In biology the genome of an organism is the whole hereditary information of an organism that is encoded in the DNA (or, for some viruses, RNA). This includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences. The term was first coined, in 1920, by Hans Winkler, Professor of Botany at the University of Hamburg. Main articles: Life All organisms (viruses not included) consist of cells, which in turn, are based on a common carbon-based biochemistry. ... Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and many viruses). ... Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a nucleic acid consisting of a string of covalently-bound nucleotides. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... In molecular biology, junk DNA is a collective label for the portions of the DNA sequence of a chromosome or a genome for which no function has been identified. ... 1920 is a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January January 7 - Forces of Russian White admiral Kolchak surrender in Krasnoyarsk. ...

Unsolved problems in biology: Other than the structural genes, which is the simpler part of the system? What is the complete structure and function of the proteome proteins expressed by a cell or organ at a particular time and under specific conditions? What is the complete function of the regulator genes?

More precisely, the genome of an organism is a complete DNA sequence of one set of chromosomes; for example, one of the two sets that a diploid individual carries in every somatic cell. The term genome can be applied specifically to mean the complete set of nuclear DNA (i.e., the nuclear genome) but can also be applied to organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the mitochondrial genome or the chloroplast genome. When people say that the genome of a sexually reproducing species has been "sequenced," typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of autosomes and one of each type of sex chromosome, which together represent both of the possible sexes. Even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as "a genome sequence" may be a composite from the chromosomes of various individuals. In general use, the phrase genetic makeup is sometimes used conversationally to mean the genome of a particular individual or organism. The study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as genomics, which distinguishes it from genetics which generally studies the properties of single genes or groups of genes. General science-related image. ... Unsolved problems in : Note: Use the unsolved tag: {{unsolved|F|X}}, where F is any field in the sciences: and X is a concise explanation with or without links. ... In biology and ecology, an organism (in Greek organon = instrument) is an assembly of organs that influence each other in such a way that they function as a more or less stable whole and have properties of life. ... part of a DNA sequence A DNA sequence (sometimes genetic sequence) is a succession of letters representing the primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA molecule or strand, The possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide subunits of a DNA strand (adenine, cytosine, guanine... Figure 1: Chromosome. ... Diploid (meaning double in Greek) cells have two copies (homologs) of each chromosome (both sex- and non-sex determining chromosomes), usually one from the mother and one from the father. ... A somatic cell is a type of cell in an organism, such as the human body. ... In cell biology, the nucleus (from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, kernel) is an organelle, found in all eukaryotic cells, which contains most of the cells genetic material. ... In cell biology, an organelle is one of several structures with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell. ... In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ... The inside of a chloroplast Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae which conduct photosynthesis. ... Sexual reproduction is a process of reproduction involving the merging of two gametes from the same species to produce a new organism. ... In biology, the most commonly used definition of species was first coined by Ernst Mayr. ... In genetics and biochemistry, sequencing means to determine the primary structure (or primary sequence) of an unbranched biopolymer. ... An autosome is a non-sex chromosome. ... A sex-determination system is a biological system that determines the development of sexual characteristics in an organism. ... Genomics is the study of an organisms genome and the use of the genes. ... Genetics (from the Greek genno γεννώ= give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ...

Types of genomes

Most biological entities more complex than a virus sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes. In some contexts, such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe, "genome" is meant to include this auxiliary material, which is carried in plasmids. In such circumstances then, "genome" describes all of the genes and non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present. A common alternate meaning of virus is computer virus. ... Figure 1 : Schematic drawing of a bacterium with plasmids enclosed. ...

In vertebrates such as humans, however, "genome" carries the typical connotation of only chromosomal DNA. So although human mitochondria contain genes, these genes are not considered part of the genome. In fact, mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome, often referred to as the "mitochondrial genome". Groups Conodonta Hyperoartia Petromyzontidae (lampreys) Pteraspidomorphi (early jawless fish) Thelodonti Anaspida Cephalaspidomorphi (early jawless fish) Galeaspida Pituriaspida Osteostraci Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates) Placodermi Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) Acanthodii Osteichthyes (bony fish) Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish) Actinistia (coelacanths) Dipnoi (lungfish) Tetrapoda Amphibia Amniota Sauropsida/(Reptiles) Aves (Birds) Synapsida Mammalia... In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ... The mitochondrial genome is the genetic material of the mitochondria. ...

Genomes and genetic variation

Note that a genome does not capture the genetic diversity or the genetic polymorphism of a species. For example, the human genome sequence in principle could be determined from just half the DNA of one cell from one individual. To learn what variations in DNA underlie particular traits or diseases requires comparisons across individuals. This point explains the common usage of "genome" (which parallels a common usage of "gene") to refer not to any particular DNA sequence, but to a whole family of sequences that share a biological context. In biology, polymorphism can be defined as the occurrence in the same habitat of two or more forms of a trait in such frequencies that the rarer cannot be maintained by recurrent mutation alone. ...

