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Manchukuo, under Japanese control from 1931 to 1945, was divided in five large prefectures or antos. Each of those provinces was divided in various subprefectures. Manchukuo was a nominally independent puppet state set up by the Empire of Japan in Manchuria (Northeastern China) which existed from 1931 to 1945. ...
Official language Japanese Capital Tokyo Largest City Tokyo Emperor Akihito Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi Area - Total - % water Ranked 60th 377,835 km² 0. ...
An anto was an ancient Manchu political administrative term equivalent for referring to provinces or prefectures. ...
Liaoning (Simplified Chinese: 辽宁; Traditional Chinese: 遼寧; pinyin: Liáoníng) is a northeastern province of the Peoples Republic of China. ...
Major districts of Shenyang. ...
Liaoyang is a city in Liaoning province in northeast China. ...
Anshan (鞍山; lit. ...
Fuzhou (Chinese: 福州; pinyin: Fúzhōu; Wade-Giles: Fu-chou; also seen as Foochow or Fuchow) is a city on the coast of China, the largest city in and capital of Fujian province. ...
- Tsitsihar or Lungkiang (provincial capital)
- Aigun
- Kiamuzse or Shamussi
- Nunkiang or Mergen
Holungkiang, also known as West Heilungkiang or the Manchu land, comprised the entire present-day Chinese province of Heilungkiang and the Japanese-created Hsingan Manchukuo Anto, of the World War II period. ...
Heilongjiang (Simplified Chinese: 黑龙江省; Traditional Chinese: 黑龍江省; pinyin: Hēilóngjiāng; Postal System Pinyin: Heilungkiang) is a province of the Peoples Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. ...
Qiqihar (Simplified Chinese: 齐齐哈尔; Traditional Chinese: 齊齊哈爾; Pinyin: Qíqíhāěr; Postal Pinyin: Tsitsihar; Wade-Giles: Chi-chi-ha-er) is a major city in the Heilongjiang Province, Northeast China. ...
Aigun is a town of China in northern Manchuria, situated on the right bank of the Amur River. ...
Tsingan, Hsingan or Burga Anto - Hailar or Hulum (provincial capital)
- Manchouli or Lupin
Hailar may refer to: Hailar River Hailar, China This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...
For other uses of the word see: Lupin (disambiguation) Species over 150 recognised species, including: Lupinus albus Lupinus angustifolius Lupinus arboreus Lupinus luteus Lupinus nootkatensis Lupinus polyphyllus Lupinus x regalis Lupinus texensis Lupin, often spelled lupine in the US, is the common name for members of the genus Lupinus in...
Kirin or Chilin Anto For the mythical beast of Japanese culture see the article concerning the Chinese Qilin. ...
Location within China Changchun (Simplified Chinese: 长春; Traditional Chinese: 長春; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Chang-chun) is the capital of the Jilin province in northeastern China. ...
Location within China Changchun (Simplified Chinese: 长春; Traditional Chinese: 長春; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Chang-chun) is the capital of the Jilin province in northeastern China. ...
This article discusses the city of Harbin in Manchuria. ...
This article discusses the city of Harbin in Manchuria. ...
For the mythical beast of Japanese culture see the article concerning the Chinese Qilin. ...
Rehe (热河 or 熱河 pinyin: Rèhé, lit. ...
Chengde (承德, Pinyin: Chéngdé) is a city approximately one hundred miles northeast of Beijing in northeastern Hebei province, situated near the Luan River. ...
Rehe (热河 or 熱河 pinyin: Rèhé, lit. ...
Other major cities - Suifenho or Pogranichnaya
General Affairs State Council The General Affairs State Council was the real political power center in Japanese-controlled Manchukuo. The Kangde Emperor did not hold genuine power. A Japanese civil servant described the Council as "the steel structure that that sustains the Manchukuo regime". This Japanese-dominated political entity was more accurately the "General Commission Affairs of State Council". It was constituted as six departments or sections: Aisin-Gioro Puyi¹ (February 7, 1906 - October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝) of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. ...
- Planning
- Legislation
- Personnel
- Accounts
- Statistics
- Information
with Japanese administrative and chief personnel. The London Times in December 1932 reported that it was the real policy and control body in Manchukuo, with power to hire and fire civil servants and over the budget.at same time these political entity debt to response at the maxime autority in all territoire and direct representative of Japanese Emperor,The Kwantung Army and your Commander in Chief. The Times is a national quality daily newspaper in the United Kingdom. ...
The Kwantung Army or Guandong Army (関東軍 Japanese: Kantōgun) was a unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that originated from a Guandong garrison established in 1906 to defend the Kwantung Leased Territory and the areas adjacent to the South Manchurian Railway. ...
