NationMaster - Encyclopedia: German Confederation

The German Confederation (German: Deutscher Bund) was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to organize the surviving states of the Holy Roman Empire, which had been abolished in 1806. Regions of Europe Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ... The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819. ... The Battle of New Orleans 1815 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The Holy Roman Empire and from the 16th century on also The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation was a political conglomeration of lands in Central Europe in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. ... 1806 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

This article gives an overview of the History of Germany. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Germany. ... The term Germanic tribes (or Teutonic tribes) applies to the ancient Germanic peoples of Europe. ... Human migration denotes any movement of groups of people from one locality to another, rather than of individual wanderers. ... The Frankish Empire was the territory of the Franks, from the 5th to the 10th centuries, from 481 ruled by Clovis I of the Merovingian Dynasty, the first king of all the Franks. ... The Holy Roman Empire and from the 16th century on also The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation was a political conglomeration of lands in Central Europe in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund in German; in French officially Ã‰tats confÃ©dÃ©rÃ©s du Rhin but in practice ConfÃ©dÃ©ration du Rhin) lasted from 1806 to 1813 and was formed from sixteen German states by Napoleon after he defeated Habsburgs Francis II... Flag of North German Confederation, 1867-1871 The North German Confederation (in German, Norddeutscher Bund), came into existence in 1867, following the dissolution of the German Confederation. ... Flag of the German Empire, 1871â€“1918: black-white-red The German Empire is the name conventionally given in English to the German state from the time of the proclamation of Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor (January 18, 1871) to the abdication of Wilhelm II (November 9, 1918). ... The German Empire was one of the defeated Central Powers during World War I. It entered the conflict following the declaration of war against Serbia by its ally, Austria-Hungary. ... Flag of Germany, 1919â€“1933 The Weimar Republic (German Weimarer Republik, IPA: []) is the historical name for the republic that governed Germany from 1919 to 1933. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... This page is intended to serve as a focal point for information pertinent to understanding German military activity during World War II. // Foreword When in 1933 Hitler gained power, the world was little, if at all, aware of the intensity and duration of the armed conflict that would follow in... Following Germanys defeat in World War II and the beginning of the Cold War, Germany was split for about 40 years, representing the focus of the two global blocs in the east and west. ... GDR redirects here. ... The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung) took place on October 3, 1990, when the areas of the former German Democratic Republic (GDR, in English commonly called East Germany) were incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, in... Motto: Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit (German: Unity and Justice and Freedomâ€) Anthem: The third stanza of Das Lied der Deutschen also called Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit Capital Berlin Largest city Berlin Official language(s) German 1 Government Federal Republic - President Horst KÃ¶hler - Chancellor Angela Merkel (CDU) - Vice... While German-speaking peoples have a long history, Germany as a nation-state dates only from 1871. ... This is a timeline of German history. ... The history of the German language as separate from common West Germanic begins in the Early Middle Ages with the High German consonant shift. ...

Situation in space and time

Between 1806 and 1815, Napoleon had organized the German states into the Confederation of the Rhine, but this collapsed when Napoleon's Invasion of Russia failed in 1813.The German Confederation had roughly the same boundaries as the Empire at the time of the French Revolution (less what is now Belgium). The member states, drastically reduced to about three dozen from more than 200 (see Kleinstaaterei) under the Holy Roman Empire, were recognized as fully sovereign. The members pledged themselves to mutual defence, and jointly maintained the fortresses at Mainz, the city of Luxembourg, Rastatt, Ulm, and Landau. A federal diet under Austrian presidency (in fact the Habsburg Emperor was represented by an Austrian 'presidential envoy') met at Frankfurt. 1806 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The Battle of New Orleans 1815 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Napoleon I of France, by Jacques-Louis David. ... Germany is a federation of 16 states called LÃ¤nder (singular Land, which may be translated as country) or unofficially BundeslÃ¤nder (singular Bundesland, German federal state). ... The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund in German; in French officially Ã‰tats confÃ©dÃ©rÃ©s du Rhin but in practice ConfÃ©dÃ©ration du Rhin) lasted from 1806 to 1813 and was formed from sixteen German states by Napoleon after he defeated Habsburgs Francis II... The March on Moscow The invasion commenced on June 23, 1812. ... 1813 is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... Liberty Leading the People, a painting by Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830 but which has come to be generally accepted as symbolic of French popular uprisings against the monarchy in general and the French Revolution in particular. ... The following List of German Confederation member states shows those states that in 1815 were part of the German Confederation, which lasted, with some changes in the member states, until 1866. ... Kleinstaaterei, a German word for the occurence of (many) petty states is a polyvalent term, mainly used for the internal state of Germany (and neighbouring regions) during the Holy Roman Empire, especially in its late phase, when it was officially known as Heiliges RÃ¶misches Reich Deutscher Nation. ... The Holy Roman Empire and from the 16th century on also The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation was a political conglomeration of lands in Central Europe in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. ... Mainz is a city in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. ... District Luxembourg Canton Luxembourg Area 51. ... Map of Germany showing Rastatt Rastatt is a city in the District of Rastatt, Baden-WÃ¼rttemberg, Germany. ... Ulm is a city in the German Bundesland of Baden-WÃ¼rttemberg, situated on the river Danube, about 100 km south-east of Stuttgart and 130 km north-west of Munich. ... Map of Germany showing Landau Coat of Arms of Landau, 1291 â€“ 1955 Landau or Landau in der Pfalz is an autonomous (Kreisfrei) city surrounded by the SÃ¼dliche WeinstraÃŸe (southern wineroute) district of southern Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. ... In politics, a Diet is a formal deliberative assembly. ... Skyline of Frankfurt at night is the largest city in the German state of Hesse and the fifth-largest city in Germany. ...

