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There has been significant progress in genetic and archaeogenetic studies of the Indian Populations in the last five years (as of 2006); this has implications for the Indo-Aryan migration/invasion theory. Image File history File links Broom_icon. ... Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... Archaeogenetics, a term coined by Colin Renfrew, refers to the application of the techniques of molecular population genetics to the study of the human past. ... For the various ethnic groups of India see: Indo-Aryans Dravidians Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes List of Scheduled Tribes in India Forward caste Backward caste Other Backward Class Racial groups in India (historical definitions) Genetics and Archaeogenetics of South Asia Demographics of India Languages of India Categories: | ... Indo-Aryan migration is a hypothesis, based on linguistic evidence, regarding the expansion of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages following the breakup of Proto-Indo-Iranian and the subsequent Indo-Iranian expansion out of Central Asia (Mallory 1989). ... This article is about historical, ideological and socio-political aspects of this controversy. ...

The genetic studies are ongoing with conflicting results: those that support an infusion of genetic material {Bamshad et al.(2001), Spencer Wells, Journey of Man(2002), Basu et al. (2003), Cordaux et al.(2004)}and those that don't {Kivisild et al.(2003), Sengupta et al.(2005), Sahoo et al.(2006)}. A final picture will emerge after critical and comparative analyses of these studies.

The studies that support infusion of Y-lineages in upper-caste populations in particular usually link this to the historical arrival of Indo-Aryans. The age of these Y-lineages in India coincided with the putative Aryan immigration period in their studies. Conflicting studies suggest that these "Indo-Aryan" lineages are in fact more diverse in lower caste and tribal populations even though their frequency is lower. Thus, mtDNA haplogroup U2i is dubbed "Western Eurasian" in Bamshad et al. study but "Eastern Eurasian (mostly India specific)" in Kivisild et al. study. The Indo-Aryans are a wide collection of peoples united by their common status as speakers of the Indo-Aryan (Indic) branch of the family of Indo-European and Indo-Iranian languages. ... Indo-Aryan migration is a hypothesis, based on linguistic evidence, regarding the expansion of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages following the breakup of Proto-Indo-Iranian and the subsequent Indo-Iranian expansion out of Central Asia (Mallory 1989). ... In human genetics, Haplogroup U is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. ...

However, there are still doubts over autosomal admixture analysis. It is also suggested that Indian marital traditions may have an impact on the calculation of age of Indian Y-haplogroups.

mtDNA

See also: Recent single origin hypothesis

The largest Indian MtDNA haplogroups are M, R and U [1]. With the possible exception of haplogroup U, that is shared with Western Eurasian populations, they seem to be native to South Asia. Map of early human migrations according to mitochondrial population genetics In paleoanthropology, the recent single-origin hypothesis (RSOH, or Out-of-Africa model, or Replacement Hypothesis) is one of two accounts of the origin of anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens. ... Hypothesized map of human migration based on mitochondrial DNA. In human genetics, Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups are haplogroups defined by differences in human mitochondrial DNA. These haplogroups trace the matrilineal inheritance of modern humans back to human origins in Africa and the subsequent spread across the globe. ... In human genetics, Haplogroup M is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. ... In human genetics, Haplogroup R is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. ... In human genetics, Haplogroup U is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. ... Map of South Asia (see note on Kashmir). ...

Haplogroup M, that comprises c. 60% of Indian MtDNA, is actually a macro-haplogroup with many subgroups still poorly studied; the South Asian clades of M are mostly different from the East Asian ones [2]. A clade is a term belonging to the discipline of cladistics. ...

Virtually all modern Central Asian MtDNA M lineages seem to belong to the Eastern Eurasian (Mongolian) rather than the Indian subtypes of haplogroup M, which indicates that no large-scale migration from the present Turkic-speaking populations of Central Asia to India (and vice versa) could have occurred (Kivisild 2000). The Turkic languages constitute a language family of some thirty languages, spoken across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China, and are traditionally considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family. ...

Y chromosome

Main article: Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup

In 2004 paper Cordaux [3] argues independent origins of Indian caste and tribal paternal lineages: “Thus, the quantitative comparison of an extensive dataset of Y chromosome haplogroups in both Indian caste and tribal groups, as well as nongenetic information, support a scenario of independent origins of Indian caste and tribal paternal lineages, with recent immigration of caste Y lineages and subsequent bidirectional gene flow between caste and tribal groups. This conclusion contrasts with the earlier suggestion that both Indian caste and tribal Y chromosomes largely derive from the same Pleistocene genetic heritage, with only limited recent gene flow from external sources. In contrast with the Y chromosome evidence, the mtDNA evidence suggests a common origin of tribal and caste groups. It is likely that most maternal lineages largely represent the original mtDNA gene pool of India, implying that caste maternal lineages mainly derive from local tribal ancestors.” In human genetics, Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups are haplogroups defined by differences in the DNA of the Y chromosome (called Y-DNA). ...

