George Biddell Airy

Sir George Biddell Airy FRS (July 27, 1801–January 2, 1892) was an English mathematician and astronomer, Astronomer Royal from 1835 to 1881. His many achievements include work on planetary orbits, measuring the mean density of the Earth, a method of solution of two-dimensional problems in solid mechanics and, in his role as Astronomer Royal, establishing Greenwich at the location of the prime meridian. His reputation has been tarnished by allegations that, though his inaction, Britain lost the opportunity of priority in the discovery of Neptune. Download high resolution version (590x886, 85 KB)In the public domain by age This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (590x886, 85 KB)In the public domain by age This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... The Fellowship of the Royal Society was founded in 1660. ... is the 208th day of the year (209th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Union Jack, flag of the newly formed United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. ... is the 2nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1892 (MDCCCXCII) was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Leonhard Euler, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of mathematics. ... An astronomer or astrophysicist is a person whose area of interest is astronomy or astrophysics. ... Astronomer Royal is a senior post in the Royal Household of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. ... This article is about the astronomical term. ... Two bodies with a slight difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter. ... Solid mechanics is the branch of physics and mathematics that concern the behavior of solid matter under external actions (e. ... This article is about Greenwich in England. ... Location of the Prime Meridian Prime Meridian in Greenwich A GPS receiver at the Greenwich Meridian Laser projected from the Royal Observatory in Greenwich marking the Prime Meridian The Royal Observatory, Greenwich (today a museum) The 24-hour clock at Greenwich The Prime Meridian, also known as the International Meridian... For other uses, see Neptune (disambiguation). ...

Early years

Airy was born at Alnwick, one of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a family of the same name residing at Kentmere, in Westmorland, in the 14th century. The branch to which he belonged, having suffered in the English Civil War, moved to Lincolnshire and became farmers. George Airy was educated first at elementary schools in Hereford, and afterwards at Colchester Royal Grammar School.^[1] For the parish in New Brunswick, see Alnwick, New Brunswick Alnwick (pronounced anick ) is a small market town in north Northumberland, in the north-east of England. ... Green Quarter Kentmere valley (Grid reference NY456042) is situated in the Lake District National Park, a few miles from Kendal, Cumbria, England. ... Westmorland (formerly also spelt Westmoreland, an even older spelling is Westmerland) is an area of north west England and one of the 39 historic counties of England. ... For other uses, see English Civil War (disambiguation). ... For other places with the same name, see Lincolnshire (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Hereford (disambiguation). ... Colchester Royal Grammar School (CRGS) is a grammar school in Colchester, Essex, founded in AD 1206 and granted two Royal Charters by Henry VIII (in 1539) and by Elizabeth I (in 1584). ...

In 1819 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a sizar, meaning that he paid a reduced fee but essentially worked as a servant to make good the fee reduction. Here he had a brilliant career, and seems to have been almost immediately recognized as the leading man of his year. In 1822 he was elected scholar of Trinity, and in the following year he graduated as senior wrangler and obtained first Smith's prize. On October 1, 1824 he was elected fellow of Trinity, and in December 1826 was appointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in succession to Thomas Turton. This chair he held for little more than a year, being elected in February 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy and director of the new Cambridge observatory.^[1] Full name The College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity Motto Virtus vera nobilitas Virtue is true Nobility Named after The Holy Trinity Previous names King’s Hall and Michaelhouse (until merged in 1546) Established 1546 Sister College(s) Christ Church Master The Lord Rees of Ludlow Location Trinity Street... In the 19th century, a sizar was one of a body of students in the universities of Cambridge and Dublin, who, having passed a certain examination, are exempted from paying college fees and charges. ... At the University of Cambridge in England, a wrangler is a student who has completed the third year (called Part II) of the mathematical tripos with first-class honours. ... The Smiths Prize is a prize awarded to research students in theoretical Physics, mathematics and applied mathematics at the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England. ... is the 274th day of the year (275th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The incumbent of the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics, the Lucasian Professor is the holder of a mathematical professorship at Cambridge University. ... Euclid, Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by by Raphael in this detail from The School of Athens. ... Category: ... The Plumian chair of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy is one of the two major Professorships in Astronomy at Cambridge University, alongside the Lowndean Professorship. ... For other uses, see Astronomy (disambiguation). ... This article is about scientific observatories. ...

