The geology of India is varied and diverse. Most of the rocks date back before the pre-Cambrian era. The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 542 million years before the present (BP) at the end of the Proterozoic eon and ended about 490 million years BP with the beginning of the Ordovician period. ...

Geological Phases

The major geological phases responsible for making of india can be enumerated thus:

The first phase is marked by the cooling and solidification of the upper crust of the earth surface in the pre-Cambrian era (prior to 600 million years) represented by the exposure of the Archaean gneisses and granites especially on the Peninsula. Minor igneous activities, subsequent metamorphism and crumpling along with the folding of the Aravalli Mountains represent the main activities. In geology, a crust is the outer layer of a planet, part of its lithosphere. ... The Precambrian or Cryptozoic is the period of the geologic timescale from the formation of Earth around 4500 million years before the present (BP) to the evolution of abundant macroscopic hard-shelled fossils, which marked the beginning of the Cambrian, some 542 million years BP. Remarkably little is known about... Metamorphism can be defined as the mineralogical, chemical and crystallographic changes in a solid-state rock, i. ... The Aravalli Range is a range of mountains in western India running approximately 300 miles northeast-southwest across Rajasthan state. ...

The levelling of the undulations, crushing and crumpling of the sediments of the Dharwaian group (Bijawars) mark the second phase. The igneous activities and intrusions imparted it the character of the mixed sedimentaries.

The calcareous and arenaceous deposits corresponding to humid and semi-arid climatic regimes in the cuddapah and vindhyan basins bordering or lying within the existing landmass and its uplift during the Cambrian (500 million years ago) mark the main sequence of events in this period. These formations have preserved their horizontal stratification. Cuddapahs are certainly ordered as they underlie the Vindhyans, but the controversy regarding the chronology of upheaval of vindhyans is yet to be resolved. The imprints exist only in the form of faults, joints and minor folds at places. The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 542 million years before the present (BP) at the end of the Proterozoic eon and ended about 490 million years BP with the beginning of the Ordovician period. ...

The Permo-Carboniferrous glaciation form a southerly source and extensive glacio-fliuvial deposition in the depression and subsequent sag faulting where these deposits, designated as the Gondwanas, are preserved, along with the transgression of the Permian (270 million years ago), exhibit the major activities of this phase.

This phase can be recognised as world's major event in the form of fracturing and drift of the continental mass of Gondwanaland. To this drift probably owes the subsequent uplift of the vindhyans, the circumferencial zone and the northern peripheral sediments in the Himalayan Sea. This article is about the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana. ...

The close of the Mesozoic witnessed one of the greatest volcanic eruptions, the Deccan lava flows, covering more than 500,000 km² area followed by the first phase of the Teriary orogeny- the Karakoram phase by coming closer of the two land masses, the Angaraland in the north and the Peninsular India in the south, under the oscillatory movement of the continental masses to and from the pole. The Mesozoic is one of three geologic eras of Phanerozoic eon. ...

Main rock groups

The geological record in India is divided into five main groups by studying the rock samples and the plants and animals preserved in these rock formations. These rock groups are

1. Archaean or Pre-Cambrian which comprises the most ancient crystalline rocks consolidated from molten matter.
2. Palaeozoic or primary which comprises Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian and represents the longest era in the history of the planet and in which ancient life is found.
3. Mesozoic or Secondary which comprises the Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic in which organic remains before the modern times are found.
4. Kainozoic or tertiary which comprises Pliocene, Miocene, Oligocene and Eocene in which animal and plant life begin to resemble those of present day.
5. Quaternary and Recent which comprises the Pleistocene and represents the present era.