The Confederation was dissolved in 1866 after the Austro-Prussian War, and was 'succeeded' in 1866 by the Prussian-dominated North German Confederation. This misguiding named Confederation was in fact a federation and true state. Its territory comprised the parts of the German Confederation north of the river Main, plus Prussia's eastern territories and the Duchy of Schleswig), but excluded Luxembourg. The North German Confederation was renamed on 18 January 1871 German Empire, under Prussia's Hohenzollern dynasty. 1866 (MDCCCLXVI) is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Combatants Austria, Saxony, Bavaria, Baden, WÃ¼rttemberg, Hanover and some minor German States (formerly as the Deutscher Bund) Prussia, Italy and some minor German States Strength 600,000 Austrians and German allies 500,000 Prussians and German allies 300,000 Italians Casualties 20,000 dead or wounded 37,000 dead... 1866 (MDCCCLXVI) is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Flag of Prussia (1894 - 1918) The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ... Flag of North German Confederation, 1867-1871 The North German Confederation (in German, Norddeutscher Bund), came into existence in 1867, following the dissolution of the German Confederation. ... Map showing the position of the Main in Germany The Main (pronounced in FUCKKKK GERmany! German like the English word mine) is a river in Germany, 524 km long (including White Main 574 km), and one of the more significant tributaries of the Rhine river. ... The region of Schleswig (former English name: Sleswick, Danish: SÃ¸nderjylland or Slesvig, Low German: Sleswig, North Frisian: Slaswik or Sleesweg) covers the area about 60 km north and 70 km south of the border between Germany and Denmark. ... Flag of the German Empire, 1871â€“1918: black-white-red The German Empire is the name conventionally given in English to the German state from the time of the proclamation of Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor (January 18, 1871) to the abdication of Wilhelm II (November 9, 1918). ... The House of Hohenzollern is a German dynasty of electors, kings, and emperors of Prussia, Germany, and Romania. ...

All the constituent states of the German Confederation became part of the Kaiserreich in 1871, except the Dutch province of Limburg and the presently independent countries remaining in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Austria, Czech Republic, as well as parts of Italy, Poland, Slovenia), Luxembourg (except the part lost to Belgium in 1839), and Liechtenstein. After both World wars, more of Germany would later be lost, mainly in the east to Poland and Russia. 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Capital Maastricht Queens Commissioner L.J.P.M. (Leon) Frissen Religion (1999) Protestant 3% Catholic 80% Area â€¢ Land â€¢ Water 2. ... Austria-Hungary, also known as the Dual monarchy (or: the k. ... 1839 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

Impact of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic invasions

Heinrich Friedrich Karl, Baron von und zum Stein

Karl August von Hardenberg

The late 18th century was a period of political, economic, intellectual, and cultural reform, the Enlightenment (represented by figures such as Locke, Rousseau, Voltaire, and Adam Smith), but also involving early Romanticism, climaxed in the French Revolution, where freedom of the individual and nation was asserted against privilege and custom. Representing a great variety of types and theories, they largely respond to the disintegration of previous cultural patterns, coupled with new patterns of production, specifically the rise of industrial capitalism. Heinrich Friedrich Karl, baron von und zum Stein, from [1], in the public domain This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Heinrich Friedrich Karl, baron von und zum Stein, from [1], in the public domain This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Heinrich Friedrich Karl, baron von und zum Stein Heinrich Friedrich Karl, baron von und zum Stein (October 26, 1757 - June 29, 1831), German statesman, was born at the family estate near Nassau. ... Image File history File links Hardenberg. ... Image File history File links Hardenberg. ... Karl August von Hardenberg Karl August FÃ¼rst von Hardenberg (en: Prince Charles Augustus von Hardenberg) (May 31, 1750 - November 26, 1822), was a Prussian statesman. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... ... John Locke (August 29, 1632 â€“ October 28, 1704) was an influential English philosopher. ... Jean-Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 â€“ July 2, 1778) was a Genevan philosopher of the Enlightenment whose political ideas influenced the French Revolution, the development of socialist theory, and the growth of nationalism. ... The last of Voltaires statues by Jean-Antoine Houdon (1781). ... Adam Smith, FRSE, (baptised June 5, 1723 â€“ July 17, 1790) was a Scottish political economist and moral philosopher. ... Romanticism was a secular and intellectual movement in the history of ideas that originated in late 18th century Western Europe. ... Liberty Leading the People, a painting by Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830 but which has come to be generally accepted as symbolic of French popular uprisings against the monarchy in general and the French Revolution in particular. ...