Some idea of his activity as a writer on mathematical and physical subjects during these early years may be gathered from the fact that previous to this appointment he had contributed no less than three important memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, and eight to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. At the Cambridge observatory Airy soon showed his power of organization. The only telescope in the establishment when he took charge was the transit instrument, and to this he vigorously devoted himself. By the adoption of a regular system of work, and a careful plan of reduction, he was able to keep his observations up to date, and published them annually with a punctuality which astonished his contemporaries. Before long a mural circle was installed, and regular observations were instituted with it in 1833. In the same year the Duke of Northumberland presented the Cambridge observatory with a fine object-glass of 12-inch aperture, which was mounted according to Airy's designs and under his superintendence, although construction was not completed until after he moved to Greenwich in 1835.^[1] For other uses, see Royal Society (disambiguation). ... The Cambridge Philosophical Society (CPS) is a scientific society at University of Cambridge. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A Transit mount is a system where a telescope can move in altitude (North-South), but not in azimuth (East-West). ... The meridian circle, or transit circle, is an instrument for observing the time of a stars passing the meridian, at the same time measuring its angular distance from the zenith. ... Hugh Percy, 3rd Duke of Northumberland (20 April 1795 - 11 February 1847) was a British aristocrat and Tory politician who served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland under the Duke of Wellington from 1829 to 1830 Categories: Stub | Lords Lieutenant of Ireland | Peers | Knights of the Garter | 1795 births | 1847 deaths... This article is about Greenwich in England. ...

Airy's writings during this time are divided between mathematical physics and astronomy. The former are for the most part concerned with questions relating to the theory of light arising out of his professorial lectures, among which may be specially mentioned his paper On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass with Circular Aperture, and his enunciation of the complete theory of the rainbow. In 1831 the Copley Medal of the Royal Society was awarded to him for these researches. Of his astronomical writings during this period the most important are his investigation of the mass of Jupiter, his report to the British Association on the progress of astronomy during the 19th century, and his work On an Inequality of Long Period in the Motions of the Earth and Venus.^[1] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Rainbow (disambiguation). ... The Copley Medal is a scientific award for work in any field of science, the highest award granted by the Royal Society of London. ... Atmospheric characteristics Atmospheric pressure 70 kPa Hydrogen ~86% Helium ~14% Methane 0. ... The British Association or the British Association for the Advancement of Science or the BA is a learned society with the object of promoting science, directing general attention to scientific matters, and facilitating intercourse between scientific workers. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ... Adjectives: Venusian or (rarely) Cytherean Atmosphere Surface pressure: 9. ...

One of the sections of his able and instructive report was devoted to "A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy in England with that in other Countries," very much to the disadvantage of England. This reproach was subsequently to a great extent removed by his own labours.^[1] For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ...

Planetary inequalities

Airy's discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus and the Earth is in some respects his most remarkable achievement. In correcting the elements of Delambre's solar tables he had been led to suspect an inequality overlooked by their constructor. The cause of this he did not long seek in vain; eight times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly equal to thirteen times that of the earth that the difference amounts to only a small fraction of the earth's mean motion, and from the fact that the term depending on this difference, although very small in itself, receives in the integration of the differential equations a multiplier of about 2,200,000, Airy was led to infer the existence of a sensible inequality extending over 240 years (Phil. Trans. cxxii. 67). The investigation was probably the most laborious that had been made up to Airy's time in planetary theory, and represented the first specific improvement in the solar tables effected in England since the establishment of the theory of gravitation. In recognition of this work the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded to him in 1833 (he would win it again in 1846).^[1] Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre (September 19, 1749 in Amiens – August 19, 1822 in Paris) was a French mathematician and astronomer. ... A simulation of airflow into a duct using the Navier-Stokes equations A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or several variables which relates the values of the function itself and of its derivatives of various orders. ... This article is about the astronomical term. ... “Gravity” redirects here. ... Gold Medal awarded to Asaph Hall The Gold Medal is the highest award of the Royal Astronomical Society. ...