This supersedes the earlier work (Kivisild et al. 2003b; Cordeaux et al. 2003), which emphasizes that the combined results from mtDNA, Y-chromosome and autosomal markers suggest that "Indian tribal and caste populations derive largely from the same genetic heritage of Pleistocene southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the Holocene" (Kivisild 2003b). The Y chromosome is one of the sex-determining chromosomes in humans and most other mammals (the other is the X chromosome). ... The Pleistocene epoch (IPA: ) on the geologic timescale is the period from 1,808,000 to 11,550 years BP. The Pleistocene epoch had been intended to cover the worlds recent period of repeated glaciations. ... The Holocene epoch is a geological period, which began approximately 11,550 calendar years BP (about 9600 BC) and continues to the present. ...

R1a1

Main article: Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA)

Distribution of R1a (purple) and R1b (red)

The haplogroup R1a1 (M17) is often linked with the ancient Kurgan (Yamna - "ямная") culture and Proto-Indo-Europeans of Southern Russia/Ukraine, who supposedly migrated to Europe, Central Asia and India between 3000 and 1000 BC (Passarino et al. 2001; Quintana-Murci et al. 2001; Wells et al. 2001). Distribution of R1a (purple) and R1b (red), after McDonald (2005). ... Image File history File links Y-Haplogroup_R1_distribution. ... Image File history File links Y-Haplogroup_R1_distribution. ... Distribution of R1a (purple) and R1b (red), after McDonald (2005). ... Sarmatian Kurgan 4th c. ... Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies The Yamna (from Russian яма pit) or pit grave culture is a prehistoric culture of the Bug/Dniester/Ural region, dating to the 36th–23rd centuries BC. The culture was predominantly nomadic, with some agriculture practiced near rivers and a few... The Proto-Indo-Europeans are the hypothetical speakers of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language, a prehistoric people of the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age. ...

Alternatively, the high frequency of R1a1 found in several South Indian tribes including the Chenchu and the Badagas, together with a higher R1a1-associated STR diversity in India and Iran compared with Europe and Central Asia, has been taken as evidence for an origin of R1a1 (M17) in Southern or Western Asia (Kivisild 2003b). Stephen Oppenheimer, who reports upon the results of the Human Genome Diversity Project in his book "The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey out of Africa", comments that, "For me and for Toomas Kivisild, South Asia is logically the ultimate origin of M17 and his ancestors; and sure enough we find highest rates and greatest diversity of the M17 line in Pakistan, India, and eastern Iran, and low rates in the Caucasus. M17 is not only more diverse in South Asia than in Central Asia but diversity characterizes its presence in isolated tribal groups in the south, thus undermining any theory of M17 as a marker of a 'male Aryan Invasion of India'" (p. 152). Oppenheimer further believes that it is highly suggestive that India is the origin of the Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups which he calls the "Eurasian Eves". According to Oppenheimer it is highly probable that nearly all human maternal lineages in Europe (and similarly in East Asia) descended from only four mtDNA lines that originated in South Asia 50,000-10,000 years ago. South India is a geographic and linguistic-cultural region of India. ... The Chenchus are an aboriginal tribe of the central hill regions of Andhra Pradesh, India. ... The Badagas are an indigenous people inhabiting the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, southern India. ... Stephen Oppenheimer is a well-known expert in the field of synthesizing DNA studies with archaeological, anthropological, linguistic and other field studies. ... Toomas Kivisild, born on august, 11 1969 in Tapa, is a Estonian geneticist. ... Map of South Asia (see note on Kashmir). ... For other uses, see Eurasia (disambiguation). ... Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is DNA which is not located in the nucleus of the cell but in the mitochondria. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