Maladministration and lawlessness In 1931, Manchukuo began to be ruled along the lines of colonialism, though in a particularly brutal form. Early on, naked power was directed against Manchu, Chinese and White Russians; with foreign protests of no account. Kidnapping to threaten important persons, or for extortion, was employed. World map of colonialism circa 1945. ...
In criminal law, kidnapping is the taking away of a person against the persons will, usually to hold the person in false imprisonment (confinement without legal authority) for ransom or in furtherance of another crime. ...
Extortion is a criminal offense, which occurs when a person obtains money, behaviour, or other goods and/or services from another by wrongfully threatening or inflicting harm to his person, reputation, or property. ...
Charges made against the Japanese military rulers, effectively in control in Manchukuo, include the following. The basis of some of these, in relation to external observers, is discussed in the next section.
Conspiracy The main charge is of conspiracy, conscious and supported by detailed planning and a theoretical framework, to institute by power a state of dictatorship, on a foreign territory. This comprised both the 'puppet state', for the external exploitation of the population and natural resources; and the planned modification of cultural identity. A puppet state is a state whose government, though notionally of the same culture as the governed people - owes its existence (or other major debt) to being installed, supported or controlled by a more powerful entity, typically a foreign power. ...
opined why Manchukuo debt to convert in one "Modelic" State for example of the all world and Asia lands how premise to conquest Siberian regions(included to Vladivostok too).how part ofJapanese Army Ideologysts Strike North Group Plans,at difference of your opositors of Japanese Navy Thinkers of Strike South Group why sayed why Manchukuo no debt interesting of luck of these territoire,unically debt to limited at squeez your industrial ,natural and economical resources of more more brutal and low priced possibly in context of Intimidation Campaing for the rest of China Mainland.preciselly between these context above mentioned if occured back of two years of low figths,in july 8,1937 the total war between China and japan. Kanji Ishiwara (石原 莞爾, 1889 - 1949) was a Japanese military officer in the Guandong Army. ...
Siberian federal subjects of Russia Siberia (Russian: Сиби́рь, common English transliterations: Sibir, Sibir; possibly from the Mongolian for the calm land) is a vast region of Russia and northern Kazakhstan constituting all of northern Asia. ...
Vladivostok Train Station Vladivostok (Russian: Владивосто́к) is a city in Russia. ...
Japans honor guard often marches to greet the arrival of foreign dignitaries. ...
Manchukuo was a nominally independent puppet state set up by the Empire of Japan in Manchuria (Northeastern China) which existed from 1931 to 1945. ...
Power politics and repression - Creation or use of official decrees, laws or official orders for founded "legal" support of much of these war and common crimes, and forcing the native Manchu "authorities" into signing these orders, as happened to the Kangde Emperor, Puyi
- Illegal arrests and capture of civilians without reason by the local Manchu police or Japanese autorities.
- Forced spying bylocal Manchu residents' committees in each house in residential areas
- Forced recruitment to local "native" nationalist parties and movements organized for Japanese ideologies.
- Use of Korean, Manchu, Russian and Chinese agents on behalf of Manchu and Japanese Secret service for watching, prosecution constantly and spying on the foreign or local opposition and forced use of local or foreign persons as spies.
- the common Japanese use of prebends,well contracts,comodities,
political influences,great quantity of money and others media how control Corrupt maner for managing at your local servants in territoire. Aisin-Gioro Puyi¹ (February 7, 1906 - October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝) of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. ...
Aisin-Gioro Puyi¹ (February 7, 1906 - October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝) of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. ...
Economic criminality - Forced particular properties or land appropiations or discared sacking either with or without legal orders in favour of Japanese citizens or private and goverment companies and local administration.
- Use of criminal gangs for robbery and menacing the opposition or other purposes and the Japanese government and military connections with local Chinese, Manchu and White Russians delictive Warlords, Cartels, bands and Mafias for gained beneficts for delictive business actions with your "authorisation".
- The establishment of monopolies for all aspects (from trivial to most important) to the economic benefit of Japanese and local Manchu and Chinese business associates.
- Jointly with local gangsters, establishment of drugs centers for use or local selling this in nation and installing Casinos and forced brothels for entertaiment of troops and servants or toleration of suppose "illegal" similar centers.
- Sabotage and damage of local commercial properties with local elective servants in benefits to South Manchurian Railway and other Japanese companies
- Official monopoly joint Japanese Mitsui Zaibatsu Clan for farming of Amapole and manufacture of Opium drug for use how demoralization weapon against enemy in China and Southeastasia duringPacific war.
