General Motors EV1
Manufacturer	General Motors
Production	1996-1999 (1,117 units) 1997 Model Year: 660 units 1999 Model Year: 457 units
Assembly	GM Lansing Craft Centre, Lansing, Michigan
Predecessor	Impact (prototype)
Successor	N/A
Class	Electric car
Body style(s)	2 seat Subcompact
Layout	FF layout
Engine(s)	3-phase AC Induction
Transmission(s)	single speed reduction integrated with motor and differential
Fuel capacity	Battery (VRLA from Delphi 53 Ah VRLA from Panasonic 60Ah NiMH: 77 Ah)
Designer	General Motors

The EV1 was the first purpose-built electric car produced by General Motors (GM) in the United States. Image File history File links GM_EV.jpg‎ General Motors EV1 This is a copyrighted image that has been released by a company or organization to promote their work or product in the media, such as advertising material or a promotional photo in a press kit. ... Automakers, also known as carmakers, automobile manufacturers, motor manufacturers, or the automobile industry are companies that design and manufacture automobiles. ... General Motors Corporation, also known as GM, is a multinational corporation headquartered in the United States and has been the worlds most dominant automaker since 1931. ... The Lansing Craft Centre is a specialized General Motors automobile factory in Lansing, Michigan. ... Location in Ingham County, Michigan1 Coordinates: Country United States State Michigan County Ingham, Eaton Settled 1835 Incorporation 1859 Government  - Type Strong Mayor-Council  - Mayor Virg Bernero (D) Area  - City  35. ... Car classification is subjective since many vehicles fall into multiple categories. ... The Toyota RAV4 EV was powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon at 2005 US gasoline prices. ... Cars can come in a large variety of different body styles. ... A subcompact car is a car in a vehicle size class smaller than a compact car, but larger than a microcar. ... In automobile design layout is the place where both the engine and driven wheels are. ... Sketch of FF layout In automotive design, a FF, or Front-engine, Front-wheel drive layout places both the engine and driven wheels at the front of the vehicle. ... “Gearbox” redirects here. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Automotive design. ... EV1 may refer to: A car: The General Motors EV1 The Saab EV-1 It may also refer to: EV1 Servers, a subsidiary of Everyones Internet Category: ... The Toyota RAV4 EV was powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon at 2005 US gasoline prices. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ...

The EV1 electric cars were available in California and Arizona as a lease only and could be serviced at designated Saturn retailers. This article is about the U.S. state. ... Official language(s) English Spoken language(s) English 74. ... For the cars collectively known as Saturns, see Saturn S-Series. ...

History

Origins

The EV1 was directly based on a prototype vehicle created by AeroVironment called the GM Impact. The Impact in turn was based on design ideas first tested out in a record-breaking race car called the Sunraycer, a solar-electric vehicle the company created in 1987 specifically to win the World Solar Challenge, a trans-Australia race open to solar powered cars only. AeroVironment is a California technology company that is primarily involved in energy systems, electric vehicle systems, and unmanned aerial vehicles. ... EV1 redirects here. ... The Sunraycer was a solar powered race car designed to compete in the worlds first race featuring solar-powered cars. ... The Nuna 3 of the hattrick winning Dutch Nuna team The World Solar Challenge is a solar powered-car race over 3021 km through central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. ...

The predecessor of the EV1, the Impact, introduced at the January 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show, led to the Zero Emission Vehicle ("ZEV") mandate that year which was intended to curb California's growing problem with air pollution. Other members of what was then the American Automobile Manufacturers Association, plus Toyota, Nissan^[1] and Honda, each also developed a prototype ZEV. Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... ... Zero emission refers to an engine, motor, or other energy source, that emits no waste products that pollutes the environment or disrupts the climate. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Nissan Motor Co. ... The Honda EV Plus was the first production electric car from a major automaker with non lead acid batteries. ...

The ZEV Mandate originally specified that by 1998, 2% of all new cars sold by the seven major auto manufacturers in the state of California were to meet 'zero emission' standards as defined by the California Air Resources Board and 10% by 2003. California Air Resources Board (CARB) is the clean air agency of the state of California in the United States. ...

Release

GM never offered the EV1 for public sale. It was only available to consumers under a lease program that had "no purchase" clause disallowing the vehicle's re-purchase at the conclusion of the lease. 660 Generation One EV1s were produced for the 1997 model year,^[2] using lead acid batteries;^[3] each found a lessee. This article or section should include material from Tenancy agreement A lease is a contract conveying from one person (the lessor) to another person (the lessee) the right to use and control some article of property for a specified period of time (the term), without conveying ownership, in exchange for... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

In December 1999, GM released approximately 200 of the new Generation Two 1999 EV1s with the new nickel metal hydride battery. Over the next 8 months, the remaining 257 Generation Two EV1s were released to certain selected lessees which initiated a lengthy waiting list.^[4] In mid 2000, GM closed the EV1 plant. A total of 457 Generation Two EV1s were produced and all were eventually leased. A nickel metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery but has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the anode instead of cadmium. ...