However, the defeat of Napoleon enabled conservative and reactionary regimes such as those of the Kingdom of Prussia, the Austrian Empire and Tsarist Russia to survive, laying the groundwork for the Congress of Vienna and the alliance that strove to oppose radical demands for change ushered in by the French Revolution. The Great Powers at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 aimed to restore Europe (as far as possible) to its pre-war conditions by combating both liberalism and nationalism and by creating barriers around France. With Austria's position on the continent now intact and ostensibly secure under its reactionary premier Klemens von Metternich, the Habsburg empire would serve as a barrier to contain the emergence of Italian and German nation-states as well, in addition to containing France. But this reactionary balance of power aimed at blocking German and Italian nationalism on the continent was precarious. For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ... Flag of Prussia (1894 - 1918) The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ... Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy The Crown of the Austrian Emperor For the history of these states before 1804, see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. ... Tsar (Bulgarian, Serbian and Macedonian Ñ†Ð°Ñ€, Russian , in scientific transliteration respectively car and car ), often spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English, is the official Slavonic title designating Emperor in the following states: Bulgaria in 913â€“1422 (for later usage in 1908â€“1946, see below) Serbia in... The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819. ... Liberty Leading the People, a painting by Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830 but which has come to be generally accepted as symbolic of French popular uprisings against the monarchy in general and the French Revolution in particular. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Battle of New Orleans 1815 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... This article aims to give an historical overview of liberalism in Germany. ... Klemens Wenzel von Metternich Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar FÃ¼rst von Metternich-Winneberg-Beilstein (May 15, 1773 â€“ June 11, 1858) (sometimes rendered in English as Prince Klemens Metternich) was an Austrian politician and statesman and perhaps the most important diplomat of his era. ... Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the Ausgleich of 1867. ...

After Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo in 1815, the surviving member states of defunct Holy Roman Empire joined to form the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) — a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian Empire and the Prussian kingdom, each feared domination by the other. For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ... Waterloo The top of the knoll and the famous lion. ... The Battle of New Orleans 1815 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy The Crown of the Austrian Emperor For the history of these states before 1804, see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. ... Flag of Prussia (1894 - 1918) The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ...

To contemporary observers, a post-Napoleon revolutionary upheaval in Prussia, however, would seem unlikely. Later to emerge as the dominant German state, the political base of a united Germany, and a power that would vie for continental preeminence toward the end of the nineteenth century, Prussia was at that time seemingly backward. In eastern Prussia, manorial reaction dated back to the fall of the Teutonic Knights. Although agricultural structures has been very decentralized in form under the Teutonic Order, the Prussian nobility would later expand their holdings at the expense of the peasantry in the territories once held by the Teutonic Order, reducing them to quiescent serfdom. The rise of urban burgers was also greatly impeded. The Junkers sought to reduce the curb the influence of the towns by short-circuiting them with their exports, leaving little revolutionary potential for labor — urban or rural — free from feudal obligation. In Britain and France, which proved far more hospitable to Western democracy from the Enlightenment to Germany's defeat in World War II, the decline of feudal obligations had been connected with the development of the urban citizens. In Prussia, conversely, the Hohenzollern rulers instead forged a centralized state, explaining the weak development of parliamentary government. By the time of the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia was thus a socially and institutionally backward state, grounded in the virtues of its established military-aristocracy stratified by rigid hierarchical lines. The Teutonic Order (German: Deutscher Orden, German Order; Latin: Ordo domus SanctÃ¦ MariÃ¦ Theutonicorum Ierosolimitanorum, Order of the Teutonic House of Mary in Jerusalem; Hungarian: NÃ©met Lovagrend, German Knighthood; Polish: Zakon KrzyÅ¼acki, Order of the Crossbearers; Lithuanian: KryÅ¾iuoÄiÅ³ Ordinas, Order of Crusaders) was a German crusading... Junkers (English pronunciation: ; German pronunciation: ) were the landed aristocracy of Prussia and Eastern Germany - often also called Eastelbia (Ostelbien in German - the land east of river Elbe). ... The House of Hohenzollern is a German dynasty of electors, kings, and emperors of Prussia, Germany, and Romania. ... States currently utilizing parliamentary systems are denoted in orange and redâ€”the former being constitutional monarchies where authority is vested in a parliament, and the latter being parliamentary republics whose parliaments are effectively supreme over a separate head of state. ...

Apart from Prussia, in Germany as a whole — or more precisely in the many German states —, political disunity, conflicts of interests between noblility and merchants, and the guild system, which discouraged competition and innovation, retarded the progress of industrialism. While this kept the middle class small, affording the old order a measure of stability not seen in France, Prussia's vulnerability to Napoleon's military proved to many perceptive intellects among the old order that a fragile, divided, and backward Germany could very well have been prey to its cohesive and industrializing neighbor. The middle class (or middle classes) comprises a social group once defined by exception as an intermediate social class between the nobility and the peasantry. ...