Astronomer Royal

In June 1835 Airy was appointed Astronomer Royal in succession to John Pond, and began his long career at the national observatory which constitutes his chief title to fame. The condition of the observatory at the time of his appointment was such that Lord Auckland, the first Lord of the Admiralty, considered that "it ought to be cleared out," while Airy admitted that "it was in a queer state." With his usual energy he set to work at once to reorganize the whole management. He remodelled the volumes of observations, put the library on a proper footing, mounted the new (Sheepshanks) equatorial and organized a new magnetic observatory. In 1847 an altazimuth was erected, designed by Airy to enable observations of the moon to be made not only on the meridian, but whenever it might be visible. In 1848 Airy invented the reflex zenith tube to replace the zenith sector previously employed. At the end of 1850 the great transit circle of 8 inch (203 mm) aperture and 11 ft 6 inch (3.5 m) focal length was erected, and is still the principal instrument of its class at the observatory. The mounting in 1859 of an equatorial of 13 inch (330 mm) aperture evoked the comment in his journal for that year, "There is not now a single person employed or instrument used in the observatory which was there in Mr Pond's time"; and the transformation was completed by the inauguration of spectroscopic work in 1868 and of the photographic registration of sunspots in 1873.^[1] Astronomer Royal is a senior post in the Royal Household of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. ... John Pond (c. ... George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland, 2nd Baron Auckland (1784 – January 1, 1849), served as a politician in the United Kingdom and as Governor-General of India. ... The office of Lord High Admiral had been created in about 1400 to oversee the Royal Navy. ... Richard Sheepshanks (July 30, 1794 – July 29 or August 4, 1855) was a British astronomer. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... An Altazimuth or alt-azimuth mount is a simple mount used for moving a telescope or camera along two perpendicular axes of motion. ... This article is about Earths moon. ... This article is about the astronomical concept. ... This article is about focal length related to lenses and systems of lenses. ... Spectroscopy is the study of spectra, ie. ... 400 year sunspot history A sunspot is a region on the Suns surface (photosphere) that is marked by a lower temperature than its surroundings, and intense magnetic activity. ...

Prime Meridian in Greenwich

The formidable undertaking of reducing the accumulated planetary observations made at Greenwich from 1750 to 1830 was already in progress under Airy's supervision when he became Astronomer Royal. Shortly afterwards he undertook the further laborious task of reducing the enormous mass of observations of the moon made at Greenwich during the same period under the direction, successively, of James Bradley, Nathaniel Bliss, Nevil Maskelyne and John Pond, to defray the expense of which a large sum of money was allotted by the Treasury. As a result, no less than 8,000 lunar observations were rescued from oblivion, and were, in 1846, placed at the disposal of astronomers in such a form that they could be used directly for comparison with the theory and for the improvement of the tables of the moon's motion.^[1] The Prime Meridian, Greenwich Image by ChrisO File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... The Prime Meridian, Greenwich Image by ChrisO File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... James Bradley (March 1693 – July 13, 1762) was an English astronomer, Astronomer Royal from 1742. ... The Reverend Nathaniel Bliss (28 November 1700-2 September 1764) was a noted English astronomer of the 18th century, serving as Astronomer Royal between 1762 and 1764. ... Nevil Maskelyne. ...

For this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial from the Royal Astronomical Society, and it at once led to the discovery by Peter Andreas Hansen of two new inequalities in the moon's motion. After completing these reductions, Airy made inquiries, before engaging in any theoretical investigation in connection with them, whether any other mathematician was pursuing the subject, and learning that Hansen had taken it in hand under the patronage of the king of Denmark, but that, owing to the death of the king and the consequent lack of funds, there was danger of his being compelled to abandon it, he applied to the admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the necessary sum. His request was immediately granted, and thus it came about that Hansen's famous Tables de la Lune were dedicated to La Haute Amirauté de sa Majesté la Reine de la Grande Bretagne et d'Irlande.^[1] The Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) began as the Astronomical Society of London in 1820 to support astronomical research (mainly carried on at the time by gentleman astronomers rather than professionals). ... Peter Andreas Hansen (December 8, 1795 – March 28, 1874), Danish astronomer, was born at Tondern, in the duchy of Schleswig (now Tønder, Denmark). ... This is a list of Danish monarchs, that is, the Kings and ruling Queen of Denmark, including Regents of the Kalmar Union. ...

