In biology the genome of an organism is its whole hereditary information and is encoded in the DNA (or, for some viruses, RNA). This includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA. The term was coined in 1920 by Hans Winkler, Professor of Botany at the University of Hamburg, Germany, as a combination of the words gene and chromosome. Biology (from Greek Βìο meaning life and Λoγος meaning the study of, see below) is the study of life. ... A crab is an example of an organism. ... The structure of part of a DNA double helix. ... Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a nucleic acid polymer consisting of nucleotide monomers. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... In molecular biology, junk DNA is a collective label for the portions of the DNA sequence of a chromosome or a genome for which no function has yet been identified. ... Year 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ... Professor Hans Winkler (23 April 1877 - 22 November 1945) was a German botanist. ... Pinguicula grandiflora Botany is the scientific study of plantlife. ... The University of Hamburg was founded on the 1 April 1919 by Wilhelm Stern and others. ...

More precisely, the genome of an organism is a complete DNA sequence of one set of chromosomes; for example, one of the two sets that a diploid individual carries in every somatic cell. The term genome can be applied specifically to mean the complete set of nuclear DNA (i.e., the "nuclear genome") but can also be applied to organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the mitochondrial genome or the chloroplast genome. When people say that the genome of a sexually reproducing species has been "sequenced," typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of autosomes and one of each type of sex chromosome, which together represent both of the possible sexes. Even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as "a genome sequence" may be a composite from the chromosomes of various individuals. In general use, the phrase "genetic makeup" is sometimes used conversationally to mean the genome of a particular individual or organism. The study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as genomics, which distinguishes it from genetics which generally studies the properties of single genes or groups of genes. part of a DNA sequence A DNA sequence (sometimes genetic sequence) is a succession of letters representing the primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA molecule or strand, The possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide subunits of a DNA strand (adenine, cytosine, guanine... Figure 1: A representation of a condensed eukaryotic chromosome, as seen during cell division. ... Diploid (meaning double in Greek) cells have two copies (homologs) of each chromosome (both sex- and non-sex determining chromosomes), usually one from the mother and one from the father. ... A somatic cell is generally taken to mean any cell forming the body of an organism: the word somatic is derived from the Greek word sōma, meaning body. Somatic cells, by definition, are not germline cells . ... The eukaryotic cell nucleus. ... In cell biology, an organelle is one of several structures with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell. ... The mitochondrial genome is the genetic material of the mitochondria. ... Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. ... Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that results in increasing genetic diversity of the offspring. ... In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biodiversity. ... In genetics and biochemistry, sequencing means to determine the primary structure (or primary sequence) of an unbranched biopolymer. ... An autosome is a non-sex chromosome. ... A sex-determination system is a biological system that determines the development of sexual characteristics in an organism. ... Genomics is the study of an organisms entire genome. ... For a non-technical introduction to the topic, please see Introduction to genetics. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ...

Types

Most biological entities more complex than a virus sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes. In some contexts, such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe, "genome" is meant to include this auxiliary material, which is carried in plasmids. In such circumstances then, "genome" describes all of the genes and non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present. A common alternate meaning of virus is computer virus. ... Figure 1: Schematic drawing of a bacterium with plasmids enclosed. ...

In vertebrates such as sheep and other various animals however, "genome" carries the typical connotation of only chromosomal DNA. So although human mitochondria contain genes, these genes are not considered part of the genome. In fact, mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome, often referred to as the "mitochondrial genome". Classes and Clades See below Vertebrates are members of the subphylum Vertebrata (within the phylum Chordata), specifically, those chordates with backbones or spinal columns. ... In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ... The mitochondrial genome is the genetic material of the mitochondria. ...

Genomes and genetic variation

Note that a genome does not capture the genetic diversity or the genetic polymorphism of a species. For example, the human genome sequence in principle could be determined from just half the DNA of one cell from one individual. To learn what variations in DNA underlie particular traits or diseases requires comparisons across individuals. This point explains the common usage of "genome" (which parallels a common usage of "gene") to refer not to any particular DNA sequence, but to a whole family of sequences that share a biological context. In biology, polymorphism can be defined as the occurrence in the same habitat of two or more forms of a trait in such frequencies that the rarer cannot be maintained by recurrent mutation alone. ...