Although this concept may seem counter intuitive, it is the same concept that says there is no particular shape that is the shape of a cheetah. Cheetahs vary, and so do the sequences of their genomes. Yet both the individual animals and their sequences share commonalities, so one can learn something about cheetahs and "cheetah-ness" from a single example of either. Binomial name Acinonyx jubatus (Schreber, 1775) The Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is an atypical member of the cat family (Felidae) that hunts by speed rather than by stealth or pack tactics. ...

Minimal genomes

Since genomes and their organisms are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multicellular organisms (see Developmental biology). The work is both in vivo and in silico. By understanding the functioning of minimal organisms one hopes to add complexity incrementally leading to the understanding of multicellular diseases such as Cancer.(see #References) Developmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. ... When normal cells are damaged or old they undergo apoptosis; cancer cells, however, avoid apoptosis. ...

Genome projects

Main article: Genome project Genome projects are scientific endeavours that aim to map the genome of a living being or of a species (be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a protist or a virus), that is, the complete set of genes caried by this living being or virus. ...

The Human Genome Project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome. Other genome projects include mouse, rice, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the puffer fish, bacteria like E. coli, etc. Many genomes have been sequenced by various genome projects. The cost of sequencing continues to drop, and it is possible that eventually an individual's genome could be sequenced for around several thousand dollars (US). The Human Genome Project (HGP) endeavored to map the human genome down to the nucleotide (or base pair) level and to identify all the genes present in it. ... A physical map is a map that shows identifable landmarks such as mountains, rivers, lakes, oceans, and other permanent geologic features. ... In genetics and biochemistry, sequencing means to determine the primary structure (or primary sequence) of an unbranched biopolymer. ... Binomial name Mus musculus Linnaeus, 1758 Mus musculus is the common house mouse. ... Binomial name Oryza sativa L. Rice (Oryza sativa) is a species of grass in the genus Oryza, native to tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia, where it grows in wetlands. ... Binomial name Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. ... Genera Amblyrhynchotes Arothron Auriglobus Canthigaster Carinotetraodon Chelonodon Colomesus Contusus Ephippion Feroxodon Fugu Gastrophysus Javichthys Lagocephalus Liosaccus Marilyna Monotretus Omegaphora Pelagocephalus Polyspina Reicheltia Sphoeroides Takifugu Tetractenos Tetraodon Torquigener Tylerius Xenopterus The pufferfish, also called blowfish, swellfish, balloonfish are fish making up the family Tetraodontidae, within the order Tetraodontiformes. ... Binomial name Escherichia coli T. Escherich, 1885 Escherichia coli (usually abbreviated to E. coli) is one of the main species of bacteria that live in the lower intestines of warm-blooded animals (including birds and mammals) and are necessary for the proper digestion of food. ... For the sense of sequencing used in electronic music, see the music sequencer article. ...

Compare: proteome The term proteome was first used in 1995 and has been applied to several different types of biological systems. ...

Comparison of different genome sizes

Note: The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8m. // Definition Genome size refers to the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a genome. ... In molecular biology, two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds are called a base pair (often abbreviated bp). ... A virus is a small particle that infects cells in biological organisms. ... A virus is a small particle that infects cells in biological organisms. ... Enterobacteria phage λ (lambda phage) is a temperate phage that lives in E. coli. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Binomial name Escherichia coli T. Escherich, 1885 E. coli at 10,000x magnification Escherichia coli (usually abbreviated to E. coli) is one of the main species of bacteria that live in the lower intestines of warm-blooded animals (including birds and mammals) and are necessary for the proper digestion of... Divisions Land plants (embryophytes) Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) Hepatophyta - liverworts Anthocerophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses Vascular plants (tracheophytes) Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses Equisetophyta - horsetails Pteridophyta - true ferns Psilotophyta - whisk ferns Ophioglossophyta - adderstongues Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering plants Adiantum pedatum (a fern... This article is about the botanical meaning. ... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Glomeromycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota Yellow fungus For the fictional character, see Fungus the Bogeyman. ... Binomial name Saccharomyces cerevisiae Meyen ex E.C. Hansen Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of budding yeast. ... Classes Adenophora    Subclass Enoplia    Subclass Chromadoria Secernentea    Subclass Rhabditia    Subclass Spiruria    Subclass Diplogasteria The roundworms (Phylum Nematoda) are one of the most common phyla of animals, with over 20,000 different described species. ... Binomial name Caenorhabditis elegans Maupas, 1900 Caenorhabditis elegans (pronounced see-no-rab-DYE-tis) is a free-living nematode (a roundworm), about 1 mm in length, which lives in a temperate soil environment. ... Classes & Orders Subclass: Apterygota Orders Archaeognatha (Bristletails) Thysanura (Silverfish) Monura - extinct Subclass: Pterygota Orders Ephemeroptera (mayflies) Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) Diaphanopteroidea - extinct Palaeodictyoptera - extinct Megasecoptera - extinct Archodonata - extinct Infraclass: Neoptera Orders Blattodea (cockroaches) Isoptera (termites) Mantodea (mantids) Dermaptera (earwigs) Plecoptera (stoneflies) Orthoptera (grasshoppers, etc) Phasmatodea (walking sticks) Embioptera (webspinners) Zoraptera... Binomial name Drosophila melanogaster Meigen, 1830 dorsal view Drosophila melanogaster (Black-bellied Dew-lover) a dipteran (two-winged) insect, is the species of fruit fly that is commonly used in genetic experiments; it is among the most important model organisms. ... Orders Subclass Embrithopoda (extinct) Subclass Creodonta (extinct) Hyaenodontidae Oxyaenidae Subclass Multituberculata (extinct) Plagiaulacida Cimolodonta Subclass Palaeoryctoides (extinct) Subclass Triconodonta (extinct) Subclass Placentalia Afrosoricida Artiodactyla Carnivora Cetacea Chiroptera Dermoptera Desmostylia (extinct) Hyracoidea Insectivora Lagomorpha Macroscelidea Perissodactyla Pholidota Primates Proboscidea Rodentia Scandentia Sirenia Tubulidentata Xenarthra Subclass Marsupialia Dasyuromorphia Didelphimorphia Diprotodontia Microbiotheria Notoryctemorphia... Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ...