Unfortunately, there is not enough data to make the final conclusion about the R1a1 origin. In order to do so, comparative study of R1a1 haplogroup diversity in Ukraine (and/or South/Central Russia), Pakistan and India populations (using the same (large) set of microsatellite markers) is necessary. So far, only one attempt of such study has been made by Passarino in 2001 [4]. This study employs the 49a, f/TaqI Y specific system and the set of seven microsatellite markers to compare diversity of R1a1 (M17, Eu19) haplogroup in 29 world populations (including Ukraine, Poland, and India). According to Passarino (2001) “the 49a, f Ht 11 displays a major diversification in East Europe with respect to the other areas. Actually, in East Europe, all the derivatives of the 49a, f Ht 11 were observed (9 vs 6 in the "Balkans," 4 in the "Middle East," 1 in India, and 2 in West Europe). Moreover, Ukraine presents at least twice as many derivatives as the other East European populations. These findings suggest that East Europe is the place where this lineage originated or started to expand, particularly in Ukraine, which also includes a refuge area during the LGM.” However, more extensive studies, including Kashmiri populations are necessary to make the reliable conclusions. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Temperature proxies for the last 40,000 years The Last Glacial Maximum refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation, approximately 21 thousand years ago. ... For other uses, see Kashmiri (disambiguation) Kashmiri is a Dardic language spoken primarily in Kashmir, an Asian region now split between India, Pakistan and China. ...

Kivisild in his 2003 paper [5] compares diversity of R1a1 (M17) haplogroup in Indian, Pakistani, Iranian, Central Asian, Czech and Estonian populations. This study shows, that diversity of R1a1 in India (Pakistan, Iran) is higher, than in Czechs and Estonians. More than 1/3 of Y chromosome gene pool in Estonians is represented by “Uralic” N3 haplotype [6]. (founder effect) Map of Central Asia showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia located as a region of the world Central Asia is a vast landlocked region of Asia. ... Simple illustration of founder effect. ...

Some new data on R1a (defining mutation of R1a is SRY-1523 = SRY10831, preceding the M17 mutation which defines R1a1) diversity in Southeastern Europe (Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, and Macedonia) are represented in 2005 paper by Peričić et al [7]. According to this paper, R1a haplotype shows high diversity in this area (especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina), “and the estimated range expansion at 15.8 ± 2.1 KYA, consistent with its deep Paleolithic time depth”. This article is about a geographic region of Bosnia. ... This article is about the geographic area of Herzegovina. ... Not to be confused with Republika Srpska. ... Anthem Oj, svijetla majska zoro Oh, Bright Dawn of May Montenegro() on the European continent()  —  [] Capital (and largest city) Podgorica Official languages Serbian (Ijekavian dialect)1 Demonym Montenegrin Government Republic  -  President Filip Vujanović  -  Prime Minister Željko Å turanović Independence due to the dissolution of Serbia and Montenegro   -  Declared June 3, 2006...

Recent studies indicate that the haplogroups C5-M356, H-M69*, F*, L1 and R2 are indigenous to South Asia (Sengupta 2006: 211). According to Sengupta (2006), “our overall inference is that an early Holocene expansion in northwestern India (including the Indus Valley) contributed R1a1-M17 chromosomes both to the Central Asian and South Asian tribes prior to the arrival of the Indo-Europeans.” In human genetics, Haplogroup F* (M89) is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. ... In human genetics, Haplogroup L1 is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. ... Haplogroup R2 (M124) is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. ... The Indus (सिन्‍धु नदी) (known as Sindhu in ancient times) is the principal river of Pakistan. ...

