Fig 1: The earth in the Early Permian. At that time, India is part of Gondwana and bordered to the north by the Cimmerian Superterrane. Paleogeographic reconstructions. By Dèzes (1999), based on Stampfli and Borel (2002) and Patriat and Achache (1984). A more modern paleo-geographic reconstruction of the Early Permian can be found here

Fig 2: The earth at the Permian-Triassic boundary. The opening of the Neotethys separates the Cimmeridian Superterrane from Gondwana. Based on Stampfli and Borel (2002) and Patriat and Achache (1984). For a more modern paleo-geographic reconstruction of the same period, see this web-site (Stampfli et al.)

Fig 3: The earth in the Cretaceous. The Cimmeridian Superterrane has accreted to Mega Laurasia, the oceanic crust of the Neotethys is subducted to the north along the Dras volcanic arc , the Shigatze Ocean opens as a consequence of back-arc spreading, India is separated from Africa and E. Gondwana and the Indian Ocean opens. Paleogeographic reconstructions based by Dèzes (1999), on Stampfli and Borel (2002) and Patriat and Achache (1984).

Fig 4: The northward drift of India from 71 Ma ago to present time. Note the simultaneous counter-clockwise rotation of India. Collision of the Indian continent with Eurasia occurred at about 55 Ma. Source: www.usgs.org (modified)

Fig 5: Geologic - Tectonic map of the Himalaya, modified after Le Fort (1988).

Fig 6: Geological Map of the northwest Himalaya, compiled after the work of: Epard et al. 1995; Frank et al. 1997; Fuchs and Linner, 1995; Guntli, 1993; Herren, 1987; Kelemen et al. 1988; Kündig, 1988; Patel et al. 1993; Searle et al. 1988, 1997; Spring, 1993; Steck et al. 1993; Steck et al. 1998; Stutz, 1988; Thöni, 1977; Vannay, 1993; Vannay and Graseman 1998; Wyss 1999 and completed with personal observations by Dèzes (1999). for references, see bibliography. HHCS: High Himalayan Cristalline Sequence; ISZ: Indus Suture Zone; KW: Kishtwar Window; LKRW: Larji-Kulu-Rampur Window; MBT: Main Boundary Thrust; MCT: Main Central Thrust; SF: Sarchu Fault; ZSZ: Zanskar Shear Zone. (Download map in PDF format).

Fig 7: Simplified cross-section of the north-western Himalaya showing the main tectonic units and structural elements by Dèzes (1999). (Download in PDF format)

