of GeneaNet begun in 1996 when several people interested in genealogy and computing, Jacques Le Marois, Jérome Abela et Julien Cassaigne, realized what a great instrument the internet could be for their genealogical research. ... A website, Web site or WWW site (often shortened to just site) is a collection of webpages, that is, HTML/XHTML documents accessible via HTTP on the Internet; all publicly accessible websites in existence comprise the World Wide Web. ... PhpGedView is an open source PHP-based web application for putting your genealogy on the internet. ...

One phenomenon over the last few years has been that of large genealogical databases going online and attracting such large flash crowds that the database's host server collapses, causing service to be quickly suspended while hurried upgrades are made to accommodate the traffic load. This happened with the Mormons' genealogy database, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission's listing of war graves and in January 2002 with the much-anticipated British census for 1901. Flash Crowd was a 1973 short story by science fiction author Larry Niven, one of a series about the consequences of instantaneous, practically free transfer booths that could take one anywhere on Earth in milliseconds. ... iThe Commonwealth War Graves Commission is a joint governmental organisation responsible for marking and maintaining the graves of members of the Commonwealth military forces who died in the two world wars and subsequent wars, to build memorials to those with no known grave, and to keep records of the war... For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ...

Volunteerism

Volunteer efforts figure prominently in genealogy. These efforts range from the extremely informal to the highly organized. Volunteerism is the willingness of people to work on behalf of others without the expectation of pay or other tangible gain. ...

On the informal side are the many popular and useful message boards and mailing lists regarding particular surnames, regions, and other topics. These forums can be used with great success to find relatives, request record lookups, obtain research advice, and much more. Gaia Online, the largest English language forum-based community as of April 2005 — powered by a modified version of phpBB. An Internet forum is a facility on the World Wide Web for holding discussions, or the web application software used to provide the facility. ... Electronic mailing lists are a special usage of e-mail that allows for widespread distribution of information to many Internet users. ... A family name, or surname, is that part of a persons name that indicates to what family he or she belongs. ...

Many genealogists participate in loosely organized projects, both online and off. These collaborations take numerous forms of which only a few are mentioned here. Some projects prepare name indexes for records, such as probate cases, and often place the indexes online. Genealogists use the indexes as finding aids to locate original records. Rather than index, some projects transcribe or abstract records, especially when genealogists may want to search the records by something other than surname. For example, a genealogist using the cluster genealogy research technique might want to search records by land description. For this reason, deeds are a good candidate for transcription. Offering record lookups is another common service, and projects are usually organized by geographic area. Volunteers offer to do record lookups in their area for researchers who are unable to travel. Probate is the legal process of settling the estate of a deceased person; specifically, distributing the decedents property. ... Finding aids are indexes used to catalog detailed information about collections within an archive. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

Those looking for a structured volunteer environment can join one of thousands of genealogical societies worldwide. Like online forums, most societies have a unique area of focus such as a particular surname, ethnicity, geographic area, or descendency from participants in a given historical event. These societies are almost exclusively staffed by volunteers and can offer a broad range of services. It is common for genealogical societies to maintain a library for member's use, publish a newsletter, provide research assistance to the public, offer classes or seminars, and organize projects such as cemetery surveys. This article or section should be merged with ethnic group Ethnicity is the cultural characteristics that connect a particular group or groups of people to each other. ... This is a list of hereditary & lineage organizations. ...

Records in genealogical research

Records of persons who were neither royalty nor nobility began to be taken by governments in order to keep track of their citizens (In most of Europe, for example, this started to take place in the 16th century). As more of the population began to be recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family using the paper trail they left behind. Members of the British royal family A royal family is the extended family of a monarch. ... The Lords and Barons prove their Nobility by hanging their Banners and exposing their Coats-of-arms at the door of the Lodge of the Heralds. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ...

As each person lived his or her life, major events were usually documented with a license, permit or report which was stored at a local, regional or national office or archive. Genealogists locate these records, wherever they are stored, and extract information to discover family relationships and recreate timelines of persons' lives. For other uses of the word Archive, see Archive (disambiguation) Archives refers to a collection of records, and also refers to the location in which these records are kept. ... Alternative meanings: Timeline is a 1999 science fiction novel by Michael Crichton Timeline is a 2003 film based on the novel. ...