After 1815, Prussia's defeats by Napoleonic France highlighted the need for administrative, economic, and social reforms to improve the efficiency of the bureaucracy and encourage practical merit-based education. Inspired by the Napoleonic organization of German and Italian principalities, the reforms of Karl August von Hardenberg and Count Stein were conservative, enacted to preserve aristocratic privilege while modernizing institutions. The Battle of New Orleans 1815 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Karl August von Hardenberg Karl August FÃ¼rst von Hardenberg (en: Prince Charles Augustus von Hardenberg) (May 31, 1750 - November 26, 1822), was a Prussian statesman. ... Heinrich Friedrich Karl, baron von und zum Stein Heinrich Friedrich Karl, baron von und zum Stein (October 26, 1757 - June 29, 1831), German statesman, was born at the family estate near Nassau. ... Aristocracy is a form of government in which rulership is in the hands of an upper class known as aristocrats. ...

The reforms laid the foundation for Prussia's future military might by professionalizing the military, decreeing universal military conscription. To industrialize within the framework of Prussian aristocratic institutions, land reforms ended the monopoly of the Junkers on landownership, thereby abolishing serfdom and many other feudal practices.

Romanticism, nationalism, and Liberalism in the Vormärz era

Johann Gottfried Herder (August 25, 1744 - December 18, 1803) is best known for his concept of the Volk and is considered by many to be the father of German nationalism.

Although the forces unleashed by the French Revolution were seemingly under control after the Vienna Congress, the conflict between conservative forces and liberal nationalists was only deferred at best. The era until the failed 1848 revolution, in which these tensions built up, is commonly referred to as Vormärz, "pre-March," in reference to the outbreak of riots in March 1848. Johann Gottfried von Herder The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried von Herder (August 25, 1744 â€“ December 18, 1803), German poet, critic, theologian, and philosopher, is best known for his influence on authors such as Goethe and the role he played in the development of the larger cultural movement known as romanticism. ... August 25 is the 237th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (238th in leap years), with 128 days remaining. ... // Events The third French and Indian War, known as King Georges War, breaks out at Port Royal, Nova Scotia The First Saudi State founded by Mohammed Ibn Saud Prague occupied by Prussian armies Ongoing events War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Births January 10 - Thomas Mifflin, fifth President... December 18 is the 352nd day of the year (353rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1803 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Volk is a German (and Dutch) word meaning people or folk. It is commonly used as prefix in words such as Volksentscheid (plebiscite) or VÃ¶lkerbund (League of Nations), or the car manufacturer Volkswagen (literally, peoples car). A number of vÃ¶lkisch movements were set up in Germany after...

This competition entailed the forces of the old order competing with those inspired by the French Revolution and the Rights of Man. The sociological breakdown of the competition was roughly one side engaged mostly in commerce, trade and industry and the other associated with landowning aristocracy or military aristocracy (the Junker) in Prussia, the forces behind the Habsburg empire in Austria, and the conservative backers of the particularist, small princely states and city-states in Germany. Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the Ausgleich of 1867. ...

Meanwhile, demands for change from below had been fermenting since the influence of the French Revolution. Throughout the German Confederation, Austrian influence was paramount, drawing the ire of the nationalist movements. Metternich considered nationalism, especially the nationalist youth movement, the most pressing danger, which might not only repudiate Austrian preponderance of the Confederation, but also stimulate nationalist sentiment within the Austrian Empire itself. As a multi-national polyglot in which Slavs and Magyars outnumbered the Germans, the prospects of Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Polish, Serb, or Croatian sentiment along with middle class liberalism was certainly horrifying.

The Vormärz era saw figures like Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and Johann Gottfried von Herder promulgate Romantic nationalism. Others promulgated these ideas among the youth. Father Friedrich Jahn's gymnastic associations exposed middle class German youth to nationalist ideas, which were took the form of the nationalistic college fraternities known as the Burschenschaften. The Wartburg Festival in 1817 celebrated Martin Luther as a proto-German nationalist, linking Lutheranism to German nationalism, helping to arouse religious sentiments for the cause of German nationhood. The festival culminated in the burning of several books and other things that were to symbolize reactionary attitude, one of them being a book by the German writer August von Kotzebue. In 1819, after he was accused of being a spy for imperial Russia, another multi-national empire desperately trying to hang on to the old order as it existed before the French Revolution, he was murdered by the theological student Karl Ludwig Sand — who was executed for the crime. Metternich swiftly and harshly reacted, using this pretext to persuade the Confederation Diet to issue the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which dissolved the Burschenschaften, cracked down against the liberal press, and seriously restricted academic freedom. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. ... Johann Gottlieb Fichte (May 19, 1762 â€“ January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher, who has significance in the history of Western philosophy as one of the leading progenitors of German idealism, forming a bridge between Immanuel Kant and the leading figure of German Idealism, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. ... Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried von Herder (August 25, 1744 - December 18, 1803), German poet, critic, theologian, and philosopher, is best known for his concept of the Volk and is generally considered the father of ethnic nationalism. ... Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778 - 1852) was a German Prussian gymnastics educator and patriot. ... German Burschenschaften are a special type of Studentenverbindungen (student fraternities); they were founded in the 19th century as associations of university students inspired by liberal and nationalistic ideas. ... 1817 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Luther at age 46 (Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1529) The Luther seal Ancient wax seal, with the inscription D: M. Luther found in Rhone River, Germany Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 â€“ February 18, 1546) was a German monk, [1] priest, professor, theologian, and church reformer, whose teachings inspired the Reformation... Book burning is the practice of ceremoniously destroying by fire one or more copies of a book or other written material. ... Reactionary (or reactionist) is a political epithet typically applied to extreme ideological conservatism, especially that which wishes to return to a real or imagined old order of things, and which is willing to use coercive means to do so. ... August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotzebue (May 3, 1761 - March 23, 1819), was a German dramatist. ... Karl Ludwig Sand (d. ... The Carlsbad Decrees were a set of social restrictions introduced in Germany by Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich of Austria in July 1819. ... Academic freedom is the freedom of teachers, students, and academic institutions to pursue knowledge wherever it may lead, without undue or unreasonable interference. ...