The Geology of the Himalaya is a record of the most dramatic and visible creations of modern plate tectonic forces. The lofty Himalaya, which stretch over 2900 km along the border between India and Tibet, are the result of an ongoing orogeny, the result of a collision between two continental tectonic plates. This immense mountain range was formed by huge tectonic forces and sculpted by unceasing denudation processes of weathering and erosion. The Himalaya-Tibet region is virtually the water tower of Asia: it supplies freshwater for more than one-fifth of the world population, and it accounts for a quarter of the global sedimentatary budget. Topographically, the belt has many superlatives: the highest rate of uplift (nearly 1 cm/year at Nanga Parbat), the highest relief (8848 m at Mt. Everest Chomolangma), the source of some of the greatest rivers and the highest concentration of glaciers outside of the polar regions. This last feature earned the Himalaya its name meaning in Sanskrit: «the abode of the snow». Download high resolution version (780x783, 111 KB)plate tectonics 290ma File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... Download high resolution version (780x783, 111 KB)plate tectonics 290ma File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... The Permian is a geologic period that extends from about 299. ... Download high resolution version (766x771, 127 KB)plate tectonics 249ma File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... Download high resolution version (766x771, 127 KB)plate tectonics 249ma File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... Download high resolution version (737x736, 98 KB)plate tectonic reconstruction 100ma File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... Download high resolution version (737x736, 98 KB)plate tectonic reconstruction 100ma File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... Download high resolution version (442x743, 104 KB)India-Eurasia collision 70-0 Ma File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... Download high resolution version (442x743, 104 KB)India-Eurasia collision 70-0 Ma File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... tectonic units of the Himalaya File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... tectonic units of the Himalaya File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... Download high resolution version (752x1110, 57 KB)tectonic map of the NW Himalaya File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... Download high resolution version (752x1110, 57 KB)tectonic map of the NW Himalaya File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... cross-section of the Himalayan orogen File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... cross-section of the Himalayan orogen File links The following pages link to this file: Geology of the Himalaya ... The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of the 20th century. ... The Himalaya is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. ... Tibet (older spelling Thibet; Tibetan: བོད་, Bod, pronounced pö in Lhasa dialect; Chinese: 西藏, pinyin: XÄ«zàng or 藏区 ZàngqÅ« [the two names are used with different connotations; see Names section below]) is a region in Central Asia and the home of the Tibetan people. ... Orogeny is the process of mountain building. ... The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of the 20th century. ... The most general definition of a mountain range is a group of mountains bordered by lowlands. ... Weathering is the process of decomposition and/or disintegration of rocks, soils and their minerals through natural, chemical, and biological processes that is, in place. ... Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA. Erosion is the displacement of solids (soil, mud, rock, and other particles) by the agents of wind, water, ice, movement in response to gravity, or living organisms (in the case of bioerosion). ... Asia is the largest and most populous of the Earths continents. ... The world population is the total number of humans alive on the planet Earth at a given time. ... Nanga Parbat (also known as Nangaparbat Peak or Diamir) is the ninth highest mountain on Earth. ... The Everest entry redirects here. ... Austrias longest glacier, the Pasterze, winds its 8 km (5 mile) route at the foot of Austrias highest mountain, the Grossglockner A glacier is a large, long-lasting river of ice that is formed on land and moves in response to gravity. ... Earths polar regions are the areas of the globe surrounding the poles, north of the Arctic circle, or south of the Antarctic Circle. ... Sanskrit ( संस्कृतम्) is a classical language of India and a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. ...

The making of the Himalaya¹

During Late Precambrian and the Palaeozoic, the Indian continent, bounded to the north by the Cimmerian Superterranes, was part of Gondwana and was separated from Eurasia by the Paleotethys Ocean (Fig. 1). During that period, the northern part of India was affected by a late phase of the so-called "Cambro-Ordovician Pan-African event", which is marked by an unconformity between Ordovician continental conglomerates and the underlying Cambrian marine sediments. Numerous granitic intrusions dated at around 500 Ma are also attributed to this event. The Precambrian is an informal name for the eons of the geologic timescale that came before the current Phanerozoic eon. ... The Palaeozoic is a major division of the geologic timescale, one of four geologic eras. ... [HELP! Needs re-writing. ... African-Eurasian aspect of Earth Eurasia is the landmass composed of the continents of Europe and Asia. ... The Ordovician period is the second of the six (seven in North America) periods of the Paleozoic era. ... The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 542 million years before the present (BP) at the end of the Proterozoic eon and ended about 490 million years BP with the beginning of the Ordovician period. ... Quarrying granite for the Mormon Temple, Utah Territory. ...

In the Early Carboniferous, an early stage of rifting is observed between the Indian continent and the Cimmerian Superterranes. During the Early Permian, this rift will develop into the Neotethys ocean (Fig. 2). From that time on, the Cimmerian Superterranes drift away from Gondwana towards the north. Nowadays, Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet are partly made up of these terranes. The Carboniferous is a major division of the geologic timescale that extends from the end of the Devonian period, about 359. ... The Permian is a geologic period that extends from about 299. ... In geology, a rift is a place where the Earths lithosphere is expanding. ... The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. ... Tibet (older spelling Thibet; Tibetan: བོད་, Bod, pronounced pö in Lhasa dialect; Chinese: 西藏, pinyin: Xīzàng or 藏区 Zàngqū [the two names are used with different connotations; see Names section below]) is a region in Central Asia and the home of the Tibetan people. ...