Records that are used in genealogy research include:

• Vital records
  • Birth records
  • Death records
  • Marriage and divorce records
• Adoption records
• Baptism or christening records
• Biographies and biographical profiles (as in Who's Who, etc.)
• Cemetery records and tombstones
• Census records
• City directories and telephone directories
• Coroner's reports
• Daughters of the American Revolution records
• Diaries, personal letters and family Bibles
• Emigration, immigration and naturalization records
• Land and homestead records, deeds
• Medical records
• Military and conscription records
• Newspaper columns
• Obituaries
• Occupational records
• Oral history
• Passports
• Photographs
• School and alumni association records
• Ship passenger lists
• Social Security Administration records (within the USA)
• Tax records
• Voter registration records
• Wills and probate records

As a rule, genealogists nearly always start with the present and work backward in time rather than forward. Written records have the property of hindsight in that they only tell where a person might have lived and who their parents are, not where they and their descendants will be living in the future. Two exceptions are when a genealogist might interview living relatives as to who and where their children and grandchildren are, or tries to locate long-lost relatives who may have already traced their families backward to an ancestor they have in common (which is forward in time from his/her point of view). Vital records are records of life events kept under governmental authority, including birth certificates, marriage licenses, and death certificates. ... Maria Elizabeth Winblad (1895-1987) birth certificate In most countries, a birth certificate is an official legal document usually containing most of the following information: Name at birth Date and time of birth Sex Place of birth Birth registration number (NHS number in UK) Legal parent(s) (including in UK... Death Certificate was the second solo album from rapper Ice Cube, released on November 5, 1991. ... Example of marriage license issued in San Francisco A marriage license is permission from a legal authority for the marriage of two people to be performed. ... Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the ending of a marriage before the death of either spouse, which can be contrasted with an annulment, which is a declaration that a marriage is void, though the effects of marriage may be recognized in such unions, such as spousal support, child custody... Adoption is the legal act of permanently placing a child with a parent or parents other than the birth parents. ... Baptism in early Christian art. ... Sir Thomas Malory wrote the most famous fictional biography of the Middle Ages with Le Morte dArthur about the life of King Arthur. ... Whos Who is the name of a number of publications, generally containing concise biographical information on a particular group of people. ... Graves at Green-Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York A cemetery is a place (usually an enclosed area of land) in which dead bodies are buried. ... Tombstone most commonly means a headstone marking the grave of a deceased person. ... 1870 US Census for New York City A census is the process of obtaining information about every member of a population (not necessarily a human population). ... Moscow phone book, 1930. ... A coroner is either the presiding officer of a special court, a medical officer or an officer of law responsible for investigating deaths, particularly those happening under unusual circumstances. ... The Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) is a sororal association dedicated to historic preservation, education, and patriotic endeavor. ... An appointment diary A diary or journal is a book for writing discrete entries arranged by date. ... Look up letter in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Gutenberg Bible owned by the United States Library of Congress (Hebrew: תנ״ך tanakh, Greek: η Βίβλος hÄ“ biblos) (sometimes The Holy Bible, The Book, Work of God, The Word, The Good Book or Scripture), from Greek (τα) βίβλια, (ta) biblia, (the) books, is the name used by Jews and Christians for their differing (and... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Immigration. ... Naturalization is the act whereby a person voluntarily and actively acquires a nationality which is not his or her nationality at birth. ... The factual accuracy of this article is disputed. ... Homestead laws exist in many states in the United States and generally serve two main purposes: prevent forced sale of home by creditors provide surviving spouse with shelter In Texas, homestead protection is automatic. ... A deed is a legal instrument used to grant a right. ... Health care or healthcare is the prevention, treatment, and management of illness and the preservation of mental and physical well-being through the services offered by the medical, nursing, and allied health professions [1]. The organised provision of such services may constitute a healthcare system. ... Obituary for World War I death For information on the death metal band, see Obituary (band). ... A profession is an occupation that requires extensive training and the study and mastery of specialized knowledge, and usually has a professional association, ethical code and process of certification or licensing. ... Oral history is an account of something passed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. ... The title page of European Union member state passports bears the name European Union, then the name of the issuing country, in the official languages of all EU countries. ... A sepia-tinted photograph of an English couple, taken in 1895. ...   Students in Rome, Italy. ... An alumni association is an association of former students (alumni). ... A passenger ship is a ship whose primary function is to carry passengers. ... The United States Social Security Administration (or SSA) is an independent agency of the United States government established by law currently codified as . ... A tax (also known as a duty) is a financial charge or other levy imposed on an individual or a legal entity by a state or a functional equivalent of a state (e. ... Voting is a method of decision making wherein a group such as a meeting or an electorate attempts to gauge its opinion—usually as a final step following discussions or debates. ... In the common law, a will or testament is a document by which a person (the testator) regulates the rights of others over his property or family after death. ...