On March 2 2000, 450 Generation One EV1s were recalled by GM due to a faulty charge port cable that GM determined would lead to heat buildup and even fire. This did not affect the Generation Two EV1s.^[5]

Over the next two years, approximately 200 of the Generation One EV1s were re-issued to their original lessees on revised two-year leases including a new limited-mileage clause.^[6] The delays were due to design complications in retrofitting the NiMH battery.^[7] Due to the tenuous retrofitting process and limited number of recall replacement parts available, GM offered the waiting Generation One leasees the opportunity to terminate their lease at no charge,^[8][9] or the chance to transfer the lease to one of the few 150 Generation Two EV1s left - ahead of those already on the Generation Two waiting list.^[10]

Program cancellation

In late 2003, GM officially canceled the EV1 program.^[11][12] Despite unfulfilled waiting lists and positive feedback from the lessees, GM stated that it could not sell enough of the cars to make the EV1 profitable. In fact, during the later stages of development for the car, GM officials claimed that they stood no chance of ever making a profit on the EV1 itself.^{[citation needed]}

Instead, the company hoped that the EV1 would prove their technology and establish a "leadership" position within the electric vehicle market. GM itself did not expect to turn a profit on electric vehicles for perhaps ten years after bringing the EV1 to market.^{[citation needed]} The end came when GM decided it was cheaper to sue the State of California to roll back clean vehicle regulations than it was to build electric vehicles.^{[citation needed]} GM stated that they spent over US$1 billion developing and marketing the EV1, though a portion of this cost was defrayed by the Clinton Administration's US$1.25 billion Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) project.^[13][14][15] All manufacturers seeking to produce electric cars for market consumption also benefitted from matching government funds committed to the United States Advanced Battery Consortium. The estimated research and development costs for the EV1 program to production (prior to marketing and sale costs) was pegged by General Motors as "slightly less than US$500 million". Cost-benefit analysis is an important technique for project appraisal: the process of weighing the total expected costs against the total expected benefits of one or more actions in order to choose the best or most profitable option. ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ... One thousand million (1,000,000,000) is the natural number following 999,999,999 and preceding 1,000,000,001. ... President Clintons Cabinet, circa 1993 Headed by President of the United States Bill Clinton, the Clinton Administation was the executive branch of the federal government of the United States from 1993 to 2001. ... The 80 mpg diesel-hybrid GM Precept The 72 mpg diesel-hybrid Ford Prodigy The 72 mpg diesel-hybrid Chrysler ESX-3 The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles was a cooperative research program between the U.S. government and major auto corporations, aimed at establishing U.S. leadership... United States Council for Automotive Research (USCAR) is an an umbrella organization for collaborative research that comprises DaimlerChrysler, Ford Motor Company and General Motors Corporation. ... Look up million in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

When canceling the program, GM also cited a lack of demand for the two-seater, particularly in light of its limited range and its suitability to "warm weather" states only.^{[citation needed]} During the EV1's development phase, several Northeastern states moved to pass ZEV laws similar to those adopted in California.^{[citation needed]} General Motors, along with many other prospective EV manufacturers, opposed this movement^{[citation needed]} despite the likelihood that such legislation would have vastly increased the market for the vehicle. While this may seem a sinister position to have taken, GM's internal research showed that the EV1's range would be reduced by as much as 50% for use in cold-weather states.^{[citation needed]} This was due chiefly to the effect of ambient temperature on both the batteries and the special low rolling resistance tires.^{[citation needed]}

In 2001, the California Air Resources Board modified the ZEV mandate^[16] to allow manufacturers to claim partial ZEV credit for hybrid vehicles. General Motors and DaimlerChrysler then sued the state of California and CARB, alleging that the new ZEV rules violated a federal law barring states from regulating fuel economy.^[17] In response, CARB removed the requirement for electric vehicles from the ZEV mandate in 2003, and GM - having produced a product for a mandate and market that no longer existed - cancelled the EV1 program soon after.^[18] California Air Resources Board (CARB) is the clean air agency of the state of California in the United States. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... DaimlerChrysler AG (ISIN: DE0007100000) is a German car corporation and the worlds eighth largest car manufacturer. ...

All EV1 leases required return of the vehicle at lease end; the last private EV1 lease expired in August 2003, and the last few drivers held a publicised funeral in Los Angeles on July 24, 2003.^[19] GM charged former lessees for excess wear and for scratches on the EV1s, and insisted on billing ex-lessees for these charges, even reporting non-payment as a charge-off. Upon lease expiration, many cars were put into storage at a facility in Burbank, California. GM donated around 40 returned EV1s to colleges and universities for engineering students, and to several museums including the Smithsonian Institution.^[20] All the donated EV1s are the original 1997 version, disabled by removal of the controller and batteries. By December, 2003 the last 78 EV1s in storage had been transferred to the GM Desert Proving Grounds in Mesa, Arizona for disposal, much to the protest of their former drivers. All EV1s sent to this site were stripped of their recyclables and crushed.^[21] An exceptional few were retained in GM Michigan proving grounds. Burbank is a city in Los Angeles County, California, United States. ... The Smithsonian Institution Building or Castle on the National Mall serves as the Institutions headquarters. ... Look up December in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... GM Desert Proving Grounds in Mesa, Arizona is a facility for the testing of HVAC, propulsion, and various automotive systems in a harsh climate. ... Location in Maricopa County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country State County Maricopa Government  - Mayor Keno Hawker (R) Area  - City  125. ...