In 1851 Airy established a new Prime Meridian at Greenwich. This line, the fourth "Greenwich Meridian," became the definitive internationally recognised line in 1884.^[1] Location of the Prime Meridian Prime Meridian in Greenwich A GPS receiver at the Greenwich Meridian Laser projected from the Royal Observatory in Greenwich marking the Prime Meridian The Royal Observatory, Greenwich (today a museum) The 24-hour clock at Greenwich The Prime Meridian, also known as the International Meridian...

Search for Neptune

Main article: Discovery of Neptune

In June 1846, Airy started corrseponding with French astronomer Urbain Le Verrier over the latter's prediction that irregularities in the motion of Uranus were due to a so-far unobserved body. Aware that Cambridge Astronomer John Couch Adams had suggested that he had made similar predictions, on 9 July Airy entreated James Challis to undertake a systematic search in the hope of securing the triumph of discovery for Britain. Ultimately, a rival search in Berlin by Johann Gottfried Galle, instigated by Le Verrier, won the race for priority.^[2] Though Airy was "abused most savagely both by English and French"^[3] for his failure to act on Adams's suggestions more promptly, there have also been claims that Adams's communications had been vague and dilatory^[2] and further that the search for a new planet was not the responsibility of the Astronomer Royal.^[4] Neptune The discovery of the planet Neptune on September 23, 1846 was a dramatic incident in the history of astronomy that also led to a tense international dispute over priority. ... 1846 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Urbain Le Verrier. ... For other uses, see Uranus (disambiguation). ... John Couch Adams (June 5, 1819 – January 21, 1892), was a British mathematician and astronomer. ... James Challis (December 12, 1803 – December 3, 1882) was a British clergyman and astronomer. ... This article is about the capital of Germany. ... Johann Gottfried Galle Johann Gottfried Galle (June 9, 1812 in Radis, Saxony-Anhalt – July 10, 1910 in Potsdam, Brandenburg) was a German astronomer at the Berlin Observatory who, with the assistance of student Heinrich Louis dArrest, was the first person to view the planet Neptune, and know what he...

Mean density of the Earth

One of the most remarkable of Airy's researches was his determination of the mean density of the Earth. In 1826, the idea occurred to him of attacking this problem by means of pendulum experiments at the top and bottom of a deep mine. His first attempt, made in the same year, at the Dolcoath mine in Cornwall, failed in consequence of an accident to one of the pendulums. A second attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding of the mine, and many years elapsed before another opportunity presented itself. The experiments eventually took place at the Harton pit near South Shields in 1854. Their immediate result was to show that gravity at the bottom of the mine exceeded that at the top by 1/19286 of its amount, the depth being 1,256 ft (383 m) From this he was led to the final value of Earth's specific density of 6.566.^[5] This value, although considerably in excess of that previously found by different methods, was held by Airy, from the care and completeness with which the observations were carried out and discussed, to be "entitled to compete with the others on, at least, equal terms."^[1] This article is about Earth as a planet. ... The oldest surviving photograph, Nicéphore Niépce, circa 1826 1826 (MDCCCXXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... For other uses, see Pendulum (disambiguation). ... Chuquicamata, the second largest open pit copper mine in the world, Chile. ... Harriets Pumping Engine house, part of Dolcoath Mine, built in 1860 Dolcoath mine was a tin and copper mine in Camborne in West Cornwall, with its name coming from the Cornish for Old Ground, and was affectionately know as The Queen of Cornish Mines. ... For other uses, see Cornwall (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Pendulum (disambiguation). ... Year 1828 (MDCCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... , South Shields is a coastal town in Tyne and Wear, England, on the south bank of the mouth of the River Tyne, with a population of about 90,000. ... 1854 (MDCCCLIV) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Relative density (also known as specific gravity) is a measure of the density of a material. ...

