German orthography, although largely phonemic, shows many instances of spellings that are historic or analogic to other spellings, not phonemic. Nevertheless, the pronunciation of almost every word can be derived from its spelling, once the spelling rules are known. The orthography of a language is the set of symbols (glyphs and diacritics) used to write a language, as well as the set of rules describing how to write these glyphs, including spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

History of German orthography

Middle Ages

The oldest known German texts date back to the 8th century. They are written mainly in monasteries in different local dialects of Old High German. In these texts, the letter z along with combinations such as tz, cz, zz, sz or zs was chosen to transcribe the sounds /ts/ and /s(ː)/. This is ultimately the origin of the modern German letters z, tz and ß (an old sz-ligature). After the Carolingian Renaissance, however, during the reigns of the Ottonian and Salian dynasties in the 10th century and 11th century, German was hardly ever written any more, the literary language being almost exclusively Latin. (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... Monastery of St. ... The term Old High German (OHG, German: Althochdeutsch) refers to the earliest stage of the German language and it conventionally covers the period from around 500 to 1050. ... The glyph ß is a ligature of Å¿ (long s) and s or z that has become a distinct letter in the German alphabet; its German name is Eszett (IPA: ) or scharfes S (sharp S). ... Sample of Carolingian minuscule, one of the products of the Carolingian Renaissance. ... Ottonian dynasty is a name sometimes given to a ruling dynasty of German kings, sometimes regarded as the first dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire, (though Charlemagne is commonly viewed as the original founder. ... The Salian Dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire was founded by Conrad II (c. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 10th century was that century which lasted from 901 to 1000. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ...

Only in the High Middle Ages, during the reign of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, there was again significant production of German texts. Around the year 1200, there was a first tendency towards a standardized Middle High German language and spelling, based on the Franconian-Swabian language of the Hohenstaufen court. However, that language was only used in the epic poetry and minnesang lyric of the knight culture. These early tendencies of standardization ceased in the interregnum after the death of the last Hohenstaufen king in 1254. Certain features of today's German orthography still date back to Middle High German: The use of the trigraph sch for /ʃ/ and the occasional use of v for /f/ because around the 12th and 13th century, prevocalic /f/ was voiced. The cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the High Middle Ages. ... Arms of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty The Hohenstaufen (or the Staufer(s)) were a dynasty of Kings of Germany, many of whom were also crowned Holy Roman Emperor and Dukes of Swabia. ... Events University of Paris receives charter from Philip II of France The Kanem-Bornu Empire was established in northern Africa around the year 1200 Mongol victory over Northern China — 30,000,000 killed Births Al-Abhari, Persian philosopher and mathematician (died 1265) Ulrich von Liechtenstein, German nobleman and poet (died... Middle High German (MHG, German Mittelhochdeutsch) is the term used for the period in the history of the German language between 1050 and 1350. ... East Franconian (Ostfränkisch) is a dialect which is spoken in Bavaria and other areas in Germany around Bamberg, Würzburg and Bayreuth. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The epic is a broadly defined genre of poetry, and one of the major forms of narrative literature. ... Walther von der Vogelweide (Codex Manesse, ca. ... The silver Anglia knight, commissioned as a trophy in 1850, intended to represent the Black Prince. ... An interregnum is a period between monarchs, between popes of the Roman Catholic Church, emperors of Holy Roman Empire, polish kings (elective monarchy) or between consuls of the Roman Republic. ... For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century. ... A trigraph (from the Greek words tria = three and grapho = write) is a group of three letters used to represent a single sound. ...

In the following centuries, the only variety that showed a marked tendency to be used across regions was the Middle Low German of the Hanseatic League, based on the variety of Lübeck and used in many areas of Northern Germany. The Middle Low German language is an ancestor of the modern Low German language, and was spoken from about 1100 to 1500. ... Carta marina of the Baltic Sea region (1539). ... The title of this article contains the character ü. Where it is unavailable or not desired, the name may be represented as Luebeck. ...

Early modern period

Until the 16th century, a new interregional standard developed on the basis of the East Central German and Austro-Bavarian varieties. This was influenced by several factors: East Central German is a group of Germanic dialects: Upper Saxon German is a dialect spoken in the majority of the modern German Free States of Saxony. ... Austro-Bavarian or Bavarian is a major group of Upper German varieties. ...