The Archean is a geologic eon; it is a somewhat antiquated term for the time span between 2500 million years before the present and 3800 million years before the present. ... The Precambrian or Cryptozoic is the period of the geologic timescale from the formation of Earth around 4500 million years before the present (BP) to the evolution of abundant macroscopic hard-shelled fossils, which marked the beginning of the Cambrian, some 542 million years BP. Remarkably little is known about... The Palaeozoic is a major division of the geologic timescale, one of four geologic eras. ... The Permian is a geologic period that extends from about 299. ... The Carboniferous is a major division of the geologic timescale that extends from the end of the Devonian period, about 359. ... Disambiguation: Devonian is also an adjective relating to the English county of Devon or the people there. ... The Silurian is a major division of the geologic timescale that extends from the end of the Ordovician period, about 443. ... The Ordovician period is the second of the six (seven in North America) periods of the Paleozoic era. ... The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 542 million years before the present (BP) at the end of the Proterozoic eon and ended about 490 million years BP with the beginning of the Ordovician period. ... The Mesozoic is one of three geologic eras of Phanerozoic eon. ... The Cretaceous period is one of the major divisions of the geologic timescale, reaching from the end of the Jurassic period, about 146 million years ago (Ma), to the beginning of the Paleocene epoch of the Tertiary period (65. ... The Jurassic period is a major unit of the geologic timescale that extends from about 200 Ma (million years ago) at the end of the Triassic to 146 Ma at the beginning of the Cretaceous. ... The Triassic is a geologic period that extends from about 245 to 202 Ma (million years ago). ... The Pliocene epoch (a. ... The Miocene epoch is a period of time that extends from about 23 to 5. ... The Oligocene epoch is a geologic period of time that extends from about 34 million to 23 million years before the present. ... The Eocene epoch (56-34 MYA) is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in the Cenozoic era. ... The Pleistocene Epoch is part of the geologic timescale. ...

Archaean

A considerable area of peninsular India consists of gneisses and schists, which are the oldest rocks found in India. The Archaeans of India have been classified into two systems, namely the Dharwar system and the Archaean system. Categories: Mineral stubs | Metamorphic rocks ... Categories: Mineral stubs | Metamorphic rocks ...

The rocks of the Dharwar system are of mainly sedimentary origin, and occur in narrow elongated synclines resting on the gneiss found in Bellary district, Mysore and the Aravallis of Rajputana. Manganese and Iron ore also occur along with them which makes these rock formations very important. The other important metal associated with these rocks is gold found in the Kolar gold mines located in Mysore. A few formations in the north and west of India like the Vaikrita system, which occurs in Hundes, Kumaon and Spiti areas, the Dailing series in Sikkim and the Shillong series in Assam are believed to be of the same age as the Dharwar system. Bellary is a city and district in Karnataka state, India. ... Mysore is the second largest city of the Indian state of Karnataka. ... The Aravalli Range is a range of mountains in western India running approximately 300 miles northeast-southwest across Rajasthan state. ... General Name, Symbol, Number manganese, Mn, 25 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 7, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 54. ... This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an element that readily forms ions (cations) and has metallic bonds, and metals are sometimes described as a lattice of positive ions (cations) in a cloud of electrons. ... General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Atomic mass 196. ... The word Kumaon can be traced back to the 5th century BC. The Kassite Assyrians left their homeland Kummah,on the banks of river Euphrates,and settled in the northern part of India. ... The district of Lahul and Spiti in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh consists of the two formerly separate districts of Lahul and Spiti. ... Sikkim is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas. ... Shillong is the capital of Meghalaya, one of the smaller states in India. ... Assam (অসম) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur. ...

The Archaean system consists of gneisses which are further classified into the Bengal gneiss, the Bundelkhand gneiss and the Nilgiri gneiss. The Niligiri system comprises the Charnockites ranging from granites to gabbros. Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in Bangla (Bengali), is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ... Bundelkhand is the name of the geographical area of central India. ... Map of The Nilgiris district The Nilgiris or Blue Mountains are a range of mountains and a district in the south-Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. ... Charnockite is a series of foliated metamorphosed igneous rocks of wide distribution and great importance in India, Ceylon, Madagascar and Africa. ... Quarrying granite for the Mormon Temple, Utah Territory. ... Gabbro Gabbro is a dark, coarse-grained, intrusive igneous rock chemically equivalent to basalt. ...