Although this concept may seem counter intuitive, it is the same concept that says there is no particular shape that is the shape of a cheetah. Cheetahs vary, and so do the sequences of their genomes. Yet both the individual animals and their sequences share commonalities, so one can learn something about cheetahs and "cheetah-ness" from a single example of either. Binomial name Acinonyx jubatus (Schreber, 1775) The Cheetah (derived from Sanskrit word Chitraka meaning Speckled) (Acinonyx jubatus) is an atypical member of the cat family (Felidae) that hunts by speed rather than by stealth or pack tactics. ...

Genome projects

The Human Genome Project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome. Other genome projects include mouse, rice, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the puffer fish, bacteria like E. coli, etc. In 1976, Walter Fiers at the University of Ghent (Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA-genome (bacteriophage MS2). The first DNA-genome project to be completed was the Phage Φ-X174, with only 5368 base pairs, which was sequenced by Fred Sanger in 1977. The first bacterial genome to be completed was that of Haemophilus influenzae, completed by a team at The Institute for Genomic Research in 1995. Many genomes have been sequenced by various genome projects. The cost of sequencing continues to drop, and it is possible that eventually an individual human genome could be sequenced for around several thousand dollars (US). Genome projects are scientific endeavours that aim to map the genome of a living being or of a species (be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a protist or a virus), that is, the complete set of genes caried by this living being or virus. ... The Human Genome Project (HGP) is a project to the 3 billion nucleotides contained in the human genome and to identify all the genes present in it. ... A physical map, in genetics, tells you how much DNA separates two genes and is measured in basepairs, as opposed to a genetic map which tells you the positions of genes in relation to each other based on the frequency of crossing overs. ... In genetics and biochemistry, sequencing means to determine the primary structure (or primary sequence) of an unbranched biopolymer. ... Binomial name Mus musculus Linnaeus, 1758 Mus musculus is the common house mouse. ... Species Oryza glaberrima Oryza sativa Rice is two species of grass (Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima) native to tropical and subtropical southern & southeastern Asia and in Africa. ... Binomial name Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. ... Genera Amblyrhynchotes Arothron Auriglobus Canthigaster Carinotetraodon Chelonodon Colomesus Contusus Ephippion Feroxodon Fugu Gastrophysus Javichthys Lagocephalus Liosaccus Marilyna Monotretus Omegaphora Pelagocephalus Polyspina Reicheltia Sphoeroides Takifugu Tetractenos Tetraodon Torquigener Tylerius Xenopterus The pufferfish, also called blowfish, swellfish, balloonfish are fish making up the family Tetraodontidae, within the order Tetraodontiformes. ... Binomial name Escherichia coli T. Escherich, 1885 Escherichia coli (usually abbreviated to E. coli) is one of the main species of bacteria that live in the lower intestines of warm-blooded animals (including birds and mammals) and are necessary for the proper digestion of food. ... 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ... Walter Fiers was born in Ieper (Belgium) in 1931. ... Ghent University (in Dutch, Universiteit Gent, abbreviated UGent) is one of the two large Flemish universities. ... A bacteriophage (from bacteria and Greek phagein, to eat) is a virus that infects bacteria. ... The Phi-X174 phage was the first organism to have its genome sequenced. ... This article or section should be merged with Frederick Sanger Fred Sanger (born 1918), is an English biochemist, the winner of two Nobel prizes in Chemistry. ... For the album by Ash, see 1977 (album). ... Binomial name Haemophilus influenzae (Lehmann & Neumann 1896) Winslow 1917 Haemophilus influenzae, formerly called Pfeiffers bacillus or Bacillus influenzae, is a non-motile Gram-negative coccobacillus first described in 1892 by Dr. Richard Pfeiffer during an influenza pandemic. ... The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR), is a non-profit genomics research institute founded in 1992 by Craig Venter in Rockville, Maryland, United States. ... For the sense of sequencing used in electronic music, see the music sequencer article. ...