Economic Integration

German steel baron and arms manufacturer Alfred Krupp (1812-87), above, founded the first Bessemer steel production plan for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. Alfred Krupp diversified the Krupp family business into arms manufacture, contributing to Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). Under Alfred's son-in-law, Gustav Krupp von Bohlen and Halbach (1870-1950), the company developed Big Bertha, the World War I artillery piece named for Gustav's wife Bertha Krupp (1886-1957). Their son Alfried Krupp (1907-67) developed Gustav's ties with the Nazis, using concentration-camp internees in his factories.

Meanwhile, Prussia would continue to repress liberalism and continue with reform from above. Further efforts to improve the confederation began in 1834 with the establishment of a customs union, the Zollverein. In 1834 Prussia's regime would stimulate wider trade advantages and industrialism by decree — a logical continuation of the program embarked upon by Stein and Hardenberg less than two decades earlier. Inadvertently, these reforms would spark the unification movement and augment a middle class demanding further political rights, but at the time backwardness and Prussia's fears of its stronger neighbors was the larger threat. The customs union opened up a common market and ended local tariffs between states and standardized weights, measures, and currencies within member states (excluding Austria), forming the basis of a proto-national economy. Scanned from German Meyers Encyclopedia, 1906 This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... The old steel cable of a colliery winding tower Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, with carbon being the primary alloying material. ... Bessemer converter, schematic diagram The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. ... Pig iron is raw iron, the immediate product of smelting iron ore with coke and limestone in a blast furnace. ... The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their steel production and for their manufacture of ammunition and armaments. ... Combatants France Prussia allied with German states (later German Empire) Commanders Napoleon III Helmuth von Moltke Strength 500,000 550,000 Casualties 150,000 dead or wounded 284,000 captured 350,000 civilian [citation needed] 100,000 dead or wounded 200,000 civilian [citation needed] The Franco-Prussian War (July... Big Bertha Big Bertha (German: Dicke Bertha; literal translation Fat Bertha) is the name of the L/14 model of heavy mortar-like howitzers built and used by Germany during World War I. The name Big Bertha is often mistakenly applied to the Langer Max and Paris Gun railway guns. ... Combatants Allies: Serbia, Russia, France, Romania, Belgium, British Empire, United States, Italy, and others Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire Casualties Military dead: 5 million Civilian deaths: 3 million Total of dead: 8 million Military dead: 4 million Civilian deaths: 3 million Total dead: 7 million The First... National Socialism redirects here. ... Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia, 1894-1918 Prussia (German: ; Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Lithuanian: ; Old Prussian: PrÅ«sa; Polish: ) was, most recently, a historic state originating in East Prussia, an area which for centuries had substantial influence on German and European history. ... A customs union is a free trade area with a Common External Tariff. ... Zollverein (German for customs union) was formed between the 38 states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution to create a better trade flow and reduce internal competition. ...

By 1842 the Zollverein included most German states. Within the next twenty years the output of German furnaces increased fourfold. Coal production grew rapidly as well. In turn, German industrialists, especially the Krupp works established by the Krupp family, would introduce the invention of the steel gun, cast-steel axles, and a breech loading rifle, exemplifying Germany's successful application of technology to weaponry. Germany's security was greatly enhanced, leaving the Prussian state and the landowning aristocracy secure from outside threat. German manufactures also produced heavily for the non-defense sector. No longer would Britain be able to supply half Germany's needs in manufactured goods, as it did beforehand. 1842 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their steel production and for their manufacture of ammunition and armaments. ...

However, by developing a strong industrial base, the Prussian state strengthened the middle class and thus the nationalist movement. Economic integration, especially increased national consciousness among the German states, made political unity a far likelier scenario. Germany finally began exhibiting all the features of a proto-nation.

The crucial factor enabling Prussia's conservative regime to survive the Vormärz era was a rough coalition between leading sectors of the landed upper class and the emerging commercial and manufacturing interests. Marx and Engels, in their analysis of the abortive 1848 Revolutions, came to terms with such a coalition: "a commercial and industrial class which is too weak and dependent to take power and rule in its own right and which therefore throws itself into the arms of the landed aristocracy and the royal bureaucracy, exchanging the right to rule for the right to make money." ¹ It is necessary to add that, even if the commercial and industrial element is weak, it must be strong enough (or soon become strong enough) to become worthy of co-optation, and the French Revolution terrified enough perceptive elements of Prussia's Junkers for the state to be sufficiently accommodating. Landed property or landed estates is a real estate term that usually refers to a property that generates income for the owner without himself having to do the actual work at the estate. ... 1848 is a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

While relative stability was maintained until 1848, with enough bourgeois elements still content to exchange the "right to rule for the right to make money," the landed upper class found its economic base sinking. While the Zollverein brought economic progress and helped to keep the bourgeoisie at bay for a while, it would only increase the ranks of the middle class swiftly - the very social base for the nationalism and liberalism that the Prussian state sought to stem. 1848 is a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... bourgeoisie is basically a trem that meens middle class. ... Zollverein (German for customs union) was formed between the 38 states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution to create a better trade flow and reduce internal competition. ...