• Under the Habsburg dynasty, there was a strong tendency to a common language in the chancellery.
• Since Eastern Central Germany had only been colonized during the High and Late Middle Ages in the course of the Drang nach Osten by people from different regions of Germany, the varieties spoken were compromises of different dialects.
• Eastern Central Germany was culturally very important, with the universities of Erfurt and Leipzig and especially with the Luther Bible translation which was considered exemplary.
• The invention of printing led to an increased production of books, and the printers were interested in using a common language in order to sell their books in an area as wide as possible.

In the Mid 16th century, when during the Counter-Reformation the catholicism was reintroduced in Austria and Bavaria, the Lutherian language was rejected. Instead, a specific Southern interregional language was used, based on the language of the Habsburgian chancellery. Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the Ausgleich of 1867. ... Chancellery is the office of the chancellor, sometimes also reffered to as the chancery. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The University of Erfurt is one of the oldest universities in Germany. ... The University of Leipzig (Universität Leipzig), located in Leipzig in the Free State and former Kingdom of Saxony, is one of the oldest universities in Europe. ... Luthers 1534 bible The Luther Bible is a German Bible translation by Martin Luther, first printed with both testaments in 1534. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The Counter-Reformation or the Catholic Reformation was a strong reaffirmation of the doctrine and structure of the Catholic Church, climaxing at the Council of Trent, partly in reaction to the growth of Protestantism. ... As a Christian ecclesiastical term, Catholic - from the Greek adjective , meaning general or universal[1] - is described in the Oxford English Dictionary as follows: ~Church, (originally) whole body of Christians; ~, belonging to or in accord with (a) this, (b) the church before separation into Greek or Eastern and Latin or...

In Northern Germany, the Lutheran East Central German replaced the Low German written language until Mid 17th century. In the early 18th century, the Lutheran standard was also introduced in the Southern states and countries, Austria, Bavaria and Switzerland, due to the influence of Northern German writers, grammarians such as Johann Christoph Gottsched or language cultivation societies such as the Fruitbearing Society. Low German (also called Plattdeutsch, Plattdüütsch or Low Saxon) is a name for the regional language varieties of the West Germanic languages spoken mainly in Northern Germany where it is officially called Niederdeutsch (Low German), and in Eastern Netherlands where it is officially called Nedersaksisch (Low Saxon). Low refers... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... Johann Christoph Gottsched (February 2, 1700 – December 12, 1766), was a German author and critic. ... The Fruitbearing society (Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft) was a German literary society founded in 1617 in Weimar by German scholars and nobility to emulate the idea of the Accademia della crusca in Florence and other similar groups already thriving in Italy, France, and Britain. ...

19th century and early 20th century

Even though by mid 18th century, one norm was generally established, there was no institutionalized standardization. Only with the introduction of the compulsory education in late 18th and early 19th century was the spelling further standardized, though at first independently in each state, due to the political fragmentation of Germany. Only the foundation of the Prussian German Empire in 1871 allowed for further standardization. Compulsory education is education which children are required by law to receive and governments to provide. ... Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Prussia, 1701-1918 Prussia (German: ; Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Lithuanian: ; Polish: ; Old Prussian: PrÅ«sa) was, most recently, a historic state originating in East Prussia, an area which for centuries had substantial influence on German and European history. ... Motto: Gott mit Uns (German: God with us”) Anthem: Heil dir im Siegerkranz (unofficial) Territory of the German Empire in 1914, prior to World War I Capital Berlin Language(s) Official: German Unofficial minority languages: Polish (Posen, Lower Silesia,Upper Silesia, Masuria) French (Alsace-Lorraine) Government Constitutional monarchy Emperor  - 1871... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

In 1876, the Prussian government instituted the 1st Orthographic Conference in order to achieve a standardization for the entire German Empire. However, its results were rejected, among others by Prime Minister of Prussia Otto von Bismarck. 1876 (MDCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... The Prime Minister (Ministerpräsident) of Prussia existed in one form or another from 1792 until the dissolution of Prussia in 1947. ... Bismarck redirects here. ...