Over 100 people offered to purchase the electric cars and waive such liability as they were able under American consumer product laws. GM consistently refused offers to purchase or re-lease any EV1s, stating that they would be subject to ongoing product liability from both the purchasers and any future owners, and that their internal customer support policies would require them to provide service and replacement parts for the EV1s for at least ten years.^[22] GM's suppliers stopped making replacement parts because of low demand, making it impossible to repair the vehicles.^[23] Of particular concern to the company was the likelihood that each leased car's battery packs would require replacement at 25-35,000 mile intervals, and that the very low volumes involved would necessitate the corporation's subsidy of spare parts to private owners, perhaps on an indefinite basis.

Reaction

The EV1 has been called a failure by business publications such as the Wall Street Journal.^[24] GM believes that the electric car venture was not a failure, and that the EV1 was doomed when the expected breakthrough in battery technology did not take place.^[25] In fact, the NiMH battery packs (or Ovonic Battery) that were expected to dramatically improve range came with their own set of problems; GM had to use a less-efficient charging algorithm (lengthening charge times) and waste power on air conditioning to prevent the battery packs from overheating.^[26] In addition, the elimination of the environmental mandate that led to the car's creation was, as previously mentioned, a huge factor in the program's cancellation. The EV1 could not have been created without the looming CARB 2% ZEV mandate in California. Ovonics (coined from Ovshinsky and electronics) is a field of electronics that uses materials able to change from an electrically nonconducting state to a semiconducting state shown by glass of special composition upon application of a certain minimum voltage. ...

The view of the EV1 as failure is a controversial one in itself. When viewed as an attempt to produce a commercially viable EV product, it was not a success. If one considers the vehicle from GM's perspective, as a technological showpiece—a production electric car that actually could replace a petrol powered vehicle—the program's outcome is less clear. The EV1 was produced for the consumer market, and many lessees found driving an EV1 to be a favorable experience. On that basis, EV1 would qualify as the most successful electric car ever built.

Some analysts have suggested that it is inappropriate to compare the EV1 with existing gasoline powered commuter cars as the EV1 is, in effect, a completely new product and had no equivalent vehicles to be judged against. Perhaps the largest disappointment to consumers is that, having invested the research time and money to invent the technology required to produce the EV1, GM did not continue development of future EV designs. Effectively, the technological advantage GM built through this program was squandered. Look up gasoline in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

It has recently been theorized by the documentary Who Killed the Electric Car? that the EV1 program was eliminated because it threatened the oil industry and because it required virtually no maintenance and therefore threatened GM's profitability by undermining the replacement parts aftermarket as well as the company's strategy of planned obsolescence. GM responded to the film's claims, before actually having seen the movie, laying out several reasons why the EV1 was not commercially viable at the time.^[27] Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 documentary film that explores the birth, limited commercialization, and subsequent death of the battery electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s. ... Planned obsolescence (also built-in obsolescence (UK)) is the decision on the part of a manufacturer to produce a consumer product that will become obsolete and/or non-functional in a defined time frame. ...

Resurrection

Some universities that were given deactivated EV1s have reactivated them and come under fire from GM for violating agreements.^[28][29] Several videos can be found on You-Tube showing the cars driving (but they get taken down and put back up so fast that they cannot be linked to). GM reacted sternly to the schools for allowing the cars to be driven on the road, which violated the agreement.

Costs

The price for the car used to compute lease payments was US$33,995 to US$43,995, which made for lease payments of US$299 to over US$574 per month. One industry official said that each EV1 cost the company about US$80,000, including research, development and other associated costs. That itself is right if the technology is not posted to other areas.^[30] The vehicle's lease prices also depended on available state rebates. At the time of purchase, the cost for the electricity used to power the car was computed to be one-third to half the cost of the equivalent amount of gasoline.^[31], and since that time, increases in gas prices may have made electricity relatively even less expensive (depending on customer location, recharging time and electricity billing variations—some utility companies have variable billing for peak vs. non-peak usage rates).

Technology

The EV1 was a 'purpose built' electric vehicle, not a conversion of an existing vehicle or drivetrain. The program was initially administered by Kenneth Baker, a GM Engineer who had previously managed the Electrovette program in the 1970s. This program had been intended as an in-factory conversion of the Chevrolet Chevette to electric power but did not reach production owing to technical and production cost difficulties. This article is about the automobile, Pontiac T1000. ...