The Zollverein represented a move toward economic integration and modern industrial capitalism and the victory of centralism over localism, quickly bringing the era of guilds in the small German princely states to an end. This would take the form of the revolt of the Silesian Weavers in 1844, who witnessed their livelihood destroyed from the floodgates of new manufactures. Unable to compete with industrial efficiency, textile weavers quickly saw their economic base vanish. This base of small artisans, textile weavers, journeymen, guildsmen, and small businessmen would later pose a threat to the Second Reich, dominated by an emerging coalition of the landed upper class and industrialists, posing problems the Second Reich later on. These sharp class conflicts, the weakness of democratic traditions, and the narrow a social base of the landowning and military aristocracy, would be later quelled by authoritarian means of rule under the Second Reich, especially during Bismarck's suppression of Catholics and Socialists. 1844 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... This article or section should include material from German Monarchy The term German Empire (the translation from German of Deutsches Reich) commonly refers to Germany, from its consolidation as a unified nation-state on January 18, 1871, until the abdication of Kaiser (Emperor) Wilhelm II on November 9, 1918. ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. ...

The Zollverein also weakened Austrian domination of the Confederation as economic unity increased the desire for political unity and nationalism. In the following years, the other German states began to regard Prussia, not Austria, as their leader.

The Revolutions of 1848

Main article: The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states // Preliminaries Germany at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 was a collection of over 30 states loosely bound together in the German Confederation after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. ...

The short-lived flag of the German Confederation, approved by the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848 only.

However, the Zollverein, at this point, still did not suffice to eliminate the desires of the German middle class to attain the right to rule. News of the 1848 Revolution in Paris quickly reached discontented bourgeois liberals and more radical workingmen, only leaving the most reactionary regimes of the Romanovs and Ottomans unscathed. Image File history File links Flag_of_Germany_(2-3). ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Germany_(2-3). ... The flag of Germany was adopted in its present form in 1919. ... The Frankfurt Parliament is the name of the German National Assembly founded during the Revolutions of 1848 that tried to unite Germany in a democratic way. ... Zollverein (German for customs union) was formed between the 38 states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution to create a better trade flow and reduce internal competition. ... // Observations of liberals As 1848 began, liberals in France awaited the death of King Louis Philippe, expecting a new revolution after his death. ... The Eiffel Tower, the international symbol of the city For other uses, see Paris (disambiguation). ... The House of Romanov (Ð Ð¾Ð¼Ð°ÌÐ½Ð¾Ð², pronounced ) was the second and last imperial dynasty of Russia, which ruled Muscovy and the Russian Empire for five generations from 1613 to 1762. ... Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) Ø¯ÙˆÙ„Øª Ø§Ø¨Ø¯ Ù…Ø¯Øª Devlet-i Ebed-mÃ¼ddet (The Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power (1683) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital SÃ¶ÄŸÃ¼t (1299-1326), Bursa (1326-1365), Edirne (1365-1453), Ä°stanbul (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah of the Osmanl...

On March 15, 1848, the subjects of Frederick William IV of Prussia thus vented their long-repressed political aspirations in violent rioting in Berlin as barricades were erected all over the French capital to contain urban combat between Parisians and the army. As France's Louis Philippe fled to Britain, the Prussian king, cowed and coerced, capitulated to revolutionary demand, promising a constitution, a parliament, and support for German unification. March 15 is the 74th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (75th in Leap years). ... 1848 is a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... King Frederick William IV of Prussia (October 15, 1795 - January 2, 1861), the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861. ... Berlin is the capital city and a state of Germany. ... Louis-Philippe of France (October 6, 1773â€“August 26, 1850) reigned as the OrlÃ©anist king of the French from 1830 to 1848. ...