- Kidnapping of local or foreign personalities for financial ransom. Ransoms were paid to secret local or foreign groups on behalf of Japanese secret service or for local Chinese, manchu or White Russians, mafia gangs or subcontract of Japanese military. Many of these kidnappings resulted in the death of persons, despite ransom money having been paid.
This article is about economic monopoly. ...
Prostitution is the sale of sexual services (typically manual stimulation, oral sex, sexual intercourse, or anal sex) for cash or other kind of return, generally indiscriminately with many persons. ...
Mitsui (三井) is one of the largest corporate conglomerates (Keiretsu) in Japan and one of the largest publicly traded companies in the world. ...
Opium is a narcotic drug which is obtained from the unripe seed pods of the opium poppy . ...
Human rights violations - Dissappearance of all political opponents without informing relatives.
- Torture inflicted to prisoners in regular Penal or military Jails for part of Japanese officers or Local Chinese, Manchu or White Russians delictive servants.
- Large scale assasinations of persons for Japanese or local military Manchu or Chinese units as an "example" or as "revenge" against local Communist Chinese guerrilla.
- Natural rights of Japanese subjects for inflicted bad treatment of differents types by supposed inferior race subjects overall at expatriate white russians, foreign jews, Manchus, Chinese and other nationalities.
- Deformation of cultural aspects, indoctrination and education of non Japanese subjects with the purpose of obtain slaves for Japanese factories.
- Forced recruitment of Manchu, chinese mongol native citizens in Local Manchu Army, regular police or Manchu secret service against thier will for implement war crimes against civilians or supposed opposition.
- Forced work to death in toxic areas on factories of heavy industry, dangerous mining works or in exterior constructions service for native manchu citizens.
- inclusive the condition of loyal local servant or having correct Subdit of nation why ruling the territoire,in some cases no aidmuchto liberatedof arrest,tortures,jailconfinement,exiles,deportations,good confiscations,menace to families,harrasmens,constant prosecutions and watchings or in more bad cases dissapareing of subjects opposed at regimes still having citizens or servants of ruler nation stablishment.
- Researches, Offices, Experiments and Works of special group Unit 371 and others Similar Units with Support of Kempeitai units in country.
- the forzed use of human beings in terrible experiments against your disposition or beliveings.
Direct foreign and Japanese testimonies
Wellington Koo Important testimony is that of Wellington Koo (a future foreign affairs minister in the Chinese cabinet). He formed part of the Lytton Commission of the League of Nations for evaluation of Manchukuo. They arrived inMukden and immediately saw Japanese moves to conceal the reality, and create a false sense of accord of the local Manchu citizens. He suspected that japanese having to menace at nativesif any occured to mentioned any thing of Manchu realities. Other members of the commission were: Dr. Heinrich Scheene, Count Aldrovani, General Frank Ross Mcoy and General Henri Claudel. They shared similar opinions. The commission received in secret 1,000 personal letters with the theme we don't want to end up like the Koreans. Puyi himself mentioned escape from the Japanese when sending a confidant to Wellington Koo in person; but he saed he had no way to help. V.K. Wellington Koo (1887 - 1985) was a Chinese diplomat, educated at Columbia University. ...
Lytton Report was a report generated by a League of Nations commission to try to resolve the Manchurian Crisis. ...
The League of Nations was an international organisation founded after the First World War with its constitution being approved by the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. ...
Major districts of Shenyang. ...
Aisin-Gioro Puyi¹ (February 7, 1906 - October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝) of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. ...
Peter Fleming The British travel writer Peter Fleming, in his books "One's Company" and "News from Tartary", mentioned why Proper local situation mantain more occupied at Japanese Army and Manchu troops under Japanese officers command. he in person accompained at these troops in antiguerrilla operations agains "Bandits" (chinese communist rebels), Japanese and Manchu why none found at these "bandits" debt at why are aided for local population exhausted for Japanse harrasments. the are direct eyewitness of Japanese and Manchu soldiers brutality,when sayed why in onerural town "see two men bundle at pole, with knowledge of why are executed by shooting in this day in presence of your families". he sayed why these method are habitual for causing terror and panic against guerrilla native supporters. He also described how Kini, a Swiss woman friend, suffered severe xenophobic aggression for part of Japanese citizens. theirs when know why are swiss citizen,sended excuses but advert why all inferior races how White Russians and other similar,if autorized and permit why Japanese Subjects inflicted bad treates,debt at theirs are non citizens of none country or poses none social condition too. Peter Fleming (1907 – 1971) was a British adventurer and travel writer. ...
Communism - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ...