General Motors used many advanced technologies in developing the EV1. These included:

• Aluminium frame
• Dent resistant side panels
• Anti-lock brakes
• Traction control
• Heat pump (Heater/AC)
• Keyless entry and keyless ignition
• Special one-way thermal glass to allow for better heat rejection
• Regenerative braking
• Very low drag coefficient - C_d~0.19, C_dA~0.36 m² (3.95 ft²)
• Super light magnesium alloy wheels
• Self-sealing & low rolling resistance tires (developed by Michelin)
• Automated tire pressure loss warning system
• Magnesium framed seats
• Time programmable HVAC (cabin heating or cooling) settings

Most of these technologies were included to improve the overall efficiency of the EV1. Aluminum redirects here. ... An anti-lock braking system (commonly known as ABS, from the German name Antiblockiersystem given to it by its inventors at Bosch) is a system on motor vehicles which prevents the wheels from locking while braking. ... Traction control systems, on current production vehicles, are typically (but not necessarily) electro-hydraulic systems designed to prevent loss of traction (and therefore the control of the vehicle) when excessive throttle or steering is applied by the driver. ... A heat pump is a machine or device that moves heat from one location (the source) to another location (the sink), using work. ... Entry remote for a Chrysler vehicle A remote keyless system is a system designed to remotely lock, or unlock, access to premises or automobiles. ... Entry remote for a Chrysler vehicle. ... Regenerative braking is any technology which allows a vehicle to recapture and store part of the kinetic energy that would otherwise be lost to heat when braking. ... The drag coefficient (Cd, Cx or Cw, depending on the country) is a dimensionless quantity that describes a characteristic amount of aerodynamic drag caused by fluid flow, used in the drag equation. ... The drag coefficient (Cd, Cx or Cw, depending on the country) is a dimensionless quantity that describes a characteristic amount of aerodynamic drag caused by fluid flow, used in the drag equation. ... The drag coefficient (Cd, Cx or Cw, depending on the country) is a dimensionless quantity that describes a characteristic amount of aerodynamic drag caused by fluid flow, used in the drag equation. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction, is the resistance that occurs when an object (e. ... Michelin (full name: Compagnie Générale des Établissements Michelin) (Euronext: ML) based in Clermont-Ferrand in the Auvergne région of France, is primarily a tyre manufacturer. ... General Name, symbol, number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white solid at room temp Standard atomic weight 24. ... HVAC may also stand for High-voltage alternating current HVAC systems use ventilation air ducts installed throughout a building that supply conditioned air to a room through rectangular or round outlet vents, called diffusers; and ducts that remove air from return-air grilles Fire-resistance rated mechanical shaft with HVAC...

The first generation EV1s used lead-acid batteries in 1996 (as model year 1997) and a second generation batch with nickel metal hydride batteries in 1999. Some of the Gen 1 EV1s were refurbished and upgraded to Panasonic lead-acid batteries. A valve-regulated, sometimes called sealed, lead acid battery Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. ... Year 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar). ... Modern, high capacity NiMH rechargeable batteries A nickel metal hydride (or NiMH) battery is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCad) battery but which does not contain expensive (and environmentally risky) cadmium. ... This article is about the year. ... Panasonic is an international brand name for Japanese electric products manufacturer Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. ...

The Gen 1 cars got 55 to 75 miles (90 to 120 km) per charge with the Delco-manufactured lead-acid batteries, 75 to 100 miles (120-to-160 km) with the Gen 2 Panasonic lead-acid batteries, and 75 to 150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge with Gen 2 Ovonic nickel-metal hydride batteries. Recharging took as much as eight hours for a full charge (although one could get an 80% charge in two to three hours). The battery pack consisted of 26 12-volt lead-acid batteries holding 67.4 MJ (18.7 kWh) of energy or 26 13.2-volt nickel-metal hydride batteries which held 95.1 MJ (26.4 kWh) of energy. Charles Kettering, on a Time cover, 1933 Charles Franklin Kettering (August 29, 1876–November 24 or November 25, 1958), a. ... Ovonics (coined from Ovshinsky and electronics) is a field of electronics that uses materials able to change from an electrically nonconducting state to a semiconducting state shown by glass of special composition upon application of a certain minimum voltage. ...

The EV1 was directly based on a prototype vehicle created by AeroVironment called the GM Impact. The Impact in turn was based on design ideas first tested out in a record-breaking race car called the Sunraycer, a solar-electric vehicle the company created in 1987 specifically to win the World Solar Challenge, a trans-Australia race open to solar powered cars only. AeroVironment is a California technology company that is primarily involved in energy systems, electric vehicle systems, and unmanned aerial vehicles. ... EV1 redirects here. ... The Sunraycer was a solar powered race car designed to compete in the worlds first race featuring solar-powered cars. ... The Nuna 3 of the hattrick winning Dutch Nuna team The World Solar Challenge is a solar powered-car race over 3021 km through central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. ...

A modified EV1 prototype set a land speed record for production electric vehicles of 183 mph (295 km/h) in 1994. Ralph DePalma in his Packard 905 Special at Daytona Beach in 1919, courtesy Florida Photographic Collection For the album Land Speed Record by the band Hüsker Dü, see Land Speed Record (album). ... Year 1994 (MCMXCIV) The year 1994 was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by the United Nations. ...