Genome evolution

Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as chromosome number, genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005). Measure can mean: To perform a measurement. ... Karyogram of human female A karyotype is the complete set of all chromosomes of a cell of any living organism. ... // Definition Genome size refers to the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a genome. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... Codons are triplets of nucleotides that together specify an amino acid residue in a polypeptide chain. ... In genetics, the guanine-cytosine content (GC content) is the ratio of guanine and cytosine to the total number of nucleotides of a given genome. ... 2002(MMII) is a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2003(MMIII) is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2004(MMIV) is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005(MMV) is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Duplications play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplications may range from extension of short tandem repeats, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplications of entire chromosomes or even entire genomes. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty. Schematic of a region of a chromosome before and after a duplication event Gene duplication occurs when an error in DNA replication leads to the duplication of a region of DNA containing a (generally functional) gene. ... The short tandem repeats (STR) are tandemly repeated DNA sequences of a pattern of length from 2 to 10 bp (for example (CA)n(TG)n in a genomics region) and the total size is lower than 100 bp. ... Polyploid (in Greek: πολλαπλόν - multiple) cells or organisms contain more than two copies (ploidy) of their chromosomes. ...

Horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many microbes. Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear chromosomes. Horizontal gene transfer is any process in which an organism transfers genetic material (i. ... A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). ... The inside of a chloroplast Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae which conduct photosynthesis. ... In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ...

Other Omics & Ome pages

• Genome, Proteome, Expressome, Metabolome, Regulome, Functome, Phenome, Textome
• Mitochondriomics, Golgiome, Ligandomics, Eukaryome, Bacteriome, Archaeome

The term proteome was first used in 1995 and has been applied to several different types of biological systems. ... This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... Metabolome is the whole set of metabolic entities and small pathway motifs in a cell, tissue, organ, organisms, and species. ... Regulome refers to the whole set of regulation components in a cell, tissue, organ, organisms, and species. ... Functome refers to the whole set of functional entities in a cell, tissue, organ, organisms, and species. ... This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... Textome is the whole set of text elements that can be processed and mined for new information generation. ... Eukaryome is the whole set of eukaryotic living organisms on Earth and their proteins. ... Bacteriome is the whole set of bacteria and their proteins. ...

Subfields of Genome

• Human genome, Mitochondriome, Eukaryome

The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens. ... Eukaryome is the whole set of eukaryotic living organisms on Earth and their proteins. ...

References

Benfey, P and Protopapas, AD (2004). Essentials of Genomics. Prentice Hall.

Brown, TA (2002). Genomes 2. Bios Scientific Publishers.

Gibson, G and Muse, SV (2004). A Primer of Genome Science (Second Edition). Sinauer Assoc.

Gregory, TR (ed) (2005). The Evolution of the Genome. Elsevier. // Summary The Evolution of the Genome is a book edited by Dr. T. Ryan Gregory of the University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada, covering a wide range of topics in the study of genome evolution. ...

Reece, RJ (2004). Analysis of Genes and Genomes. John Wiley & Sons.

Saccone, C and Pesole, G (2003). Handbook of Comparative Genomics. John Wiley & Sons.

See also

• Developmental biology, evolution, molecular systematics, molecular evolution, gene family, gene

Developmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. ... Charles Darwin, father of the theory of evolution by natural selection. ... Molecular systematics is a product of the traditional field of systematics and the growing field of bioinformatics. ... Molecular evolution is the process of the genetic material in populations of organisms changing over time. ... A gene family is a set of genes defined by presumed homology, i. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ...

External links

• Animal genome size database
• Plant genome size database
• Genomes OnLine Database
• The Genome News Network