Palaeozoic

The earliest rocks of the Cambrain period are found in the Salt range in Punjab and the Spiti are in central Himalayas and consist of fossiliferous sediments. In the Salt range there are various zones found. The Salt Pseudomorph zone has a thickness of 450 ft consists of Dolomites and Sandstones. The Magnesian Sandstones have a thickenss of 250 ft and are near to the Dolomites in characteristic. They have very few fossils. The Neobolus Shale composed of dark shales have a thickness of 100 ft. Finally there is a zone consisting of red or purple sandstones having a thickness of 250 to 400 ft called the Purple Sandstone. These are unfossiliferous and show sun-cracks and worm burrows. The deposists in Spiti are known as Haimanta system and they consist of Slates, micaceous quartzite and dolomitic limestones. Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 The Punjab (meaning: Land of five Rivers; also Panjab, Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Shahmukhi: پنجاب) is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. ... The district of Lahul and Spiti in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh consists of the two formerly separate districts of Lahul and Spiti. ... The Himalaya is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. ... Dolomite crystals from Touissite, Morocco Dolomite is the name of both a carbonate rock and a mineral (formula: CaMg(CO3)2) consisting of a calcium magnesium carbonate found in crystals. ... Sandstone near Stadtroda, Germany Sandstone is an sedimentary rock composed mainly of feldspar and quartz and varies in colour (in a similar way to sand), through grey, yellow, red, and white. ... Shale Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or muds. ... Slate Slate is a fine-grained, homogeneous, sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash which has been metamorphosed (foliated) in layers (bedded deposits). ... Quartzite Quartzite is a hard, metamorphic rock which was originally sandstone. ... Limey shale overlaid by limestone. ...

The Ordovician rocks comprise flaggy shales, limestones, red quartzites, quartzites, sandstones and conglomerates. The siliceous limestones belonging to the Silurian succed the Ordovician rocks. These limestones are covered by white quartzite and this is known as Muth quartzite. Silurian rocks which contain typical Silurian fauna are also found in the Vihi district of Kashmir. Typical Devonian fossils and corals are found in grey limestone in the central himalayas and in black limestone in the Chitral area. A mineral conglomerate In geology, a conglomerate is a rock consisting of other stones that have been cemented together. ... Fauna is a collective term for animal life. ... Shown in green is the Kashmiri region under Pakistani control. ... Orders Scleractinia Corals are gastrovascular marine cnidarians (phylum Cnidaria; class Anthozoa) existing as small sea anemone-like polyps, typically forming colonies of many individuals. ... Chitral, or Chitrāl, is the name of a town (35° 53 N; 71° 48 E), valley, river, district, and former princely state in the Malakand Division of the Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan. ...

The Carboniferous comprises two series namely Po series, also known as upper carboniferous, and Lipak series also known as lower carboniferous. The fossils of Brachiopods and some Trilobites are found in the calcareous and sandy rocks of the lipak series. The po series overlays the lipak series, and the Fenestella shales of the upper carboniferous age are found here in the qaurtzites and dark shales. The Syringothyris limestone in Kashmir also belongs to the lipak series. The carboniferous strata is overlaid by Agglomeratic slates, believed to be of volacanic origin, which are grey in color. Classes Lingulata Paterinata (extinct) Craniforma Chileata (extinct) Obolellata (extinct) Kutorginata (extinct) Strophomenata (extinct) Rhynchonellata Brachiopods (from Latin bracchium, arm + New Latin -poda, foot) make up one of the major animal phyla, Brachiopoda. ... Orders Agnostida Redlichiida Corynexochida Lichida Nektaspida? Phacopida Proetida Asaphida Harpetida Ptychopariida Trilobites are extinct arthropods in the class Trilobita. ... Fenestella, (52 BC? - AD 19?), Roman historian and encyclopaedic writer, flourished in the reign of Tiberius. ...

Mesozoic

Various genus of Productus are found in the limestones of the Triassic, which has led to the deposits being referred to as productus limestone. This limestone is of marine origin and is divided into three stratas. The Chideru stage is formed by the upper productus and contains ammonites, the middle productus represents the Virgal stage and the Amb stage formed by the lower productus. Ceratite beds, named after the genus ceratite, consisting of arenaceous limestones, calcerous sandstones and marls also belong to the Triassic. In biology, a genus (plural genera) is a grouping in the classification of living organisms having one or more related and morphologically similar species. ...

The Jurassic consists of three stratas. Kioto limestones comprise the lower and middle Jurassic and are 2000 to 3000 ft thick. The upper Jurassic comprises Spiti shales, which are black, and extend from the Karakoram to Sikkim. Location of Kyoto, on the main island of Japan Kyoto (Japanese: 京都市; Kyōto-shi) is a city in Japan that has a population of 1. ... The Karakoram Located in the mountainous region of Gilgit-Baltistan or the Northern Areas of Pakistan, the Karakoram is one of the great Himalayan mountain ranges, with many of the highest and most daunting peaks of the world. ...