In the Norian (210 Ma), a major rifting episode splits Gondwana in two parts. The Indian continent becomes part of East Gondwana, together with Australia and Antarctica. However, the separation of East and West Gondwana, together with the formation of oceanic crust, occurred only in the Callovian (160-155 Ma). The Indian plate then broke off from Australia and Antarctica in the Early Cretaceous (130 - 125 Ma) with the opening of the "South Indian Ocean" (Fig. 3). The Norian Stage was a portion of the Triassic geological period. ... The Callovian is a stage on the geologic time scale occuring from 164. ... The Cretaceous period is one of the major divisions of the geologic timescale, reaching from the end of the Jurassic period, about 146 million years ago (Ma), to the beginning of the Paleocene epoch of the Tertiary period (65. ...

In the Upper Cretaceous (84 Ma), the Indian plate began its very rapid northward drift at an average speed of 16 cm/year, covering a distance of about 6000 km, until the collision of the northwestern part of the Indian passive margin with Eurasia in the lower Eocene (48-52 Ma). Since that time and until today, the Indian continent continues its northwards ascent at a slower but still surprisingly fast rate of ~ 5 cm/year, indenting Eurasia by about 2400 km and rotating by just over 33° in an anticlockwise direction (Fig. 4). The Eocene epoch (56-34 MYA) is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in the Cenozoic era. ...

Whilst most of the oceanic crust was "simply" subducted below the Tibetan block during the northward motion of India, at least three major mechanisms have been put forward, either separately or jointly, to explain what happened, since collision, to the 2400 km of "missing continental crust". The first mechanism also calls upon the subduction of the Indian continental crust below Tibet. Second is the extrusion or escape tectonics mechanism (Molnar and Tapponier, 1975) which sees the Indian plate as an indenter that squeezed the Indochina block out of its way. The third proposed mechanism is that a large part (~1000 km, Dewey et al. 1989) of these 2400 km of crustal shortening since collision was accommodated by thrusting and folding of the sediments of the passive Indian margin together with the deformation of the Tibetan crust. Age of oceanic crust Oceanic crust is the part of Earths lithosphere which underlies the ocean basins. ... The continental crust is the layer of granitic and sedimentary rock which forms the continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves. ... Indochina, or the Indochinese Peninsula, is a large peninsula in Southeast Asia. ...

Even though it is more than reasonable to argue that this huge amount of crustal shortening most probably results from a combination of these three mechanisms, it is nevertheless the last mechanism which created the high topographic relief of the Himalaya.

Major tectonic subdivisions of the Himalaya

One of the most striking aspects of the Himalayan orogen is the lateral continuity of its major tectonic elements. The Himalaya is classically divided into four tectonic units than can be followed for more than 2400 km along the belt (Fig. 5 and Fig. 7)². ...