Reliability of sources

Experience shows that genealogical "facts" can be unreliable. The top five classes of genealogical information — place names, occupations, family names, first names, and dates — differ in their degree of reliability. Additionally, the popularity of the hobby has encouraged a few organizations to exploit it by mass-marketing what most people regard as scam genealogical books and websites. Check "qualifications" with The Institute of Heraldic and Genealogical Studies: [registrar@ihgs.ac.uk] The popularity of genealogy, encouraged by the increasing use of the Internet is encouraging a number of people to mass-market what authorities regard as scam genealogical books which are sometimes promoted by affiliated websites. ...

Source records are generally most accurate for the information they are intended to provide. To illustrate, death registrations or obituaries are more reliable for date and place of death, whereas the age or date of birth indicated can be inaccurate. Therefore, depending on the information extracted, the assessment of the reliability of the same source reference can vary significantly.

Online genealogies must be treated with caution. Many amateur genealogists do not verify source information but rather copy data and treat it as accurate. For instance, a marriage that some online genealogies indicate took place in Manville, Ontario actually took place in Manville, Alberta - no one checked the registration, or even verified if a town by this name ever existed in Ontario, Canada. This is not to say that all such information is wrong, but rather that a researcher is best advised to use this type of source as a guide only, and verify all data with vital records where possible. Many indexes and website listings are far from complete, often misleading and sometimes inaccurate: Check "sources" with The Institute of Heraldic and Genealogical Studies: [registrar@ihgs.ac.uk]

Place names

Place names are normally the most accurate because they tend to be long lasting. Nevertheless, place name data may be occasionally inaccurate or confusing. Inaccurate place names in records may be caused by a number of factors. First, place names may be subject to variable spellings by partially literate scribes. Second, small places in neighbouring counties may have the same or substantially similar names. For example, the name Brocton for villages occurs six times in the border area between the English counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire). Third, place names may be confusing or deceptive due to changes in political borders. For instance, county borders in the C17th-C19th England were frequently modified, with outlying and detached areas being reassigned to other counties. Old records may contain references to Middle Age villages that have ceased to exist due to disease or famine. Finally, census returns may simply have recorded inaccurate information. Brocton may refer to: Brocton, Cornwall, United Kingdom Brocton, Staffordshire, United Kingdom Brocton, New York, United States Brocton, Illinois, United States This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Shropshire (abbreviated Salop or Shrops) is a traditional, ceremonial and administrative county in the West Midlands region of England. ... Staffordshire (abbreviated Staffs) is a landlocked county in the West Midlands region of England. ...

Individual recollections also provide a source of place names, and sometimes inaccurate place names. The place where someone describes growing up may not be the place of birth or where the records are eventually found. For instance, while an ancestor may recall growing up in one location, records documenting that ancestor may only be found in other locations. There is a good likelihood that the place (parish) of a birth for a girl is the place she marries (unless 'sent abroad' as a servant), and that the place of residence for a man is where he is buried; certainly a neighbouring parish.

Additionally, records may be found in many different locations due to family mobility.