Solid mechanics

In 1862, Airy presented a new technique to determine the strain and stress field within a beam.^[6] This technique, sometimes called the Airy stress function method, can be used to find solutions to many two-dimensional problems in solid mechanics (see Wikiversity). For example, it was used to determined the stress and strain field around a crack tip and thereby this method contributed to the development of fracture mechanics.^{[citation needed]} This article is about 1862 . ... This article is about the deformation of materials. ... Stress is a measure of force per unit area within a body. ... This vibrating glass beam may be modeled as a cantilever beam with acceleration, variable linear density, variable section modulus, some kind of dissipation, springy end loading, and possibly a point mass at the free end. ... Solid mechanics is the branch of physics and mathematics that concern the behavior of solid matter under external actions (e. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ...

Lunar theory

In 1872 Airy conceived the idea of treating the lunar theory in a new way, and at the age of seventy-one he embarked on the prodigious toil which this scheme entailed. A general description of his method will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxiv, No. 3. It consisted essentially in the adoption of Charles-Eugène Delaunay's final numerical expressions for longitude, latitude, and parallax, with a symbolic term attached to each number, the value of which was to be determined by substitution in the equations of motion. ^[1] Charles-Eugène Delaunay (April 9, 1816 – August 5, 1872) was a French astronomer and mathematician. ... Longitude is the east-west geographic coordinate measurement most commonly utilized in cartography and global navigation. ... This article is about the geographical term. ... For other uses, see Parallax (disambiguation). ...

In this mode of treating the question the order of the terms is numerical, and though the amount of labour is such as might well have deterred a younger man, yet the details were easy, and a great part of it might be entrusted to "a mere computer". (Note that at the time that this was written, the term "computer" referred to a human being who performed calculating work, either manually or with mechanical aids).^[1]

The work was published in 1886, when its author was eighty-five years of age. For some little time previously he had been harassed by a suspicion that certain errors had crept into the computations, and accordingly he addressed himself to the task of revision. But his powers were no longer what they had been, and he was never able to examine sufficiently into the matter. In 1890 he tells us how a grievous error had been committed in one of the first steps, and pathetically adds, "My spirit in the work was broken, and I have never heartily proceeded with it since."^[1]

Private life

In July 1824, Airy met Richarda Smith (1804-1875), "a great beauty", on a walking tour of Derbyshire. He later wrote, "Our eyes met ... and my fate was sealed ... I felt irresistibly that we must be united," and Airy proposed two days later. Richarda's father, the Revd Richard Smith, felt that Airly lacked the financial resources to marry his daughter. Only in 1830, with Airy established in his Cambridge position, was permission for the marriage granted.^[2][7] 1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. ... Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution 1830 (MDCCCXXX) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ...

Their son, Wilfrid Airy was the designer and engineer for "Colonel" George Tomline's Orwell Park observatory.^[8] Look up engineer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... George Tomline, sobriquet Colonel George Tomline, (3 March 1813 - 25 August 1889) was an English politician, Member of Parliament for various constituencies. ... This article is about scientific observatories. ...

Their eldest daughter, Hilda (1840–1916), married Edward Routh in 1864.^[9] Edward John Routh (1831–1907), was a British mathematician, noted as the outstanding coach of students preparing for the Mathematical Tripos examination of the University of Cambridge in its heyday in the middle of the nineteenth century. ... 1864 (MDCCCLXIV) was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a leap year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ...

Airy retired in 1881, living with his two married daughters at Croom's Hill near Greenwich. In 1891, he suffered a fall and an internal injury. He survived the consequential surgery only a few days. His wealth at death was £27,713. Airy and his wife and three pre-deceased children are buried at St. Mary's Church in Playford, Suffolk.^[2] A cottage owned by Airy still stands, adjacent to the church and now in private hands.^[10][1] Year 1881 (MDCCCLXXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1891 (MDCCCXCI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... “Surgeon” redirects here. ...

Honours and memorial

• The Martian crater Airy is named for him.^[11] Within that crater lies another smaller crater called Airy-0 whose location defines the prime meridian of that planet, as does the location of Airy's 1850 telescope for Earth.^[12]
• There is also a lunar crater Airy named in his honour.^[13]

There are hundreds of thousands of craters on Mars, but only some of them have names. ... For other craters with this name, see Airy (crater). ... Airy-0 is a crater on Mars whose location defines the position of the prime meridian of that planet. ... Location of the Prime Meridian Prime Meridian in Greenwich A GPS receiver at the Greenwich Meridian Laser projected from the Royal Observatory in Greenwich marking the Prime Meridian The Royal Observatory, Greenwich (today a museum) The 24-hour clock at Greenwich The Prime Meridian, also known as the International Meridian... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... This article is about the Lunar crater. ...