1. The Subhimalaya forms the foothills of the Himalayan Range and is essentially composed of Miocene to Pleistocene molassic sediments derived from the erosion of the Himalaya. These molasses known as Muree and Siwaliks Formations are internally folded and imbricated. The Subhimalaya is thrust along the Main Frontal Thrust over the quaternary alluvium deposited by the rivers coming from the Himalaya (Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra...), which demonstrates that the Himalaya is still a very active orogen.
2. The Lesser Himalaya, LH is mainly formed by Upper Proterozoic to Lower Cenozoic detrital sediments from the passive Indian margin intercalated with some granites and acid volcanics (1840± 70 Ma, Frank et al., 1977). These low-grade sediments are thrust over the Subhimalaya along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). The Lesser Himalaya often appears in tectonic windows (Kishtwar or Larji-Kulu-Rampur windows) within the High Himalaya Crystalline Sequence.
3. The Central Himalayan Domain, CHD (or High Himalaya) forms the backbone of the himalayan orogen and encompasses the areas with the highest topographical relief. It is commonly separated into four zones.
   1. The High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence, HHCS (approximately 30 different names exist in the literature to describe this unit. The most frequently found equivalents are Greater Himalayan Sequence, Tibetan Slab and High Himalayan Crystalline) is a 30 km thick, medium- to high-grade metamorphic sequence of metasedimentary rocks which are frequently intruded by granites of Ordovician (~ 500 Ma) and Lower Miocene (~ 22 Ma) age. Although most of the metasediments forming the HHCS are of Upper Proterozoic to Lower Cambrian age, much younger metasediments can also be found in several areas (Mesozoic in the Tandi syncline and Warwan region, Permian in the Tschuldo slice, Ordovician to Carboniferous in the Sarchu Area). It is now generally admitted that the metasediments of the HHCS represent the metamorphic equivalent of the sedimentary series forming the base of the overlying Tethys Himalaya. The HHCS forms a major nappe which is thrust over the Lesser Himalaya along the Main Central Thrust (MCT).
   2. The Tethys Himalaya, TH is an approximately 100 km large synclinorium formed by strongly folded and imbricated, weakly metamorphosed sedimentary series. Several nappes, termed North Himalayan Nappes (Steck et al. 1993) have also been evidenced within this unit. An almost complete stratigraphic record ranging from the Upper Proterozoic to the Eocene is preserved within the sediments of the TH. The stratigraphic analyses of these sediments yields important indications on the geological history of the northern continental margin of the Indian continent from its Gondwanian evolution to its continental collision with Eurasia. The transition between the generally low-grade sediments of the Tethys Himalaya and the underlying low- to high-grade rocks of the High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence is usually progressive. Yet, in many places along the Himalayan belt, this transition zone is marked by a major extensional structure, the Central Himalayan Detachment System (also known as South Tibetan Detachment System or North Himalayan Normal Fault).
   3. The Nyimaling-­Tso Morari Metamorphic Dome, NTMD: In the Ladakh region, the Tethys Himalaya synclinorium passes gradually to the north in a large dome of greenschist to eclogitic metamorphic rocks. As with the HHCS, these metamorphic rocks represent the metamorphic equivalent of the sediments forming the base of the Tethys Himalaya. The Precambrian Phe Formation is also here intruded by several Ordovician (~480 Ma; Girard and Bussy, 1998) granites.
   4. The Lamayuru and Markha Units, LMU are formed by flyschs and olistholiths deposited in a turbiditic environment, on the northern part of the Indian continental slope and in the adjoining Neotethys basin. The age of these sediments ranges from Upper Permian to Eocene.
4. the Indus Suture Zone, ISZ (or Indus-Yarlung-Tsangpo Suture Zone) defines the zone of collision between the Indian Plate and the Ladakh Batholith (also Transhimalaya or Karakoram-Lhasa Block) to the north. This suture zone is formed by:

• the Ophiolite Melanges: which are composed of an intercalation of flyschs and ophiolites from the Neotethys oceanic crust
• the Dras Volcanics: which are relicts of an Upper Cretaceous to Upper Jurassic volcanic island arc and consist of basalts, dacites, volcanoclastites, pillow lavas and minor radiolarian cherts
• the Indus Molasse: which is a continental clastic sequence (with rare interbeds of marine saltwater sediments) comprising alluvial fan, braided stream and fluvio-lacustrine sediments derived mainly from the Ladakh batholith but also from the suture zone itself and the Tethyan Himalaya. These molasses are post-collisional and thus Eocene to post-Eocene.
• The Indus Suture Zone represents the northern limit of the Himalaya. Further to the North is the so-called Transhimalaya, or more locally Ladakh Batholith, which corresponds essentially to an active margin of Andean type. Widespread volcanism in this volcanic arc was caused by the melting of the mantle at the base of the Tibetan bloc, triggered by the dehydration of the subducting Indian oceanic crust.