Ella Maillart 1903-1997 was a French speaking Swiss sportswoman and traveller. ...
Xenophobia means fear of strangers or the unknown and comes from the Greek ξενοφοβια, xenophobia, literally meaning fear of the strange. It is often used to describe fear of or dislike of foreigners, but racism in general is sometimes described as a form of xenophobia, as are such prejudices as...
Amleto Vespa See main article Amleto Vespa Amleto Vespa was an Italian secret agent in Manchuria between 1922 and 1940. ...
The Italian Amleto Vespa wrote ithe 1938 book Secret Agent of Japan, based on his own observations and experiences as a forced secret agent in Manchukuo. Other Manchukuo experts Edgar Snow and H. J. Timperley, correspondents of British Newspaper Manchester Guardian, confirmed the veracity of Amleto. Amleto Vespa was an Italian secret agent in Manchuria between 1922 and 1940. ...
Edgar Snow (b. ...
Harold John Timperley was an Australian journalist, known for his reporting from China in the 1930s, and the book What War Means (1938) based on it. ...
The Guardian was also the name of a U.S. television series. ...
Hiro Saga Another eyewitness of the Manchu situation was Hiro Saga, the Japanese wife of Manchu Prince Pu-Chieh (Puyi brother) and proper Kangde Emperor. She mentioned the constantly actions andwatching of certain servants of Puyi,but knowed whyi really treated of Japanese agents sended to observed the Puyi actions inside palace.the proper Kangde emperor mentioned in your memoires these harrasment and watching why sense, for all he in various occasions treated to scape of Palace,but desist when remembered why ifthe most near area,(Nanking Wang Chingwei regime or Mengjiang Mongol nation )stay under japanese control or stay near at Japanese province of Chosen,inclusive if thinked in scapedto USSR or form part of Chinese comunist guerrillabut at final no making these actions for your fearat japanese agressions against your family or himself in person,he knowed perfectly the watchig of Kempeitai intelligence unit and Japanese Secret Service disguised agents with your local manchu and other servants why making constatly at your person in quality of Head state of Manchukuo Empire nation. Aisin-Gioro Puyi¹ (February 7, 1906 - October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝) of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. ...
Aisin-Gioro Puyi¹ (February 7, 1906 - October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝) of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. ...
Wang Jingwei (Traditional Chinese: 汪精衛, Simplified Chinese: 汪精卫, Hanyu Pinyin: Wāng Jīngwèi, Wade-Giles: Wang Ching-wei) (1883 - November 1944), was a member of the left wing of the Kuomintang and is most noted from breaking with Chiang Kai-Shek and forming a Japanese supported collaborationist government in Nanjing. ...
Mengjiang (蒙疆 in pinyin: Méngjiāng; in Wade-Giles: Meng-chiang; Postal Pinyin: Mengkiang, literal meaning: Mongolian Territories), also known in English as Mongol Border Land, was a puppet state in northern China (consisted of Chahar and Suiyuan provinces) controlled by Japan. ...
Joseon (Cháoxiǎn (朝鲜) in Chinese; Chosen (朝鮮) in Japanese) is a name for Korea, as used in the following cases: As part of the name of several ancient kingdoms (including Gojoseon, Gija Joseon, and Wiman Joseon); During most of the Joseon Dynasty, when the countrys full official name was...
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) (Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (СССР) listen; tr. ...
When used as an adjective, Chinese refers to anything that originates from China, , Chinese cuisine. ...
Kempeitai (憲兵隊, Law Soldier Regiment) was the military police of the Imperial Japanese Army. ...
Others - There is testimony of one Japanese Farmer Voluntary of these groups sended to Manchukuo why are eyewitness of one raid against Manchu Farmers for destined to Bayonet practices for Japanese Military, your properties in accord with testimony are confiscated to installing Japanese Settlers and convert in "strategic settlement" how much others in rural areas of nation.
- exist some cases of suppose loyal native servant or inclusive proper Japanese subjects why in plenty use of your liberty of thinking decided to opposed opened to official stablishment, are dissidents. but theirs poses bad finish, how occured to Japanese Addict Manchu Ministe Ling Sheng, one of natives "foundators and Nation Fathers" ofManchou nation .why for your "noble" services having to installing inmanage of Hsingan Province. in 1936,Kangde emperor calling for Japanese consellors for sayed why in one governors meetinghe,complain over Japanese intromision in your functions. for allthese servant are arrest and executed accused for "conspired with foreing potencies for rebeled against official stablishment". proper Kangde Emperor treated to interceded for your friend and Minister, front at proper Kwangtung Army Commander,the most higth autority in coutry can t to prevent the death of these person.