In 1880, Gymnasium director Konrad Duden published the Vollständiges Orthographisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (‘Complete Orthographic Dictionary of the German Language’), known simply as Duden. In the same year, the Duden was declared to be authoritative in Prussia. Since Prussia was by far the largest state in the German Empire, its regulations also influenced spelling elsewhere, for instance, in 1894, when Switzerland recognized the Duden. Year 1880 (MDCCCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar). ... A gymnasium (pronounced /gim-/ as opposed to /jim-/) is a type of school providing secondary education in some parts of Europe, comparable to english Grammar Schools. ... Konrad Alexander Friedrich Duden (January 3, 1829 - August 1, 1911) was a Gynasium (high school) who became a philologist. ... The Duden () is a German dictionary, first published by Konrad Duden in 1880. ... 1894 (MDCCCXCIV) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ...

In 1901, the interior minister of the German Empire instituted the 2nd Orthographic Conference. It declared the Duden to be authoritative, with a few innovations. In 1902, its results were approved by the governments of the German Empire, of Austria and of Switzerland. 1901 (MCMI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... The Interior Minister is a member of a Cabinet in a Government. ... 1902 (MCMII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

In 1944, the Nazi German government planned to reform the orthography. However, due to the war, this reform was never implemented. Year 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1944 calendar). ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ...

After 1902 German spelling was essentially decided de facto by the editors of the Duden dictionaries. After World War II, this tradition was followed with two different centers: Mannheim in West Germany and Leipzig in East Germany. By the early 1950s, a few other publishing houses had begun to attack the Duden monopoly in the West by putting out their own dictionaries, which did not always hold to the “official” spellings prescribed by Duden. In response, the Ministers of Culture of the federal states in West Germany officially declared the Duden spellings to be binding as of November, 1955. Combatants Allied Powers: United Kingdom France Soviet Union United States Republic of China and others Axis Powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Winston Churchill Charles de Gaulle Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Chiang Kai-Shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33... Mannheim is a city in Germany. ... [] (Sorbian/Lusatian: Lipsk) is the largest city in the Federal State (Bundesland) of Saxony in Germany. ... GDR redirects here. ... 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The Duden editors used their power cautiously, because they considered their primary task to be the documentation of usage, not the creation of rules. At the same time, however, they found themselves forced to make finer and finer distinctions in the production of German spelling rules, and each new print run introduced a few reformed spellings. Print run is a term primarily used in book publishing, and less often in the magazine market (usually for the first few editions of a new title). ...

German spelling reform of 1996

See: German spelling reform of 1996. The German spelling reform (Rechtschreibreform) is based on an international agreement signed in 1996 by the governments of the German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland. ...

Features of German spelling

Vowel length

Even though vowel length is phonemic in German, it is not consistently represented. However, there are different ways of identifying long vowels: In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

• A vowel in an open syllable (a free vowel) is long, for instance in ge-ben ‘to give’, sa-gen ‘to say’.
• The digraph ie always represents long iː, for instance in Liebe ‘love’, hier ‘here’. This use is a historical spelling based on the Middle High German diphthong /iə̯/ which was monophthongized in Early New High German. It has been generalized to words that etymologically never had that diphthong, for instance viel ‘much’, Friede ‘peace’ (Middle High German vil, vride).
• A silent h indicates the vowel length in certain cases. That h derives from an old /x/ in some words, for instance sehen ‘to see’, zehn ‘ten’, but in other words it has no etymological justification, for instance gehen ‘to go’ or mahlen ‘to mill’.
• The letters a, e, o may be doubled in a few words, for instance Saat ‘seed’, See ‘sea’/‘lake’, Moor ‘moor’.

In English phonetics and phonology, checked vowels are those that must be followed by a consonant in a stressed syllable, while free vowels are those that may stand in a stressed open syllable with no following consonant. ... Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... A monophthong (in Greek μονόφθογγος = single note) is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new position of articulation; compare diphthong. ... Concept A is a (strict) generalization of concept B if and only if: every instance of concept B is also an instance of concept A; and there are instances of concept A which are not instances of concept B. Equivalently, A is a generalization of B if B is a...

Double or triple consonants

Even though German does not have phonemic consonant length, there are many instances of doubled or even tripled consonants in the spelling. A single consonant that follows a checked vowel is doubled if another vowel follows, for instance immer ‘always’, lassen ‘let’. These consonants are analyzed as ambisyllabic because they constitute not only the syllable onset of the second syllable, but also the syllable coda of the first syllable, which must not be empty because the syllable nucleus is a checked vowel. Listen to this article · (info) This audio file was created from the revision dated 2005-07-20, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. ... In English phonetics and phonology, checked vowels are those that must be followed by a consonant in a stressed syllable, while free vowels are those that may stand in a stressed open syllable with no following consonant. ... In phonetics and phonology, a syllable onset is the part of a syllable that precedes the syllable nucleus. ... Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. ... In phonetics and phonology, the nucleus is the central part of the syllable, mostly commonly a vowel. ...