Consumer experience

The EV1 driving and ownership experience was unlike a conventional gasoline (petrol) or diesel vehicle. The EV1 had the lowest aerodynamic drag coefficient of any production vehicle in history, with a C_d of 0.195, while typical production cars have C_d's in the 0.3 to 0.4 range.^[32] As a result, at highway speeds audible noise was significantly less than that of other automobiles. At lower speeds, and at stoplights, there was no noise at all, save for a slight whine from the single-speed gear reduction unit. With its smooth shape and rear fender skirts it had a very distinctive appearance. Vehicle operating information instrumentation was displayed by digital readouts spanning a thin curved strip just under the windshield and well above the dashboard. This article is about the fuel. ... Automotive aerodynamics is the study of the aerodynamics of road vehicles. ... 1962 Cadillac Series 62 with rear wheels covered by detachable Fender Skirts 1986 Citroën CX Fender skirts are pieces of bodywork that cover the upper portions of the rear tires of an automobile. ... For other uses, see Instrumentation (disambiguation). ... Panoramic (wrap-around) windshield on a 1959 Edsel Corsair. ...

The EV1 could accelerate from 0–60 mph (0–100 km/h) in the eight-second range and from 0–50 mph (0–80 km/h) in 6.3 seconds.^[33] The car's top speed was electronically limited to 80 mph (130 km/h). At the time the EV1 (with lead acid batteries) was the only electric car produced which met all EV America performance goals of the United States Department of Energy.^[34] The United States Department of Energy (DOE) is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy and nuclear safety. ...

The home charger installation (required for "fast recharge") was about 1.5 ft×2 ft×5 ft (0.5 m×0.6 m×1.5 m) with integrated heatsinks and resembled a gasoline pump. Charging was entirely inductive, and accomplished by placing a Magne Charge paddle in the front port of the EV1, although GM also offered a convenience charger (120 VAC) that could be used with any standard North American receptacle to slow charge the battery pack. A foot (plural: feet or foot;[1] symbol or abbreviation: ft or, sometimes, ′ – a prime) is a unit of length, in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... This article is about the unit of length. ... A large copper heatsink. ... wall, handheld, and floor mount The Magne Charge(tm) Inductive charging system is an Indictive charging used to charge battery electric vehicles (BEV) made by General Motors such as the EV1 and Chevy S10 EV as well as other electric vehicles. ...

EV1 drivetrain prototypes

This article does not cite any references or sources. (June 2007) Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

EV1 shown plugged into charging station

General Motors revealed several prototype variants of the EV1 drivetrain at the 1998 Detroit Auto Show. The models included diesel/electric parallel hybrid, gas turbine/electric series hybrid, fuel cell/electric version and compressed natural gas low emission internal combustion engine version.^[35] In addition, during this period, GM reorganized their electronics divisions (amongst them Hughes Electronics and Delco Divisions) into Delco Propulsion Systems in order to attempt to commercialize this technology in niche markets. Several non-affiliated companies purchased inverter and drivetrain systems from DPS for vehicle/fleet conversion purposes. Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... General Motors General Motors EV1 electric car photo by rmhermen File links The following pages link to this file: General Motors EV1 Categories: GFDL images ... General Motors General Motors EV1 electric car photo by rmhermen File links The following pages link to this file: General Motors EV1 Categories: GFDL images ... Year 1998 (MCMXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar). ... NAIAS 2005, near the Audi exhibit. ... Diesel engines in a museum Diesel generator on an oil tanker A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine which operates using the Diesel cycle. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... This machine has a single-stage centrifugal compressor and turbine, a recuperator, and foil bearings. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i. ... Typical North America vehicles carry this diamond shape symbol, meaning it is running on compressed natural gas fuel. ... A colorized automobile engine The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. ...

The new platform was a four-passenger variant of the EV1, lengthened by 19". This design was based on an internal (GM) program for a more "marketable" EV begun during the proof of concept phase of the EV1's development. During the original EV1 R&D period, focus groups indicated one of the major market limiting factors of the original EV1 was its two seater configuration. GM investigated the possibility of making the EV1 a four seater, but ultimately determined that the increased length and weight of the four seater would reduce vehicle's already limited range to 40-50 miles - placing the first ground up electric car's performance squarely in the pack of aftermarket gas vehicle conversions. Understandably, the company elected to produce the lighter two seater design.

For hybrid and electric vehicles, the battery pack was upgraded to 44 NiMH cells, arranged in "I" formation down the centerline, which could fully recharge in just 2 hours using onboard 220 V induction charger; additional power units were installed in the trunk, thus complementing the 3rd generation 137 hp AC Induction electric motor installed in the hood. Hybrid modifications retained the capability of all-electric ZEV propulsion for up to 40 miles (64.4 km). NIMH or NiMH may refer to: National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the United States National Institutes of Health. ... Zev may refer to: Zev (later Xev) Bellringer - Characters on the sci-fi TV series LEXX Zero-emissions vehicle Zev (horse) Zev is also a modern Hebrew first name, meaning Wolf, and derived from the German first name via Yiddish (see Animal names as first names in Hebrew. ...