Genealogists may rely on several references for place names: Maps (online), especially detailed maps such as the British Ordnance Survey (OS) maps and OS Old Map website; gazetteers (place name dictionary); census returns; birth, death & marriage records; and historical records such as the Domesday Book. Image produced from the Ordnance Survey Get-a-map service. ... 1870 US Census for New York City A census is the process of obtaining information about every member of a population (not necessarily a human population). ... Doomesday Book (also known as Domesday, or Book of Winchester), was the record of the great survey of England completed in 1086, executed for William the Conqueror, that was similar to a census by a government of today. ...

Occupations

Reported occupations may be semi-accurate. Many unskilled ancestors had a variety of jobs depending on the season and local trade requirements. Occasionally skilled trades pass from father to son. Census returns may contain some embellishment; e.g., from Labourer to Mason, or from journeyman to Master craftsman. Workmen no longer fit for their primary trade often take less glamorous jobs later in life. Names for old or unfamiliar local occupations may cause confusion if poorly legible. For example, an ostler (a keeper of horses) and a hostler (an innkeeper) could easily be confused for one another. Likewise, descriptions of such occupations may also be problematic. The perplexing description "ironer of rabbit burrows" may turn out to describe an ironer (profession) in the Bristol district named Rabbit Burrows. Several trades have regional preferences, for example, shoemaker or cordwainer. Finally, many apparently obscure jobs are part of a larger trade community, such as watchmaking, framework knitting or gunmaking. In classical economics and all micro-economics labour is one of three factors of production, the others being land and capital. ... A mason is a worker in brick or stone, now most commonly involved in building walls, but previously also arches and vaults. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Tradesperson. ... // History A master craftsman (sometimes called only master or grandmaster) was a member of a guild. ... Bristol (IPA: brĭstəl) is a city, unitary authority and ceremonial county in South West England. ... A stocking frame was a mechanical knitting machine used in the textiles industry. ...

Occupational data may be reported in trade directories, census returns, birth, death & marriage records.

Family Names

Family names are simultaneously one of the most important pieces of genealogical information, and a source of significant confusion for researchers.

In most cultures, the name of a person references the family to which he or she belongs. This is called the family name, or surname. It is often also called the last name because, for most speakers of English, the family name comes after the given name (or names). However, this is not the case in other cultures, e.g., Chinese family names precede the given name. A family name, or surname, is the part of a persons name that indicates to what family he or she belongs. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

Patronymics are names which allow identification of an individual based on the father's name, e.g., Marga Olafsdottir or Olfa Thorsson. Many cultures used patronymics before surnames were adopted or came into use. The Dutch in New York, for example, used the patronymic system of names until 1687 when the advent of English rule mandated surname usage. See the article "Dutch Patronymics in New York in the 1600s" at Olive Tree Genealogy for a beginner tutorial on the patronymic system. A patronymic, or patronym, is a component of a personal name based on the name of ones father. ...

As with place names, surname and personal name data may be subject to variant spellings. Older records may include greater variation in spelling than modern records. Phonetic spelling may be the only link variantly spelled names; e.g., "Quilter" and "Kieltagh". Records may also include completely different variants of names, such as MORT for MORDECAI.

The transmission of names across generations, marriages and other relationships, and immigrations also causes significant inaccuracy in genealogical data. For instance, children may sometimes take or be given step-parent, foster parent, or adoptive parent names. Women in many cultures have routinely used their spouse's surnames. When a woman remarried, she may have changed her name and the names of her children; only her name; or changed no names. Her birth ("maiden") name may be reflected in her children's middle names; her own middle name; or dropped entirely. To meet Wikipedias quality standards and appeal to a wider international audience, this article may require cleanup. ...

Official records do not capture many kinds of surname changes. For example, fostering, common-law marriage, love affairs, changes in career or location may all result in name changes which are not reflected as such in official records. Common-law marriage (or common law marriage), sometimes called informal marriage or marriage by habit and repute is, historically, a form of interpersonal status in which a man and a woman are legally married. ...

Difficulties can also arise when researching family lines with common surnames such as "Smith", or surnames common to a particular geographic area. Many times, an amateur researcher will assume that a person is a direct ancestor based solely on the given/surnames, only to later find out that this person is not related or is a more distant relative.