Meanwhile, from the point of view of the monarch, at least his regime was standing. In France, where the conservative aristocracy was soundly pushed aside by the Revolutions of 1789, 1830, and 1848, the new Second Republic erupted into civil war between rival revolutionary groups — the bourgeois moderates who favored order and constitutional democracy and the socialists, supported by the Parisian working class. In Paris, unemployed workers, with the cry of "bread or lead," hoisted the red flag, the first time that the red flag emerged as a symbol of the proletariat, and erected barricades to overthrow the Second Republic. Not since the Reign of Terror had Paris seen fighting on this scale, later crushed by savage repression that left a bitter hatred between the French working class and bourgeois elements. Liberty Leading the People, a painting by Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830 but which has come to be generally accepted as symbolic of French popular uprisings against the monarchy in general and the French Revolution in particular. ... Liberty Leading the People by EugÃ¨ne Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, was a revolt by the middle class against Bourbon King Charles X which forced him out of office and replaced him with the Orleanist King Louis-Philippe... // Observations of liberals As 1848 began, liberals in France awaited the death of King Louis Philippe, expecting a new revolution after his death. ... The French Second Republic (often simply Second Republic) was the republican regime of France from February 25, 1848 to December 2, 1852. ... A civil war is a war in which parties within the same culture, society or nationality fight for political power or control of an area. ... Historically, and most generally, the red flag is an international symbol for the blood of angry workers. ... The proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is proletarian. ... The Reign of Terror (5 September 1793 â€“ 28 July 1794) or simply The Terror (French: la Terreur) was a period in the French Revolution characterized by brutal repression. ... The Eiffel Tower, the international symbol of the city For other uses, see Paris (disambiguation). ...

On May 18 the Frankfurt Parliament opened its first session from various German states and Austria proper. However, it was immediately divided between those favoring a kleindeutsche (small German) or grossdeutsche (greater German) solution. The former favored offering the imperial crown to Prussia. The latter favored the Habsburg crown in Vienna, which would have integrated Austria proper and Bohemia (but not Hungary) into the new Germany. May 18 is the 138th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (139th in leap years). ... The Frankfurt Parliament is the name of the German National Assembly founded during the Revolutions of 1848 that tried to unite Germany in a democratic way. ... For the German Neighbourhood Kleindeutschland in New York see Little Germany, New York Kleindeutschland (literally Small Germany) was a 19th century political idea postulating the idea of a unified Germany led by Hohenzollern Prussia, with Berlin as capital, and excluding the Austrian Empire. ... For information on the military unit see GroÃŸdeutschland Division. ... Vienna (German: Wien ; Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian: BeÄ, Czech: VÃdeÅˆ, Hungarian: BÃ©cs, Romanian: Viena, Romani: Bech or Vidnya, Russian: Ð’ÐµÐ½Ð°, Slovak: ViedeÅˆ, Slovenian: Dunaj) is the capital of Austria, and also one of the nine States of Austria. ... Bohemia. ...

From May to December, the Assembly eloquently debated academic topics while conservatives swiftly reacted against the reformers. Meanwhile, such competition intensified authoritarian and reactionary trends among the landed upper class, as it did under Metternich's Austria and Russia under staunch reactionary Nicholas I, as it found its economic basis sinking. Thus, it would turn to political levers to preserve its rule. As the Prussian army proved to be loyal, and peasants proved to be uninterested, King Fredrick Wilhelm regained his confidence. While the Assembly issued its Declaration of the Rights of the German people, and a constitution was drawn (excluding Austria since it downright refused the offer), the leadership of the Reich was offered to Fredrick Wilhelm, who refused to "pick up a crown from the gutter." Most delegates returned home, and the Prussian army responded to quell some rioting. Thousands of middle class liberals fled abroad, especially to the United States. This article or section may be confusing for some readers, and should be edited to be clearer or more simplified. ... Nikolai I Pavlovich (Russian: ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°Ð¹ I ÐŸÐ°Ð²Ð»Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡), July 6 (June 25, Old Style), 1796â€“March 2 (February 18, Old Style), 1855), also Nicholas, was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855 and king of Poland from 1825 until 1831. ...

In 1850 the Prussian king issued his own constitution, responding to the failed revolution from below. His document sponsored a confederation of North German states and concentrated real power in the hands of the King and the upper classes. However, Prussia responded to Austrian and Russian pressure, fearing a strong, Prussian-dominated Germany, at the conference of Olomouc, known as the "humiliation of Olmütz." 1850 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... town hall with astronomical clock Olomouc (German OlmÃ¼tz, Polish OÅ‚omuniec, Latin Eburum or Olomucium) is a city in Moravia, in the east of the Czech Republic. ... The Punctation of OlmÃ¼tz is a treaty between Prussia and Austria, dated November 29, 1850. ...

Bismarck and the Wars of Unification

Shortly after the "humiliation of Olmütz," a new generation of statesmen began to respond to popular demands for national unity for their own ends not only in Germany, but in Italy and Japan as well, continuing Prussia's tradition of autocracy and reform from above. It takes very able leadership to drag along the less perceptive reactionary elements, and Italy and Germany found it to accomplish the seemingly paradoxical task of conservative modernization. Bismarck, like Stein and Hardenberg, sought to essentially preserve the position of the Junkers in a time of great changes. Bismarck, in fact, was appointed by Kaiser Wilhelm I to circumvent the liberals in the Landtag who opposed the Kaiser's military build-up because of its elitist nature. Gradually the Junkers, led by Bismarck, would win over the middle class, reacting to their revolutionary sentiments expressed in 1848 by providing them with the economic opportunities for which the urban middle sectors had been fighting. The Punctation of OlmÃ¼tz is a treaty between Prussia and Austria, dated November 29, 1850. ... An Autocracy is a form of government in which unlimited power is held by a single individual. ... Alternate meanings: See Bismarck (disambiguation). ... Stein may be: Look up Stein in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Hardenberg is a municipality and a city in the eastern Netherlands, in the province of Overijssel. ... In Germany, Austria and South Tyrol, a Landtag is a unicameral legislature for a federal land. ...