Comparison of different genome sizes

Main article: Genome size

Note: The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8m. Genome size refers to the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a genome. ... Base pairs, of a DNA molecule. ... Groups I: dsDNA viruses II: ssDNA viruses III: dsRNA viruses IV: (+)ssRNA viruses V: (-)ssRNA viruses VI: ssRNA-RT viruses VII: dsDNA-RT viruses A virus (Latin, poison) is a microscopic particle that can infect the cells of a biological organism. ... The bacteriophage MS2 or Bacillus phage M2 (Caudovirales, Podoviridae) infects Bacillus subtilis. ... Groups I: dsDNA viruses II: ssDNA viruses III: dsRNA viruses IV: (+)ssRNA viruses V: (-)ssRNA viruses VI: ssRNA-RT viruses VII: dsDNA-RT viruses A virus (Latin, poison) is a microscopic particle that can infect the cells of a biological organism. ... SV40 is an abbreviation for Simian vacuolating virus 40 or Simian virus 40, a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. ... Groups I: dsDNA viruses II: ssDNA viruses III: dsRNA viruses IV: (+)ssRNA viruses V: (-)ssRNA viruses VI: ssRNA-RT viruses VII: dsDNA-RT viruses A virus (Latin, poison) is a microscopic particle that can infect the cells of a biological organism. ... The Phi-X174 phage was the first organism to have its genome sequenced. ... Groups I: dsDNA viruses II: ssDNA viruses III: dsRNA viruses IV: (+)ssRNA viruses V: (-)ssRNA viruses VI: ssRNA-RT viruses VII: dsDNA-RT viruses A virus (Latin, poison) is a microscopic particle that can infect the cells of a biological organism. ... Enterobacteria phage λ (lambda phage) is a temperate bacteriophage that infects Escherichia coli. ... Phyla / Classes Phylum Crenarchaeota Phylum Euryarchaeota     Halobacteria     Methanobacteria     Methanococci     Methanopyri     Archaeoglobi     Thermoplasmata     Thermococci Phylum Korarchaeota Phylum Nanoarchaeota The Archaea are a major group of prokaryotes. ... Binomial name Nanoarchaeum equitans Nanoarchaeum equitans is a species of tiny microbe, discovered in 2002 in a hydrothermal vent off the coast of Iceland by Karl Stetter. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Binomial name Buchnera aphidicola Buchnera aphidicola a member of the Proteobacteria, is the primary endosymbiont of aphids (A. psium). ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Binomial name Wigglesworthia glossinidia Wigglesworthia glossinidia brevipalpis is a gram negative bacterium in the enterobacteriaceae family, related to E. coli, which lives in the gut of the tsetse fly. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... ... Amoeba, amÅ“ba, or ameba is a genus of protozoa that moves by means of temporary projections called pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular organism. ... For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. ... For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation). ... This article is about woody plants of the genus Populus. ... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Glomeromycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota Deuteromycota The fungi (singular fungus) are a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms. ... Binomial name Saccharomyces cerevisiae Meyen ex E.C. Hansen Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of budding yeast. ... Classes Adenophora    Subclass Enoplia    Subclass Chromadoria Secernentea    Subclass Rhabditia    Subclass Spiruria    Subclass Diplogasteria The roundworms (Phylum Nematoda) are one of the most common phyla of animals, with over 20,000 different described species. ... Binomial name Caenorhabditis elegans Maupas, 1900 Caenorhabditis elegans (IPA: ) is a free-living nematode (roundworm), about 1 mm in length, which lives in temperate soil environments. ... Orders See taxonomy Insects are invertebrates that are taxonomically referred to as the class Insecta. ... Binomial name Drosophila melanogaster Meigen, 1830 [1] Drosophila melanogaster (from the Greek for black-bellied dew-lover) is a two-winged insect that belongs to the Diptera, the order of the flies. ... Orders See taxonomy Insects are invertebrates that are taxonomically referred to as the class Insecta. ... Binomial name Bombyx mori Linnaeus, 1758 For the band named Silkworm, see Silkworm (band). ... Orders See taxonomy Insects are invertebrates that are taxonomically referred to as the class Insecta. ... Binomial name Apis mellifera The species called Western honeybees (Apis mellifera) are honeybees comprised of several subspecies or races. ... Subclasses Allotheria* Order Multituberculata (extinct) Order Volaticotheria (extinct) Order Palaeoryctoides (extinct) Order Triconodonta (extinct) Prototheria Order Monotremata Theria Infraclass Marsupialia Infraclass Eutheria The mammals are the class of vertebrate animals characterized by the production of milk in females for the nourishment of young, from mammary glands present on most species... Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ...

Since genomes and their organisms are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multicellular organisms (see Developmental biology). The work is both in vivo and in silico. Views of a Foetus in the Womb, Leonardo da Vinci, ca. ... In vivo (Latin for (with)in the living). ... in silico is an expression used to mean performed on computer or via computer simulation. ...