Surname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death & marriage records.

First Names

Genealogical data regarding first names is subject to many of the same problems of family names and place names.

Additionally, nicknames for personal names are very common — Beth, Lizzie or Betty is common for Elizabeth, which can be confused with Eliza. Patty has been used as a diminutive form for Martha. There is Amy used for Alice, Nancy/Ann, and Polly used for a number of feminine names including Mary Ann and Elizabeth. While the feminine names are the most confusing, masculine names can also interchange: Jack, John & Jonathan, Joseph & Josiah, Edward & Edwin, etc.

Middle names provide additional information. Middle names may be inherited, or follow naming customs. Middle names may sometimes be treated as part of the family name. For instance, in some Latin cultures, both the mother's family name and the father's family name are used by the children. Official records may record full names in a variety of ways: First, Middle, Last; Last, Middle, First; Last, First Middle; Last, First, M.

Historically, naming conventions existed in some places, where the name given to one's children was dictated by a particular formula. An example is Scotland, where the following convention existed:

• 1st son - named after paternal grandfather
• 2nd son - named after maternal grandfather
• 3rd son - named after father
• 4th son - named after father's oldest brother
• 1st daughter - named after maternal grandmother
• 2nd daughter - named after paternal grandmother
• 3rd daughter - named after mother
• 4th daughter - named after mother's oldest sister

If a child died, generally the next child of the same gender that was born was given the same name. Quite often, a list of a particular couple's children will show one or two names repeated, sometimes 3 or 4 times. Although this can be confusing, it can also assist a researcher in discovering the date of death for the previous siblings of the same name.

Personal names go through periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon to find many similarly-named people in a generation, and even similarly-named families; e.g., "William and Mary and their children David, Mary, and John".

Many names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls. Other names may be ambiguous, e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female) and Francis (usually male). A unisex name, also known as an epicene name, is a given name that is often given to either a male or a female. ...

For a search engine designed for researching your family by unique first names, visit "First Name Basis" at Genealogy Today.

Dates

It is wise to exercise extreme caution and skepticism with dates. Accurate dates of birth may be given for modern registrations and in a few church records at baptism. Family Bibles may be a help, but can be written from memory long after the event - beware of the same ink and handwriting for all entries; a sure sign the dates were written at the same time and therefore will be less reliable. Women will commonly reduce their age on marriage, and perhaps those under "full age" may increase their age upon marriage or joining the armed forces. Census returns are notoriously unreliable, particularly when looking for a date for a husband's death - if the woman is at home while the husband is away, she could be given as Head of household or assumed a widow. The 1841 census in the UK is rounded down to the next lower multiple of five years. Dates around birth may be confused between birth and baptism. Some families wait 3-5 years before baptising children, and adult baptisms are not unheard of. Both birth and marriage dates can be adjusted to cover for pre-wedding pregnancies. It is very common for the first child to be born before or within a few months of a marriage and sometimes baptised in the mother's name, later adopting the father's name after the parents' marriage. The father's name can be used even if no marriage has occurred. 1870 US Census for New York City A census is the process of obtaining information about every member of a population (not necessarily a human population). ... The United Kingdom has taken a census of its population every ten years since 1801, with the exception of 1941. ...

In 1752 the date of the new year was changed in England and the American Colonies. Before 1752 the new year started on the 25th March, but in 1752 this was changed to the 1st January. This was part of the transition to the Gregorian calendar from the Julian calendar. Many other European countries had already made the change, and by 1751 there was an 11 day discrepancy between the date in England and the date in other European countries. The date continued to be recorded as usual in 1752 until 2nd September 1752, the following day became 14th September 1752. Dates that were recorded in the older system can be shown by "double dating". For example; Original date: 24th of March 1750; Modern date: 24th March 1751; Double dating: 24th March 1750/51. Inscription on the tomb of Pope Gregory XIII celebrating the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar The Gregorian calendar is the calendar that is used nearly everywhere in the world. ... The Julian calendar was introduced in 46 BC by Julius Caesar and took force in 45 BC (709 ab urbe condita). ...