Other uses: Foothills are geographically defined as gradual increases in elevated land at the base of a mountain range. ... The Miocene epoch is a period of time that extends from about 23 to 5. ... The Pleistocene Epoch is part of the geologic timescale. ... The Quaternary Period is the geologic time period from the end of the Pliocene Epoch roughly 1. ... Alluvium is soil land deposited by a river or other running water. ... Early morning on the Ganges The River Ganges (Ganga in Indian languages) (Devanagiri गंगा) is a major river in northern India. ... The Indus is a river; the Indus River. ... The Brahmaputra is one of the major rivers of Asia. ... In geology, the Proterozoic is an eon prior to the first abundant complex life on earth. ... The Cenozoic Era (sometimes still Caenozoic in the United Kingdom) is the most recent of the four classic geological eras. ... Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of water or other liquid. ... In geology, the Proterozoic is an eon prior to the first abundant complex life on earth. ... The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 542 million years before the present (BP) at the end of the Proterozoic eon and ended about 490 million years BP with the beginning of the Ordovician period. ... Metamorphism can be defined as the mineralogical, chemical and crystallographic changes in a solid-state rock, i. ... A nappe, in geology, is a large sheetlike body of rock that has been moved far from its original position. ... Metamorphism can be defined as the mineralogical, chemical and crystallographic changes in a solid-state rock, i. ... Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of water or other liquid. ... Greenschist is a general field petrologic term applied to metamorphically altered mafic volcanic rock. ... Eclogite is a coarse-grained, mafic-to-ultramafic grouping of metamorphic rocks of special interest on account of the variety of minerals they contain and their microscopic structures and geological relationships. ... Metamorphism can be defined as the mineralogical, chemical and crystallographic changes in a solid-state rock, i. ... A flysch is a sandstone formation, the word comes from the Swiss German language. ... USGS image Turbidite geological formations have their origins in turbidity current deposits, deposits from a form of underwater avalanche that are responsible for distributing vast amounts of clastic sediment into the deep ocean. ... The continental shelf is an area of relatively shallow sea water that is found on the edge of each continent. ... Ophiolites are sections of oceanic lithosphere that have been uplifted or emplaced to be exposed within continental crustal rocks. ... The Jurassic period is a major unit of the geologic timescale that extends from about 200 Ma (million years ago) at the end of the Triassic to 146 Ma at the beginning of the Cretaceous. ... Basalt Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock, sometimes porphyritic, and is often both fine-grained and dense. ... Gray, red, black, altered white/tan, flow-banded pumice dacite Dacite is a high-silica igneous, volcanic rock. ... Lava is molten rock that a volcano expels during an eruption. ... Chert Chert is a fine-grained silica-rich cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock that may contain small fossils. ... Definition of Molasses: - i. ... An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit where a fast flowing stream flattens, slows, and spreads, typically at the exit of a canyon onto a flatter plain. ... A braided river channel consists of a network of small channels separated by small islands called braid bars. ... Tikse monastery, Ladakh Hemis Monastery in the 1870s Ladakh is the largest district of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, covering more than half the area of the state (of which it is the eastern part). ... In plate tectonics, a convergent boundary (convergent fault boundary, convergent plate boundary, or active margin) is where two tectonic plates slide towards each other and usually collide forming either a subduction zone with its associated island arc or an orogenic belt and associated mountain range. ... This article is about volcanoes in geology. ... A volcanic arc is a chain of volcanic islands or mountains located near the edge of continents that are formed as the result of tectonic plate subduction. ... A Mantle is a piece of clothing, similar to a robe but open on the front side and often sleeveless. ... Dehydration is the removal of water (hydor in ancient Greek) from an object. ...

Notes

Note 1: This paleogeographic reconstruction is mainly based on the papers of Besse et al. (1984), Patriat and Achache (1984), Dewey et al. (1989), Brookfield, (1993) Ricou (1994), Rowley (1996) and Stampfli et al. (1998). More information can be found on this website.

Note 2: The four-fold division of Himalayan units has been used since the work of Blanford and Medlicott (1879) and Heim and Gansser (1939).