Cretaceous rocks are found in south India and are divided into Niniyur stage, Ariyalur stage, Trichonopoly stage and Utatur stage. The utatur stage consists of phosphatic nodules which constitutes an important source of phosphates in the country. The well developed beds of Lameta in the central provinces contain fossil records which are helpful in estimating the age of the Deccan Trap. This trap was formed near the end of the Cretaceous period due to volcanic activity. This volcanic area occupies about 200,000 square miles of area. These traps give rise to really good building stone and also yields very fertile clayey loam, particularly suited to cotton cultivation. In chemistry, a phosphate is a polyatomic ion or radical consisting of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen. ... In geology Loam is soil composed of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter, with particles of various sizes, evenly mixed. ... Picking cotton in Georgia Cotton is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant, a shrub native to the tropical and subtropical regions of both the Old World and the New World. ...

Kainozoic

The tertiary period witnesed the upliftment of the Himalayas and the volcanic activity of the Deccan Traps. The rocks of this era have valuable deposits of petroleum and coal. Sandstones of Eocene are found in Punjab, which pass into chalky limestones with oil seepages. Further north the rocks found in the Simla area are divided into various series, the Sabathu series consisting of grey and red shales, the Dagshai series comprising bright red clays and the Kasauli series comprising sandstones. Towards the east in Assam Nummulitic limestone is found in the Khasi hills. Oil is associated with these rocks of the Oligo-Miocene age. The Siwalik system also has rocks with thickness of 16000 to 20000 ft which belong to the Kainozoic age. These rocks mainly comprise clays and sandstones and contain remains of vertebrate animals. Nodding donkey pumping an oil well near Sarnia, Ontario, 2001 Petroleum (from Latin petra – rock and oleum – oil), crude oil, sometimes colloquially called black gold, is a thick, dark brown or greenish liquid. ... Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by deep mining, coal mining (open-pit mining or strip mining). ... Shimla Shimla (शिमला) is the capital of Himachal Pradesh and a hill station in North India. ... Khasi is an Austroasiatic language spoken in the four districts of Meghalaya state in India, namely East Khasi Hills district, West Khasi Hills district, Jaiñtia Hills district and Ri Bhoi district. ... The Siwalik Hills (sometimes spelled Shiwalik, Shivalik, or Sivalik) are a sub-Himalayan mountain range running 1,600 km long from the Tista River, Sikkim, through Nepal and India, into northern Pakistan. ... Groups Conodonta Hyperoartia Petromyzontidae (lampreys) Pteraspidomorphi (early jawless fish) Thelodonti Anaspida Cephalaspidomorphi (early jawless fish) Galeaspida Pituriaspida Osteostraci Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates) Placodermi Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) Acanthodii Osteichthyes (bony fish) Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish) Actinistia (coelacanths) Dipnoi (lungfish) Tetrapoda Amphibia Amniota Sauropsida/(Reptiles) Aves (Birds) Synapsida Mammalia...

Quaternary

The alluvium which is found in the Indo-Gangetic plain belongs to this era , and was brought down from the himalayas by the rivers. These alluvium deposits consist of clay, loam, silt etc. and is divided into the older alluvium and the newer alluvium. The older alluvium is called Bhangar and is present in the ground above the flood level of the rivers. Khaddar or newer alluvium is confined to the river channels and their flood plains. This area has some of the most fertile soil found in the country as new silt is continually laid down by the rivers every year. Bold textLink title Headline text Alluvium is soil land deposited by a river or other running water. ... The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a rich, fertile and ancient land encompassing most of northern and eastern India, the most populous parts of Pakistan, and virtually all of Bangladesh. ... Flood Plain along Lynches River Johnsonville, South Carolina Showing high water mark on tupelo and cypress trees In geography, a flood plain is a plain formed of sediment, typically dropped by a river. ...

Notes

1. ^  Volcanic push to Barren tourism. Times of India. URL accessed on June 8, 2005.

June 8 is the 159th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (160th in leap years), with 206 days remaining. ... 2005 (MMV) is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...