EV1 CNG

The compressed natural gas (CNG) variant was the only non-electric vehicle in the line-up, even though it employed the same up-stretched platform. It used a modified Suzuki 1.0-liter turbocharged 3-cylinder all-aluminum OHC engine installed under the hood. Due to the high octane rating of the CNG (allowing for a greater compression ratio), this small engine was able to deliver 72 hp at 5500 rpm. Typical North America vehicles carry this diamond shape symbol, meaning it is running on compressed natural gas fuel. ... For other uses, see Suzuki (disambiguation). ... Air foil bearing-supported turbocharger cutaway made by Mohawk Innovative Technology Inc. ... Overhead cam (OHC) piston engines place the camshaft above the cylinder heads and drive the valves or lifters directly instead of using pushrods. ... Bold text The compression ratio is a single number that can be used to predict the performance of any engine (such as an internal-combustion engine or a Stirling Engine). ...

The batteries were replaced with two CNG tanks capable of maximum operating pressure of 3000 psi. The tanks could be refueled from a single nozzle in only 4 minutes. In-tank solenoids shut off the fuel during refueling and engine idle, and a pressure relief device safeguarded against excessive temperature and pressure. With the help of a continuously variable transmission, the car accelerated 0 to 60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 11 seconds. The maximum range was 350 to 400 miles, and fuel economy was 60 mpg (in gasoline equivalent) . The continuously variable transmission (CVT) is a transmission in which the ratio of the rotational speeds of two shafts, as the input shaft and output shaft of a vehicle or other machine, can be varied continuously within a given range, providing an infinite number of possible ratios. ... Look up gasoline in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

EV1 series hybrid

EV1 series hybrid prototype at EVS-16 in Beijing, 1999

The series hybrid prototype^[36] had a gas turbine engine APU placed in the trunk. A single-stage, single-shaft, recuperated gas turbine unit with a high-speed permanent-magnet AC generator was provided by Williams International; it weighed 220 lb (99.8 kg), measured 20 inches (50.8 cm) in diameter by 22 inches (55.9 cm) long and was running between 100,000 and 140,000 rpm. The turbine could run on a number of high-octane^{[citation needed]} alternative fuels, from octane-boosted gasoline to compressed natural gas. The APU started automatically when the battery charge dropped below 40% and delivered 40 kW of electrical power, enough to achieve speeds up to 80 mph (128.8 km/h) and to return the car's 44 NiMH cells to a 50% charge level. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1800x1200, 439 KB) GM EV1 series hybrid prototype shown at the EVS-16 symposium in Beijing, China, 1999. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1800x1200, 439 KB) GM EV1 series hybrid prototype shown at the EVS-16 symposium in Beijing, China, 1999. ... The APU exhaust at the tail end of an Airbus A380 An auxiliary power unit (APU) is a device on a vehicle whose purpose is to provide energy for functions other than propulsion. ... A recuperator is a heat exchanger that helps boost the efficiency of some gas turbine engines. ... Williams International is a manufacturer of small gas turbine engines. ... Look up gasoline in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Typical North America vehicles carry this diamond shape symbol, meaning it is running on compressed natural gas fuel. ... NIMH or NiMH may refer to: National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the United States National Institutes of Health. ...

A fuel tank capacity of 6.5 gallons (24.6 l) and fuel economy of 60 to 100 mpg (3.9 to 2.4 L/100 km) in hybrid mode, depending on the driving conditions, allowed for a highway range of more than 390 miles (627.6 km). The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds.

There was also a research program^[37] that powered the series hybrid Gen2 version from Stirling engine based generator. The program demonstrated the technical feasibility of such drivetrain, but concluded that commercial viability was out of reach at that time. Cut away diagram of a Rhombic Drive Beta Stirling Engine Design Pink - Hot cylinder wall Dark Grey - Cold cylinder wall (with coolant inlet and outlet pipes in Yellow) Dark Green - Thermal insulation separating the two cylinder ends Light Green - Displacer piston Dark Blue - Power piston Light Blue - Flywheels Not Shown...

EV1 parallel hybrid

The parallel hybrid variant featured a de-stroked 1.3 L turbocharged DTI diesel engine (Isuzu Circle L), delivering 75 hp, installed in the trunk along with an additional 6.5 hp DC motor/generator; the two motors drove the rear wheels through an electronically controlled transaxle. When combined with the AC induction motor which powered the front wheels, all three power units delivered a total output of 219 hp, accelerating the car to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 7 seconds. A single tank of diesel fuel could keep the car running for 550 miles with a fuel economy of 80 mpg.^{[citation needed]} Turbocharger Cut-away A turbocharger is a device used in internal-combustion engines to increase the power output of the engine by increasing the mass of oxygen and fuel entering the engine. ... This article is about a truck manufacturer. ... The Circle L is an automobile engine produced by Isuzu Motors Polska in Poland. ...