For events occurring before 1752 in countries where the Julian calendar was still in use, it is best to use double dating whenever the exact year can be ascertained. When transcribing an original record where the exact year is evident but not expressed, the double date can be written as, for example, "24th March 1750[/51]". The Julian calendar was introduced in 46 BC by Julius Caesar and took force in 45 BC (709 ab urbe condita). ...

One should also be aware that, in those places using the old Julian calendar, the numbering of months also varied. The "1st month" of the year was considered March, the second April, the third May, and so on. Those 24 days in March which fell before the beginning of the year were generally regarded as being part of the first month. The Julian calendar was introduced in 46 BC by Julius Caesar and took force in 45 BC (709 ab urbe condita). ...

NOTE The foregoing may be true for British genealogical records but does in no way apply to records in other countries. A notable exception is the Nordic countries, especially Sweden, which have very detailed and mostly accurate records in the form of church records from the 18th century onwards.

But there, as in any historical research, a critical review of all information and an assessment of the reliability of each source is required.

The "maximum relationship"

One of the aims in professional genealogy circles has been to determine the maximum degree of separation which currently exists between all people in the world. That is to say, how many generations back is the first common ancestor that the two most distantly related people on earth share.

Latest models, taking into account sexual differentiation, monogamy and realistic migration patterns suggest that the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all humans probably lived 75-150 generations or 2000-4000 years ago. Moreover, the MRCA is likely to have lived somewhere in Southeast Asia (increasing the likelihood of his or her descendents reaching the remote islands of the Pacific), is equally likely to be a man or woman, and is not characterized by an unusually large number of children. These models also show that while a large group (indeed all humans) share recent common ancestors, a given person is likely to share the vast majority of his or her genes with a very small local group. The most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of any set of organisms is the most recent individual which is an ancestor of all of them. ...

Software

Main article: Genealogy software

Genealogy software is computer software used to collect, store, sort, and display genealogical data. At a minimum, genealogy software tends to accommodate basic information about births, marriages, and deaths. Many programs allow for additional biographical information and a host of features. This article or section seems not to be written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia entry. ... This article or section seems not to be written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia entry. ... A screenshot of computer software in action. ...

Certain programs are geared towards specific religions, and will include additional fields relevant to that religion. Other programs focus on certain geographical regions.

Some programs will allow for the import of digital photographs, and sound files. Other programs focus on the ability to generate kinship charts. Some programs are more flexible than others in allowing for the input of same sex marriages and children born out of wedlock. Same-sex marriage (also called gay marriage, and—less frequently—homosexual marriage) refers to marriage between partners of the same gender (for other forms of same-sex unions that are different from marriages, see the articles linked in that section). ... Illegitimacy was a term in common use for the condition of being born of parents who were not validly married to one another; the legal term was bastardy. ...

There is currently a move to incorporate fields for the input of genealogical DNA test results, though this information can be added into the "Notes" field of almost all genealogy software. // A genealogical DNA test involves examining the nucleotides at specific locations on a persons DNA. The tests results are meant to have no informative medical value and do not determine specific genetic diseases or disorders (see possible exceptions in Medical information below); they are intended only for use in...

Most genealogy software will allow for the export of data in the GEDCOM format, which can then be shared with people using different genealogy software. Certain programs allow the user to restrict what information is shared, usually by removing information about living people for privacy purposes. GEDCOM, an acronym for GEnealogical Data COMmunication, is a specification for exchanging genealogical data between different genealogical systems. ... Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to keep their lives and personal affairs out of public view, or to stop information about themselves from becoming known to people other than those whom they choose to give the information. ...

See also

• Census
• List of genealogy publications
• List of genealogy portals
• List of general genealogy databases
• List of surname repositories
• MyFamily.com, Inc.
• WikiTree
• Wikipeople Project
• GlobalFamilyTree
• Wikitree
• rodovid

1870 US Census for New York City A census is the process of obtaining information about every member of a population (not necessarily a human population). ... This is a list of regular publications, be they print or online, that serve the genealogical research community. ... This is a list of genealogy web portals, sites on the web that are large curated sets of links to genealogy resources. ... This is a list of genealogy databases and online resources that are not specifically restricted to a particular place, family set, or time period in their content. ... This is a list of genealogy resources that specialize in lists of surnames and full personal names. ... Myfamily. ... Proposed Wikitree logo WikiTree (initiated on April 26, 2005) is a project running on the MediaWiki platform that aims to bring together basic personal profiles of all individuals we know who ever lived on this planet and automatically construct bloodline trees of families that will gradually start forming a global...