One striking fact about the course of conservative modernization is the appearance of a galaxy of distinguished political leaders; Cavour in Italy; in Germany, Stein, Hardenberg, and Bismarck, the most famous of them all; in Japan the statesmen of the Meiji Era. It seems unlikely that the appearance of a similar leadership in similar circumstance could be pure coincidence. All were conservatives in the political spectrum of their time and country, devoted to the monarchy, willing and able to use it as an instrument of reform, modernization, and national unification. Though all were aristocrats, they were dissidents or outsiders in relation to the old order. To the extent that their aristocratic background contribution habits of command and a flair for politics, one may perhaps detect a contribution of the agrarian ancien régimes to the construction of a new society. Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (Turin, August 10, 1810 - Santena, near Turin, June 6, 1861) was a statesman who was a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification and the first Prime Minister of the new Kingdom of Italy. ... History of Japan Paleolithic Jomon Yayoi Yamato period ---Kofun period ---Asuka period Nara period Heian period Kamakura period Muromachi period Azuchi-Momoyama period ---Nanban period Edo period Meiji period Taisho period Showa period ---Japanese expansionism ---Occupied Japan ---Post-Occupation Japan Heisei The Meiji period (Japanese: Meiji Jidai 明治時代 ) (1868–1912... Ancien RÃ©gime means Old Rule or Old Order in French; in English, the term refers primarily to the social and political system established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties. ...

Territorial legacy

The current countries whose territory were partly or entirely located inside the boundaries of German Confederation by the time of the dissolution in 1866 are:

Germany is a Federal Republic made up of 16 States, known in German as LÃ¤nder (transliterated as Laender in English, singular Land). ... Since Austria is a federal republic according to the constitutional framework of Austrian politics, Austrias nine provinces are customarily referred to as States of Austria or BundeslÃ¤nder, singular Bundesland. ... Burgenland (Hungarian ÅrvidÃ©k or FelsÅ‘Å‘rvidÃ©k, Croatian GradiÅ¡Ä‡e, Slovenian GradiÅ¡Äansko) is the easternmost state or Land of Austria. ... Prekmurje (or Transmuraland) is the easternmost region of Slovenia. ... West Pomeranian Voivodship. ... Lubusz Voivodship (Polish: wojewÃ³dztwo lubuskie) is an administrative region, or voivodship, of western Poland. ... Lower Silesian voivodship since 1999 Lower Silesia (Polish Dolny Śląsk, German Niederschlesien, Latin Silesia Inferior) is the north-western part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia in Poland, located along the middle Oder River and organized into Lower Silesian Voivodship, (Polish: województwo dolnośląskie) with capital Wrocław It was... Opole Voivodship. ... Silesian voivodship since 1999 Silesia or Silesian Voivodship(1) is an administrative region and local government unit in Poland, established in 1999 out of Katowice, CzÄ™tochowa and Bielsko-BiaÅ‚a voivodships as a result of Local Government Reorganisation Act of 1998 (effective 1 January 1999). ... Council of the German Speaking Community in Belgium (Eupen) Flag of the German-speaking community in Belgium The German-Speaking Community of Belgium (Deutschsprachige Gemeinschaft Belgiens in German, short DGB) is one of the three federal communities in Belgium. ... LiÃ¨ge is the easternmost province of Wallonia and of Belgium. ... Capital Maastricht Queens Commissioner L.J.P.M. (Leon) Frissen Religion (1999) Protestant 3% Catholic 80% Area â€¢ Land â€¢ Water 2. ... Trentino-South Tyrol (German and Ladin: Trentino-SÃ¼dtirol, Italian: Trentino-Alto Adige) is an Autonomous Region in Northern Italy. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Istria county - Istarska Å¾upanija / Regione istriana is the westernmost county of Croatia which includes the biggest part of the Istrian peninsula (2820 out of 3160 kmÂ²). Area is called Istra in Croatian and Slovenian). ... Holstein (Hol-shtayn) (Low German: Holsteen, Danish: Holsten, Latin and historical English: Holsatia) is the southern part of Schleswig-Holstein in Germany, between the rivers Elbe and Eider. ... The region of Schleswig (former English name: Sleswick, Danish: SÃ¸nderjylland or Slesvig, Low German: Sleswig, North Frisian: Slaswik or Sleesweg) covers the area about 60 km north and 70 km south of the border between Germany and Denmark. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Notes

¹ See Karl Marx, Selected Works, II, "Germany: Revolution and Counter-Revolution," written mainly by Engels.

Contents

Situation in space and time

Impact of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic invasions

Romanticism, nationalism, and Liberalism in the Vormärz era

Economic Integration

The Revolutions of 1848

Bismarck and the Wars of Unification

Territorial legacy

Notes

See also

External links

Sources and references

Contents

Situation in space and time GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Impact of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic invasions

Romanticism, nationalism, and Liberalism in the Vormärz era

Economic Integration

The Revolutions of 1848

Bismarck and the Wars of Unification

Territorial legacy

Notes

See also

External links

Sources and references

Situation in space and time