A similar technology is used in the 2005 Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid concept. See also Vauxhall Astra, Holden Astra, and Saturn Astra for the usage of the nameplate by other General Motors subsidiaries. ...

EV1 fuel cell

This variant extended all-electric propulsion capabilities with a methanol-powered fuel cell system (developed by Daimler-Benz/Ballard for the Mercedes-Benz NECAR), again installed in the trunk. The system consisted of a fuel processor, an expander/compressor and the fuel cell stack. The highway range was about 300 miles, with a fuel economy of 80 mpg (in a gasoline equivalent). The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds. Daimler-Benz AG was founded on May 1, 1924 by the merger of Benz & Cie. ... Ballard Power Systems (TSX: BLD, NASDAQ: BLDP), located in Burnaby, British Columbia -- a suburb of Vancouver -- is a company that designs, develops, and manufactures zero emission proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells. ...

Controversy

On June 30, 2006, a documentary film debuted entitled Who Killed the Electric Car?. The subject of the film is the demise of the EV1. Much of the film accounts for GM's efforts to demonstrate to California that there was no demand for their product and then to reclaim every last EV1 and dispose of them. A few vehicles were disabled and given to museums and universities, but almost all were found to have been crushed. is the 181st day of the year (182nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 documentary film that explores the birth, limited commercialization, and subsequent death of the battery electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s. ...

According to the film, many EV1 lessees offered to purchase their vehicles from GM at lease-end for the residual price. For instance, US$1.9 million was offered for the remaining 78 cars in a Burbank storage lot. Apparently GM did not entertain any of these offers. Subsequently, the film depicts nearly all of the EV1s being decommissioned by GM crushed and recycled as scrap metal. These are some of the reasons why many analysts question GM's motives. Several weeks before the debut of the film, the Smithsonian Institution announced that its EV1 display was being permanently removed and the EV1 car put into storage. Although GM is a major financial contributor to the museum, both parties denied that this sponsorship contributed to the removal of the display.^[38] According to the museum, the removal of the EV1 from display was a necessary aspect of its renovation.^[39] The space where the EV1 stood has been filled by Stanley, the unmanned Volkswagen Touareg SUV which won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge.^[40] The Smithsonian Institution Building or Castle on the National Mall serves as the Institutions headquarters. ... Stanley is an autonomous vehicle created by Stanford Universitys Stanford Racing Team. ... The Volkswagen Touareg is a mid-size luxury SUV produced by German automaker Volkswagen since 2003. ... A fourth-generation (2006-) Ford Explorer, the best-selling mid-size SUV in the United States. ... Darpa Grand Challenge The DARPA Grand Challenge is a prize competition for driverless cars, sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the central research organization of the United States Department of Defense. ...

According to interviews from various government officials and consumers in the film "Who Killed the Electric Car", many consumers and government officials questioned General Motors' commitment to the EV1 program. Concerns over inadequate marketing and limited vehicle supply have led some to believe that GM intended the EV1 program to fail. One theory is that GM intended to demonstrate that electric vehicles were not commercially viable with 1990s technology, which would [or did] discourage what was at the time a growing public interest in electric vehicles. GM's stated position was to spend US$500 million to produce a workable electric vehicle that could compete and win "heads up" in the marketplace^{[citation needed]}. The company said that if they could have recouped their investment by selling the vehicles commercially, they certainly would have done so.^{[citation needed]} GM never responded to the leasees offer to pay the residual lease value.

Ardent supporters of electric vehicles have been very vocal about the EV1 program's demise. Of particular interest is the leasing program which formally required the vehicles to be returned to GM at lease expiry. General Motors stated reason for the lease-only option was that, as the modern era's first ground-up electric vehicle, the EV1 could not be expected to maintain its performance level (or affordability in regard to maintenance) over the long run. GM also had significant concerns over long term liability issues relating to the vehicle. This was partly due to the relatively short R&D period the car was designed and produced under, and the high percentage of "invented on schedule" technology employed in the car as compared with a standard gasoline powered vehicle. While many lessees and prospective owners have complained about the lease-only availability of the EV1, it is important to note that each leased vehicle was in effect heavily subsidized by General Motors. The car was very popular with its lessees, but it was not known if anyone would have purchased a new electric vehicle at the time had it been offered for sale even at a "break even" price of US$35,000-40,000. (People will now, as is shown by the Tesla Roadster preorders.) A higher production volume would have been required for the production cost to be reduced (see: economy of scale). The Tesla Roadster is a fully electric sports car, and is the first car to be produced by electric car firm Tesla Motors. ... The increase in output from Q to Q2 causes a decrease in the average cost of each unit from C to C1. ...

The process of obtaining an EV1 was difficult when compared to the purchase of any other commuter car. The vehicle could not be purchased outright. Instead, General Motors offered a closed-end three year lease, with no renewal or residual purchase option. The EV1 was only available from Saturn dealerships (then less prevalent than they are today), and only in California and Arizona (for technical reasons).