External links

General

• Cyndi's List. A directory of over 258,000 genealogy links. Website is in English but provides resources for dozens of nations.

Message boards

• List of genealogy message boards
• Archive.org backup of gendir.com
• Family Tree Message Board

Mailing lists

• David's Genealogy Discussion Lists Homepage

Guides

• Genealogy Research Guidance from the Latter-day Saints Family History Library
• Genealogy Research Guides and Records on the Internet

Australia

• The Genealogical Society of Victoria Inc.
• Victorian GUM Inc.
• Tasmanian Family History Society Inc.
• Central Queensland Family History Association Inc.

Canada

• Canadian Genealogy Centre

China

• Huang Clan Genealogy

Cuba

• Cuban Geneaology Center

Denmark

• The Society for Danish Genealogy and Biography
• DIS Danmark
• OneTree Genealogy - A large genealogical relationship database - Includes Danish patrician, nobility and royal lineages
• Genealogy and Records of Denmark

Finland

• The Genealogical Society of Finland

French-Canadian and French-American

• American-French Genealogical Society
• American-Canadian Genealogical Society

Germany

• German Roots - German Genealogy Resources

• Germany - Genealogy Resources

Ireland

• Irish Family History Foundation - Main resource for Irish church, civil and cemetery record
• Irish Genealogy
• Irish Ancestors
• Irish Genealogy Research

Israel

• The Israel Genealogical Society

Italy

• ItalianGenealogy.com - The best Internet resource for Italian Genealogy since April 1995
• Italy World Genealogy Web - Part of the WorldGenWeb Project which is a non-profit, volunteer based organization dedicated to providing genealogical and historical records and resources for world-wide access!
• gens.labo.net

Jewish

• JewishGen
• The Douglas E. Goldman Jewish Genealogy Center
• Jewish Genealogical Society of Great Britain
• Jewish Genealogical Society of Los Angeles, CA
• FAST Genealogy Service

Malta

• Maltese migration research

Netherlands

• Digital Resources Netherlands and Belgium
• Centraal Bureau voor Genealogie

New Zealand

• New Zealand Society of Genealogists Inc.

Norway

• DIS-Norge
• Genealogy Society of Norway
• NSF - The Norwegian Genealogical Society

Pakistan

• Pakistan Genealogy

Serbia-Montenegro

• Serbian Genealogical Society

Slovakia

• Slovak Genealogical Society

Sweden

• Sweden Genealogy Gate
• Swedish Roots
• Swedish Church Records - Genline

Switzerland

• Swiss Genealogy on the Internet

United Kingdom

• Family Records Centre
• UK & Ireland Genealogy
• UK National Archives
• Society of Genealogists
• Scotlands people
• Campaign to release 1911 Census
• Free BMD project
• Herring Family Name website and forum
• Catholic Family History Society

Wales

• Welsh Genealogy resources from The OGRE

West Indies

• Rootsweb Caribbean-L eMail Discussion List

Notes and References

1. ^ The mythological origin of English kings is related in a number of derivative sources, such as The Scyldings, an article at Ancient Worlds. In this article one primary source cited is the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". The following passage appears in the entry for A.D. 449: "Their leaders were two brothers, Hengest and Horsa; who were the sons of Wihtgils; Wihtgils was the son of Witta, Witta of Wecta, Wecta of Woden. From this Woden arose all our royal kindred, and that of the Southumbrians also." In this context "royal kindred" refers to English kings. Reference: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Part 1: A.D. 1 - 748, part of The Online Medieval & Classical Library. Accessed 2005 Mar 11.

• Citation: Windows on Humanity by Conrad Phillip KOTTAK. Chapter 2, page 38.