See also

• Airy function
• Airy disc
• Airy experiment
• Airy condition

In mathematics, the Airy function Ai(x) is a special function, i. ... A computer-generated image of an Airy disc. ...

References

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Bibliography

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

Encyclopædia Britannica, the eleventh edition The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is perhaps the most famous edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ...

Obituaries

• E. J. R., Proceedings of the Royal Society, 51 (1892), i–xii
• The Times, 5 January 1892
• East Anglian Daily Times, 11 January 1892
• Suffolk Chronicle, 9 January 1892
• Daily Times, 5 January 1892
• H. H. T. (1892) Obituary - Sir George Biddell Airy, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 52: 212-229
• Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 108 (1891–2), 391–394
• Astronomical Journal 11 (1892) 96
• Astronomische Nachrichten 129 (1892) 33/34
• The Observatory 15 (1892) 73

Edward John Routh (1831–1907), was a British mathematician, noted as the outstanding coach of students preparing for the Mathematical Tripos examination of the University of Cambridge in its heyday in the middle of the nineteenth century. ... The Times is a national newspaper published daily in the United Kingdom (and the Kingdom of Great Britain before the United Kingdom existed) since 1788 when it was known as The Daily Universal Register. ... Herbert Hall Turner (August 13, 1861 – August 20, 1930) was a British astronomer and seismologist. ...

By Airy

A complete list of Airy's 518 printed papers is in Airy (1896). Among the most important are:

• Airy, G. B. (1826) Mathematical Tracts on Physical Astronomy;
• — (1828) On the Lunar Theory, The Figure of the Earth, Precession and Nutation, and Calculus of Variations, to which, in the second edition of 1828, were added tracts on the Planetary Theory and the Undulatory Theory of Light;
• — (1839) Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the purpose of discovering a correction for the deviation of the Compass produced-by the Iron of the Ships; and
• — (1861) On the Algebraic and Numerical Theory of Errors of Observations and the Combination of Observations.

About Airy

• Airy, W. (ed.) (1896). The Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy. Cambridge University Press.  - from Project Gutenberg
• Airy, W. (ed.) (1896). The Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy. Cambridge University Press.  - from Google Books
• [Anon.] (1911) "Sir George Biddell Airy", Encyclopaedia Britannica
• Cannon, W. F. (1964). "Scientists and broad churchmen: an early Victorian intellectual network". The Journal of British Studies 4(1): 65-88. 
• Chapman, A. (1998). "The female touch". Astronomy Now 12: 43-47 (January). 
• — (2003). "Porters, watchmen, and the crime of William Sayers: the non-scientific staff of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in Victorian times". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 6(1): 27. 
• — (2006) "Airy, Sir George Biddell (1801–1892)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, online edn, accessed 9 September 2007 (subscription or UK/ Ireland public library membership required)
• Goward, K. J. (2005). G B Airy's Country Retreat. Institute of Astronomy. University of Cambridge. Retrieved on 2007-09-09.
• Satterthwaite, G. E. (2003). "Airy's zenith telescopes and "the birth-star of modern astronomy"". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 6(1): 13. 
• Winterburn, E. (2002). The Airy Transit Circle. British History - Victorians. BBC. Retrieved on 2007-09-09.

Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to digitize, archive and distribute cultural works. ... // Google offers a variety of services and tools besides its basic web search. ... ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 252nd day of the year (253rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 252nd day of the year (253rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "George Biddell Airy". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.  
• Works by George Biddell Airy at Project Gutenberg
• Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1833: MNRAS 2 (1833) 159
• Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1846: MNRAS 7 (1846) 64
• Eric W. Weisstein, Airy, George (1801-1892) at ScienceWorld.
• Mathematical Tracts on the Lunar and Planetary Theories 4th edition (London, McMillan, 1858)
• Full texts of some of the papers by Airy are available at Gallica: bibliothèque numérique de la Bibliothèque nationale de France