Before reviewing lease options, a potential lessee would be taken through a 'pre-qualification' process in order to learn how the EV1 was different from other vehicles (a similar 'buyer familiarization process' was standard for all Saturn buyers). Following this, prospective lessees would be placed on a waiting list with no scheduled delivery date. After an average wait of between two and six months, the leasee would be allotted a vehicle. Installation of a home charger took one to two weeks and cost an additional US$2500 (on average). For the cars collectively known as Saturns, see Saturn S-Series. ...

According to GM Chairman and CEO Rick Wagoner, the worst decision of his tenure at GM was "axing the EV1 electric-car program and not putting the right resources into hybrids. It didn’t affect profitability, but it did affect image."^[41] According to the March 13, 2007, issue of Newsweek, "GM R&D chief Larry Burns . . . now wishes GM hadn't killed the plug-in hybrid EV1 prototype his engineers had on the road a decade ago: 'If we could turn back the hands of time,' says Burns, 'we could have had the Chevy Volt 10 years earlier.'"^[42] George Richard Rick Wagoner, Jr. ... is the 72nd day of the year (73rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... The Newsweek logo Newsweek is a weekly news magazine published in New York City and distributed throughout the United States and internationally. ... The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid concept car created by General Motors. ...

An EV1 is still on display at The Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan, in addition to the one in the Petersen Automotive Museum which appeared in the movie, and which had been leased not by Chris Paine, the director, but by Kris Trexler, the two time Emmy Award winning video/film editor, who once drove it across the country.^[43] A Ford Model T, used for giving tourist rides, is shown above at Greenfield Village. ... The Petersen Automotive Museum is located on Wilshire Boulevard along Museum Row in the Miracle Mile neighborhood of Los Angeles. ... Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 documentary film that explores the birth, limited commercialization, and subsequent death of the battery electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s. ...

Regarding the new Volt Vehicle itself, GM is taking a completely different tack from that of the EV-1, this time involving environmental stakeholders (specifically those from the EV and PHEV community) much earlier in the process.^[44]

See also

• Electric car
• Chevy S-10 EV, Chevy Truck that used the EV1 technology.
• Who Killed the Electric Car?, a documentary film about the fate of the EV1.
• The Car That Could, by Michael Shnayerson (1996 ) ISBN 0-679-42105
• Chevrolet Volt, a concept car designed by General Motors in response to the continued demand for electric vehicles.
• Aptera Motors Typ-1 electric and hybrid vehicles

The Toyota RAV4 EV was powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon at 2005 US gasoline prices. ... A Chevrolet S10 Electric, modified by GM to use rear in-wheel electric motors. ... Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 documentary film that explores the birth, limited commercialization, and subsequent death of the battery electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s. ... The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid concept car created by General Motors. ... The Aptera is a high-efficiency vehicle currently in development by Aptera Motors, Inc, formerly Accelerated Composites[3], now accepting pre-orders. ...

References

Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 7th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 59th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 9th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 272nd day of the year (273rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar). ... For information on Wikipedia press releases, see Wikipedia:Press releases. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 105th day of the year (106th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 224th day of the year (225th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 328th day of the year (329th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also see: 2002 (number). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 174th day of the year (175th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 346th day of the year (347th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 336th day of the year (337th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 174th day of the year (175th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 295th day of the year (296th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... ... Wikipedia (IPA: , or ( ) is a multilingual, web-based, free content encyclopedia project, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organization. ... Electricity retailing is the final process in the delivery of electricity from generation to the consumer. ... “Miles” redirects here. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 158th day of the year (159th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 170th day of the year (171st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 102nd day of the year (103rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For information on Wikipedia press releases, see Wikipedia:Press releases. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 167th day of the year (168th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• Reincarnation: The Death and Rebirth of the Electric Car - Newsweek article on the death and rebirth of electric cars in the US.
• EV1 Electric Car Timeline
• Eulogy for the EV 1
• CARB ZEV Mandate
• Why is GM Crushing Their EV-1s?
• EV1 White Paper
• SEVA EVUpdate Newsletter
• EV1.org
• Car & Driver's Bedard Got It Wrong, Darell Dickey
• My day with the GM EV1 - Road Joy, By Brad
• Living in the Past, Getting Beat by the Future, John Wayland
• Phil Karn's EV1 webpages Phil's first EV1 is now on display at the Smithsonian Museum of American History
• Emissions-free car on trial, The Boston Globe
• Archived version of the GMEV website.
• Who Killed the Electric Car- a News feature on PBS' NOW show. Also, a timeline on Electric vehicle development
• Down The Memory Hole - Sploid article discussing an alleged conspiracy over the EV1's removal from the market.
• EV-1 at the Smithsonian - Interestingly, this short lived exhibit was removed 6/15/06 just before the independent release (by Sony Pictures Classics) of "Who Killed the Electric Car?" Two weeks later, the Smithsonian denied any link between the movie and the exhibit's removal.
• GM Responds to the film "Who Killed the Electric Car?"
• Chelsea Sexton Interview about "Who Killed the Electric Car?"
• The Car That Could at Amazon.com