A 2001 examination of male Y-DNA by Indian and American scientists indicated that higher castes are genetically closer to Western Eurasians than are individuals from lower castes, whose genetic profiles are similar to other Asians. According to Bamshad et al. (2001), higher caste Telugus have a higher frequency of haplogroup 3 (R1a1) than lower castes. Haplogroup 3 is also characteristic for the Eastern Europeans. In the study, Bamshad and his team wrote, "Our results demonstrate that for biparentally inherited autosomal markers, genetic distances between upper, middle, and lower castes are significantly correlated with rank; upper castes are more similar to Europeans than to Asians; and upper castes are significantly more similar to Europeans than are lower castes." There is some evidence that a few millennia ago, a group of people with (Eastern) European genetic affinities migrated into the Indian subcontinent from the northwest. In the abstract to their paper Bamshad et al stated, "In the most recent of these waves, Indo-European-speaking people from West Eurasia entered India from the northwest and diffused throughout the subcontinent. They purportedly admixed with or displaced indigenous Dravidic-speaking populations. Subsequently they may have established the Hindu caste system and placed themselves primarily in castes of higher rank" [8]. However, critics point out that a South Indian state of Andhra Pradesh might not be the best place for such a study. One of the upper castes, Kshatriyas (Rajus), belongs to the minuscule part of Telugu population. Also, historically South Indian royal families had marital relationship with Central and East Indian royal families. In other words, Kshatriyas were not as isolated as Chenchu tribe. In the regions of present day Andhra Pradesh, the dominant and generally feudal castes were Kapu,Reddys and Kammas though they were classified as Shudras. Also, terming Brahmins in South India as a proof of dominance of Indo-European people has beein questioned in regard the Brahmin migration to South India. From historical records it has been observed that the transition of South Indian kings from Buddhism, Jainism and non-Vedic Saivism to Brahmanical Hinduism resulted in Brahmins being imported from North India to perform religious duties. In addition to that, it has also been noted that many North Indian Brahmin families took refuge in South India escaping from religious persecution at the hands of invaders. Critics also point out that the European specific markers, however controversial might their origins be, is observed across the caste lines in North-West of India. The study also revealed another classic anthropological observation, that women are significantly more mobile in terms of caste and hierarchical class than men, who are barely socially mobile at all in terms of caste and hierarchical Social class. Genetic evidence reveals that over millennia men from higher casts have married women from lower castes, but women from higher casts have rarely married men from lower castes. Thus the researchers imply that caste and class to a large extent is perpetuated by women and has also thereby contributed to the minimal mixing of Aryan blood with the natives. Recent paper in Current Biology, Cordaux et. al. (2004) confirms the Bamshad (2001) results and concludes that the paternal lineages of Indian caste groups are primarily descendants of Indo-European speakers who migrated from Central Asia about 3,500 years ago. The structure of part of a DNA double helix Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. ... Eurasian, also Euroasian or Euro-Asian can mean: Eurasian may be used as a slang term to refer to people of Asian decent, living in European countries who have no other traits of being Asian other then the fact that they look it. ... This article is about the general scientific term. ... An autosome is a non-sex chromosome. ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social restriction and social stratification, enforced by law or common practice, based on endogamy, occupation, economic status, race, ethnicity, // 1555, a race of men, from L. casto chaste, from castus pure, cut off, separated, pp. ... The European peoples are the various nations and ethnic groups of Europe. ... Asian people[1] is a demonym for people from Asia. ... Map of South Asia (see note) This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia. ... For other uses, see Indo-European. ... For other uses, see Eurasia (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Dravidian (disambiguation). ... This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ... South India is a linguistic-cultural region of India that comprises the four states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the two Union Territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry, whose inhabitants are collectively referred to as South Indians. ... “Andhra” redirects here. ... For the Bollywood film of the same name see Kshatriya Kshatriya (Hindi: , from Sanskrit: , ) is one of the four varnas, or castes, in Hinduism. ... Raju is the title used by members of the Hindu Kshatriya Caste in Andhra Pradesh, India. ... The Chenchus are an aboriginal tribe of the central hill regions of Andhra Pradesh, India. ... Kapu is a caste in the Indian State of Andhra Pradesh. ... Reddy (Telugu:రెడ్డి, also transliterated as Raddi, Reddi, etc. ... For other uses of Kamma, see Kamma (disambiguation). ... Shudra (IAST: ) is the fourth Varna in the traditional four-section division in historic Hindu society. ... This page deals with the Hindu varnas. ... Image:Buddhasunset crop. ... Jain and Jaina redirect here. ... Shaivism, also Saivism, is a branch of Hinduism that worships Siva as the Supreme God. ... Dark green region marks the approximate extent of northern India while the regions marked as light green lies within the sphere of north Indian influence. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word άνθρωπος = human) consists of the study of humankind (see genus Homo). ... Image of a woman on the Pioneer plaque sent to outer space. ... This article concerns how a man differs from women. ... Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ... Aryan (/eÉ™rjÉ™n/ or /ɑːrjÉ™n/, Sanskrit: ) is a Sanskrit and Avestan word meaning noble/spiritual one. ...

However, other studies (Kivisild 2003a; Kivisild 2003b) have revealed that a high frequency of haplogroup 3 (R1a1) occurs in about half of the male population of Northwestern India and is also frequent in Western Bengal. These results, together with the fact that haplogroup 3 is much less frequent in Iran and Anatolia than it is in India, indicates that haplogroup 3 among high caste Telugus did not necessarily originate from Eastern Europeans. The high diversity of haplogroup 3 and 9 in India suggests that these haplogroups may have originated in India (Kivisild 2003a). Bengal (Bengali: বঙ্গ Bôngo, বাংলা Bangla, বঙ্গদেশ Bôngodesh or বাংলাদেশ Bangladesh), is a historical and geographical region in the northeast of South Asia. ...