Genome evolution

Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as chromosome number (karyotype), genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005). Various meters Measurement is the estimation or determination of extent, dimension or capacity, usually in relation to some standard or unit of measurement. ... Karyogram of human male using Giemsa staining. ... Genome size refers to the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a genome. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... Codons are triplets of nucleotides that together specify an amino acid residue in a polypeptide chain. ... In genetics, the guanine-cytosine content (GC content) is the ratio of guanine and cytosine to the total number of nucleotides of a given genome. ... For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Duplications play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplications may range from extension of short tandem repeats, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplications of entire chromosomes or even entire genomes. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty. Schematic of a region of a chromosome before and after a duplication event Gene duplication occurs when an error in homologous recombination, a retrotransposition event, or duplication of an entire chromosome leads to the duplication of a region of DNA containing a gene [1]. The significance of this process for... The short tandem repeats (STR) are tandemly repeated DNA sequences of a pattern of length from 2 to 10 bp (for example (CA)n(TG)n in a genomics region) and the total size is lower than 100 bp. ... Polyploidy refers to cells or organisms that contain more than two copies of each of their chromosomes. ...

Horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many microbes. Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear chromosomes. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT), also Lateral gene transfer (LGT) is any process in which an organism transfers genetic material (i. ... A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). ... Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. ... In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ...

See also

• gene
• gene family
• Genome Comparison
• Genome project
• Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium
• Human genome
• List of omics topics in biology
• List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes
• Mitochondrial genome
• molecular systematics
• molecular evolution

This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... A gene family is a set of genes defined by presumed homology, i. ... Genome projects are scientific endeavours that aim to map the genome of a living being or of a species (be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a protist or a virus), that is, the complete set of genes caried by this living being or virus. ... The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens. ... This is a navigational and informational list. ... The nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans was the first multicellular organism to have its complete genome sequence determined. ... The mitochondrial genome is the genetic material of the mitochondria. ... It has been suggested that molecular phylogeny be merged into this article or section. ... Molecular evolution is the process of the genetic material in populations of organisms changing over time. ...

References

1. ^ Fiers W et al., Complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA - primary and secondary structure of replicase gene, Nature, 260, 500-507, 1976
2. ^ Fiers W, Contreras R, Haegemann G, Rogiers R, Van de Voorde A, Van Heuverswyn H, Van Herreweghe J, Volckaert G, Ysebaert M., Complete nucleotide sequence of SV40 DNA, Nature. 1978 May 11;273(5658):113-20.
3. ^ Sanger F, Air GM, Barrell BG, Brown NL, Coulson AR, Fiddes CA, Hutchison CA, Slocombe PM, Smith M., Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA, Nature. 1977 Feb 24;265(5596):687-95

• Benfey, P and Protopapas, AD (2004). Essentials of Genomics. Prentice Hall.
• Brown, TA (2002). Genomes 2. Bios Scientific Publishers.
• Gibson, G and Muse, SV (2004). A Primer of Genome Science (Second Edition). Sinauer Assoc.
• Gregory, TR (ed) (2005). The Evolution of the Genome. Elsevier.
• Reece, RJ (2004). Analysis of Genes and Genomes. John Wiley & Sons.
• Saccone, C and Pesole, G (2003). Handbook of Comparative Genomics. John Wiley & Sons.
• Werner, E. In silico multicellular systems biology and minimal genomes, Drug Discov Today. 2003 Dec 15;8(24):1121-7. PubMed

This article or section is missing citations and/or footnotes. To meet Wikipedia's style guidelines and conform to our policies regarding neutral point of view, original research, and verifiability, please provide appropriate inline citations and/or footnotes. For guidance in this area, see Wikipedia:Footnotes#How to use. This article has been tagged since January 2007. // Summary The Evolution of the Genome is a book edited by Dr. T. Ryan Gregory of the University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada, covering a wide range of topics in the study of genome evolution. ... Image File history File links Information_icon. ...

External links

• All About The Human Genome Project from Genome.gov
• Animal genome size database
• Plant genome size database
• Genomes OnLine Database
• The Genome News Network
• NCBI Entrez Genome Project database
• NCBI Genome Primer
• BBC News - Final genome 'chapter' published
• Software that maps an Artificial Genome sequence to a Network and to a Lineage tree