External links

On-line complete PhD or MSc theses

• Web-site PhD Thesis on "Geochronologic and Thermobarometric Constraints on the Evolution of the Main Central Thrust, Himalayan Orogen". By Elizabeth Jacqueline Catlos
• Web-site PhD Thesis "Tectonic and Metamorphic Evolution of the Central Himalayan Domain in Southeast Zanskar" (Kashmir, India). By Pierre Dèzes
• Web-site MS Thesis on "Geology and Petrographic study of the area from Chiraundi Khola to Thulo Khola, Dhading/Nawakot district, central Nepal"

Other Web-based resources

• Web-site Special Edition of "The Journal of the Virtual Explorer" on: Granitoids of the Himalayan Collisional Belt. (free-access)
• Web-site Special Edition of "The Journal of the Virtual Explorer" on: Reconstruction of the evolution of the Alpine-Himalayan orogeny. (free-access)

References

• Besse J., Courtillot V., Pozzi J.P., Westphal M., Zhou Y.X., (1984): Palaeomagnetic estimates of crustal shortening in the Himalayan thrusts and Zangbo Suture.: Nature (London), v. 311, p. 621-626.
• Blanford W.T., Medlicott H.B., (1879): A manual of the geology of India: Calcutta.
• Brookfield M.E., (1993): The Himalaya passive margin from Precambrian to Cretaceous times: Sedimentary Geology, v. 84, p. 1-35.
• Dewey J.F., (1988): Extensional collapse of orogens: Tectonics, v. 6, p. 1123-1139.
• Dewey J.F., Cande S., Pitman III W.C., (1989): Tectonic evolution of the Indian/Eurasia Collision Zone: Eclogae geologicae Helvetiae, v. 82, no. 3, p. 717-734.
• Dèzes, p. (1999): Tectonic and metamorphic Evolution of the Central Himalayan Domain in Southeast Zanskar (Kashmir, India). Mémoires de Géologie (Lausanne) No. 32.
• Frank W., Thoni M., Pertscheller F., (1977): Geology and petrography of Kulu - South Lahul area, in Ecologie et geologie de l’Himalaya, Paris, Dec. 7-10, p. 147-172.
• Frank W., Gansser A., Trommsdorff V., (1977): Geological observations in the Ladakh area (Himalayas); a preliminary report: Schweiz. Mineral. Petrogr. Mitt, v. 57, no. 1, p. 89-113.
• Girard, M. and Bussy, F. (1999) Late Pan-African magmatism in Himalaya: new geochronological and geochemical data from the Ordovician Tso Morari metagranites (Ladakh, NW India). Schweiz. Mineral. Petrogr. Mitt., v. 79, pp. 399-418.
• Heim A., Gansser A., (1939): Central Himalaya; geological observations of the Swiss expedition 1936.: Schweizer. Naturf. Ges., Denksch., v. 73, no. 1, p. 245.
• Molnar P., Tapponnier P., (1975): Cenozoic tectonics of Asia; effects of a continental collision.: Science, v. 189, p. 419-426.
• Patriat P., Achache J., (1984): India-Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates.: Nature, v. 311, p. 615-621.
• Ricou L.M., (1994): Tethys reconstructed: plates, continental fragments and their Boundaries since 260 Ma from Central America to South-eastern Asia: Geodinamica Acta, v. 7, no. 4, p. 169-218.
• Stampfli, G.M. and Borel, G.D., 2002. A plate tectonic model for the Paleozoic and Mesozoic constrained by dynamic plate boundaries and restored synthetic oceanic isochrons. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 196: 17-33.
• Stampfli G.M., Mosar J., Favre P., Pillevuit A., Vannay J.-C., (1998): Permo-Triassic evolution of the westernTethyan realm: the Neotethys/east-Mediterranean basin connection: Peri Thetys, v. 3.
• Steck A., Spring L., Vannay J.-C., Masson H., Stutz E., Bucher H., Marchant R., Tièche J.C., (1993): Geological Transect Across the Northwestern Himalaya in eastern Ladakh and Lahul (A Model for the Continental Collision of India and Asia): Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae, v. 86, no. 1, p. 219-263.
• Steck A., Spring L., Vannay J.C., Masson H., Bucher H., Stutz E., Marchant R., Tieche J.C., (1993): The tectonic evolution of the northwestern Himalaya in eastern Ladakh and Lahul, India, in Himalayan Tectonics, p. 265-276.