Other haplogroups

The neolithic spread of farmers to Europe from Levant/Middle East has also been linked to 12f2 (haplogroup J) and the markers M35 (haplogroup E3b) and M201 (haplogroup G). But while M35 (E3b) is present in Europe, Anatolia, South Caucasus and Iran. Indians generally do not have the Alu insertion in their Y chromosomes. The lack of YAP+ chromosomes (haplogroup E) in India suggests that M35 appeared in the Middle East only after a migration from Iran to India had taken place, but earlier than the later migration of Near and Middle Eastern farmers to Europe (Kivisild 2003a). An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. ...

Most of the pro-migration papers imply that R1a1 is the genetic marker that is representative of a migration, due to its high frequency in Eurasia. But an equally likely genetic marker is haplogroup L. This haplogroup is present in Greek, Turkish, Lebanese, Iranian, Central Asian, and Indian populations (and Europe, see Kivisild). This marker is found in locations where written sources record the presence of Indo-European languages and people: i.e. Greeks, Hittite, Mitanni, Iranians and Indians. Its peak frequency is found in Indo-Iranian populations. The 'Western Eurasian' components that are found in Indian mtDNA show a distribution closer to that found in the Southern Caucasus and Middle East than to that found in Eastern Europe. There is also the question of why one should assume only one Y haplogroup is representative of the Aryan gene pool. R1a1, R1b, J2, L and H - all of which are present in India and Central and West Asia - are all possibilities. However, haplogroup L has a very low level of diversity in the Punjab. This is suggestive of a recent migration or expansion event in the area, and is supported by the fact that the diversity of R1a1, J2 and haplogroup C is higher in the region. Haplogroup C is supposed to be the remmants of the "Out of Africa" migration of humans, but still retains a high level of diversity. Haplogroup L is also found in South India at relatively high freqencies and has been associated by some (along with J2) with the spread of farming and Dravidian languages. Relief of Suppiluliuma II, last known king of the Hittite Empire The Hittites were an ancient people from Kaneš who spoke an Indo-European language, and established a kingdom centered at Hattusa (Hittite URU) in north-central Anatolia from the 18th century BC. In the 14th century BC, the Hittite... Kingdom of Mitanni Mitanni (cuneiform KUR URUMi-it-ta-ni, also Mittani Mi-ta-an-ni, in Assyrian sources Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform Ḫa-ni-gal-bat ) was a Hurrian kingdom in northern Mesopotamia from ca. ... For other uses, see Dravidian (disambiguation). ...

Interestingly, studies show that there has been very little mixing of the male lines between castes/clans for some time. They show distinct haplotypes even though many clans within a region have similar haplogroups. For instance, Northwest Indians exhibit mainly haplogroups R1a1, R1b, J2 and L, yet there is very little sharing of haplotypes with other castes/clans in the same region.

The J2 haplogroup is almost absent from tribals, but occurs among some Austro-Asiatic tribals (11%). The frequency of J2 is higher in South Indian castes (19%) than in North Indian castes (11%) or Pakistan (12%) (Sengupta 2006).

Autosomal markers

One more important marker for Caucasian ancestry in admixed populations may be taken into consideration: H2 haplotype of the gene MAPT. It is shown to be Caucasian in origin, and may work as a good estimator of European admixture. “The constancy of the H2 allele frequency in Caucasian populations from the Middle East to the Orkneys suggest that its origin in European populations is ancient and coincides with the colonization of Europe.” ([9]). MAPT represented “by two distinct lineages, H1 and H2, that have diverged for as much as 3 million years and show no evidence of having recombined”. “The H2 lineage is rare in Africans, almost absent in East Asians but found at a frequency of 20% in Europeans” ([10]). There are some “evidence suggesting that Homo neanderthalensis contributed the H2 MAPT haplotype to Homo sapiens” ([11]). H2 is found in many Pakistan populations ([12]).