- in other hand ones uhknown Japanese subjects, opposed at manage of Japanese stablishment in Manchukuo and expressed your opinion. more later these subjects are captured for envoy at ones farest jails in Interior of nation. during visit to Lytton Commission these subjects are "vanished" in other more farest jails, you final fate are unknown still.
- other similar case are the fate of members of "Imperial Manchu Guards",the Kangde Emperor Official Bodyguards. these group the most select unit in Manchu nation with orders of protect at Kangde Emperor,and the unique security force(included your Japanese commander) why Puyi personally trusted. japanese ,during one "sacred voyage" to japan of Kangde Emperor,decied to arrests at all, degraded, tortured and deport outside Manchukuo accused to "anti-japanese and anti-manchu activities" Puyi only giving count when arriving and see the absence and observed the change of personal.
- During March 5, 1932, occured the murder of Baron Takumo Dan, an important and opened opponent of the Japanese official Stablishment, your politics in Proper Japan and your foreing interventions in Manchukuo and other nearest areas. he are more knowed for foreing circles and knowed friend of United States, and having to assign how local consellor, in Japan of Lytton Commission. He was a director of Mitsui Bank, and was a man of moral integrity and independence of thinking. your assasin are one ultranationalists member of Ketsumeidan Society (Blood Fraternity), for all these murder are interpreted how advise at all Japanese subjects, for more eminents why having if to yield at Official Policy in Japan and Manchukuo and maintained at marging of Nations Society. this sucess occured just in times why Lytton Commission,stay in visit in Tokio and are objects of diplomatic banquets and fests after your visit to Manchukuo. exist some suspects why in these sucess stay implied certain personages in high power spheres how sinister Dr.Shumei Okawa and others.
The term Japanese can have several meanings: Japanese people - people of Japanese ancestry living in Japan Japanese language Japan Mainland Japan Ethnic Japanese - people of Japanese ancestry living outside Japan Japanese-American - an article primarily about the immigration and integration Japanese-Brazilian - Japanese-Brazilians in the city of São Paulo...
Manchukuo was a nominally independent puppet state set up by the Empire of Japan in Manchuria (Northeastern China) which existed from 1931 to 1945. ...
The Manchu (manju in Manchu; 滿族 (pinyin: mǎnzú) in Chinese, often shortened to 滿 (pinyin: mǎn) are an ethnic group who originated in northeastern Manchuria. ...
The US Marine Corps OKC-3S bayonet From right to left: a carbine, a straight infantry officer sabre, a short curved infantry sabre (briquet), two bayonets. ...
The term Japanese can have several meanings: Japanese people - people of Japanese ancestry living in Japan Japanese language Japan Mainland Japan Ethnic Japanese - people of Japanese ancestry living outside Japan Japanese-American - an article primarily about the immigration and integration Japanese-Brazilian - Japanese-Brazilians in the city of São Paulo...
Aisin-Gioro Puyi¹ (February 7, 1906 - October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝) of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. ...
The term Japanese can have several meanings: Japanese people - people of Japanese ancestry living in Japan Japanese language Japan Mainland Japan Ethnic Japanese - people of Japanese ancestry living outside Japan Japanese-American - an article primarily about the immigration and integration Japanese-Brazilian - Japanese-Brazilians in the city of São Paulo...
Lytton Report was a report generated by a League of Nations commission to try to resolve the Manchurian Crisis. ...
Aisin-Gioro Puyi¹ (February 7, 1906 - October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝) of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. ...
Aisin-Gioro Puyi¹ (February 7, 1906 - October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝) of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. ...
Manchukuo was a nominally independent puppet state set up by the Empire of Japan in Manchuria (Northeastern China) which existed from 1931 to 1945. ...
The United States of America — also referred to as the United States, the U.S.A., the U.S., America, the States, or (archaically) Columbia—is a federal republic of 50 states located primarily in central North America (with the exception of two states: Alaska and Hawaii). ...
Lytton Report was a report generated by a League of Nations commission to try to resolve the Manchurian Crisis. ...
Mitsui (三井) is one of the largest corporation groups in Japan. ...
Official language Japanese Capital Tokyo Largest City Tokyo Emperor Akihito Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi Area - Total - % water Ranked 60th 377,835 km² 0. ...
Manchukuo was a nominally independent puppet state set up by the Empire of Japan in Manchuria (Northeastern China) which existed from 1931 to 1945. ...
Lytton Report was a report generated by a League of Nations commission to try to resolve the Manchurian Crisis. ...
Manchukuo was a nominally independent puppet state set up by the Empire of Japan in Manchuria (Northeastern China) which existed from 1931 to 1945. ...
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