Interestingly, map of the worldwide frequencies of ASPM (Brain Size Determinant in Homo sapiens) haplogroup D ("derived") ([13])matches surprisingly well the map of H2 haplotype distribution. “The frequency of haplogroup D chromosomes is ... 44% in Europeans and Middle Easterners”. “Estimated the coalescence age (i.e., time to the most recent common ancestor) of haplogroup D at 5800 years, with a 95% confidence interval between 500 and 14,100 years.” Of course one should take into consideration, that ASPM “haplogroup D ... rose to high frequency under strong positive selection”, thus Frequency of the ASPM haplogroup D is expected to be higher, than MAPT haplogroup H2. However, considering the facts that only few Pakistani populations were sampled and both markers (ASPM haplogroup D, MAPT haplogroup H2) are present not only in European, but in Middle Eastern populations too, one should consider distribution of these markers only as a suggestion of the eastward migration of “Caucasian peoples” (Europeans and/or Middle Easterners). Thus distribution of these markers taken alone can hardly prove specific Indo-Aryan migration or invasion. Indo-Aryan migration is a hypothesis, based on linguistic evidence, regarding the expansion of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages following the breakup of Proto-Indo-Iranian and the subsequent Indo-Iranian expansion out of Central Asia (Mallory 1989). ...

Intriguingly, well-discussed CCR5 delta 32 mutation may be older, than suspected before ([14]), and was detected in 2900-year-old skeletal remains from different burial sites in central Germany and southern Italy with rather high allele frequency (11.9%) ([15]). Thus this mutation may work as a marker of European (vs. Middle Eastern) ancestry. According the 2002 Khaliq paper ([16]) frequency of the CCR5 delta 32 allele ranged from 0.62% to 3.57% in Pakistani ethnic groups, which is much lower than that found in European populations (10% average frequency), and similar to that in the Middle East. One of the possible explanations of such geographical distribution is the migration of the mutation carriers from the territory of high mutation frequency into the area where such mutation is absent.

South Asia and Central Asia

A recent study (Sengupta 2006) found that the “influence of Central Asia on the pre-existing gene pool was minor. The ages of accumulated microsatellite variation in the majority of Indian haplogroups exceed 10,000–15,000 years, which attests to the antiquity of regional differentiation.” and it concluded: “Our reappraisal indicates that pre-Holocene and Holocene-era—not Indo-European—expansions have shaped the distinctive South Asian Y-chromosome landscape.”

According to Sahoo (2006), “The sharing of some Y-chromosomal haplogroups between Indian and Central Asian populations is most parsimoniously explained by a deep, common ancestry between the two regions, with diffusion of some Indian-specific lineages northward. The Y-chromosomal data consistently suggest a largely South Asian origin for Indian caste communities and therefore argue against any major influx, from regions north and west of India, of people associated either with the development of agriculture or the spread of the Indo-Aryan language family.”

See also

• Racial groups of India

Various attempts have been made, under the British Raj and later times, to classify the population of India according to a racial typology. ...

References

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• Cordaux, R., R. Aunguer, G. Bentley, I. Nasidze, S.M. Sirajuddin, and M. Stoneking (3 February 2004). "Independent origins of Indian caste and tribal paternal lineages". Current Biology 14: 231-235. 
• Hemphill & Christensen: “The Oxus Civilization as a Link between East and West: A Non-Metric Analysis of Bronze Age Bactrain Biological Affinities”, paper read at the South Asia Conference, 3-5 November 1994, Madison, Wisconsin; p. 13.
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• Kennedy, Kenneth 1984. “A Reassessment of the Theories of Racial Origins of the People of the Indus Valley Civilization from Recent Anthropological Data.” In Studies in the Archaeology and Palaeoanthropology of South Asia (99-107).
• --- 1995. “Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia?”, in George Erdosy, ed.: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, p.49-54.
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• ---1999b. "The Place of the Indian mtDNA Variants in the Global Network of Maternal Lineages and the Peopling of the Old World" [20]
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• ---2003b. "The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations" Am J Hum Genet 72: 313–332 [24], [25]
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• Introduction to haplogroups and haplotypes [34][35]
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• Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan [41]
• Phylogeography of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup I Reveals Distinct Domains of Prehistoric Gene Flow in Europe[42]
• Contrasting patterns of Y chromosome variation in Ashkenazi Jewish and host non-Jewish European populations (Gives variances for R1a1)[43]

is the 34th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 309th day of the year (310th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1994 (MCMXCIV) The year 1994 was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by the United Nations. ... Kenneth A.R. Kennedy is an anthropologist who studied at the University of California, Berkeley. ... Toomas Kivisild, born on august, 11 1969 in Tapa, is a Estonian geneticist. ... Stephen Oppenheimer is a well-known expert in the field of synthesizing DNA studies with archaeological, anthropological, linguistic and other field studies. ...

External links

• New paper on Indian Y-chromosome variation Dienekes Anthropology Blog
• India Acquired Language, Not Genes, From West, Study Says by Brian Handwerk, National Geographic News, January 10, 2006