By analogy, if a word has one form with a doubled consonant, all forms of that word are written with a doubled consonant even if they do not fulfill the conditions for consonant doubling, for instance rennen ‘to run’ → er rennt ‘he runs’; Küsse ‘kisses’ → Kuss ‘kiss’.

Triple consonants have no effect on the pronunciation, but only on the spelling. They occur when words are written together as in Schifffahrt (‘shipping’) from Schiff and Fahrt, Sauerstoffflasche (‘oxygen bottle’) from Sauerstoff and Flasche. Before the spelling reform of 1996, only two consonants were written if the sequence was followed by a vowel (e.g. Schiffahrt but Sauerstoffflasche). If hyphenated at the end of a line, all three consonants were always written (e.g., Schiff-fahrt and Sauerstoff-flasche). The new spelling of both words is Schifffahrt and Sauerstoffflasche, with triple consonants in all contexts.

Typical letters

ei: This digraph represents the diphthong /a͡ɪ/. The spelling goes back to the Middle High German pronunciation of that diphthong, which was [e͡i]. The spelling ai is only found in very few words. In phonetics, a diphthong (Greek δίφθογγος, diphthongos, literally with two sounds, or with two tones) is a vowel combination in a single syllable involving a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another, often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme. ...

eu: This digraph represents the diphthong [ɔ͡ʏ] which goes back to the Middle High German monophthong [yː] represented by iu.

ß: This letter alternates with ss. For more information, see: ß. The glyph ß is a ligature of Å¿ (long s) and s or z that has become a distinct letter in the German alphabet; its German name is Eszett (IPA: ) or scharfes S (sharp S). ...

st, sp: At the beginning of the main syllable of a word, these digraphs are pronounced /ʃt, ʃp/. In the Middle Ages, the sibilant that was inherited from Proto-Germanic /s/ was pronounced as an alveolo-palatal consonant [ɕ] or [ʑ], unlike the voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] that had developed in the High German consonant shift. In the Late Middle Ages, certain instances of [ɕ] merged with [s], but others developed into [ʃ]. This change to [ʃ] was represented in certain spellings, for instance Schnee ‘snow’, Kirsche ‘cherry’ (Middle High German snê, kirse. The digraphs st, sp, however, remained unaltered. A sibilant is a type of fricative or affricate, made by directing a jet of air through a narrow channel towards the sharp edge of the teeth. ... Map of the Pre-Roman Iron Age culture(s) associated with Proto-Germanic, c. ... Sagittal section of alveolo-palatal fricative In phonetics, alveolo-palatal (or alveopalatal) consonants are palatalized postalveolar fricatives, articulated with the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, and the body of the tongue raised toward the palate. ... The voiceless alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. ... In historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or Second Germanic consonant shift (German: hochdeutsche or zweite germanische Lautverschiebung) was a phonological development (sound change) which took place in the southern dialects of German in several phases, probably beginning between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD, and was almost complete...

v: The letter v occurs only in a few native words. In these native words, it represents /f/. This goes back to the 12th and 13th century, when prevocalic /f/ was voiced to /v/. That voicing was lost again in the late Middle Ages, but the v still remains in certain words, for instance in Vogel (compare Scandinavian fugl) ‘bird’ (hence the letter v is sometimes called Vogel-fau), viel ‘much’.

w: The letter w represents the sound /v/. In the 17th century, the former sound [w] became [v] but the spelling remained the same. An analogous sound change had happened in Late Antique Latin. Late Antiquity is a rough periodization (c. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ...

z: The letter z represents the sound /t͡s/. This sound, a product of the High German consonant shift, was written with z since Old High German in the 8th century. In historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or Second Germanic consonant shift (German: hochdeutsche or zweite germanische Lautverschiebung) was a phonological development (sound change) which took place in the southern dialects of German in several phases, probably beginning between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD, and was almost complete... The term Old High German (OHG, German: Althochdeutsch) refers to the earliest stage of the German language and it conventionally covers the period from around 500 to 1050. ...

Foreign words

In many cases, the foreign spellings are retained, for instance ph or y in words of Greek origin (as in Physik) but not in phone 'Fon' or graph 'Graf'.

Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences

This section lists German letters and letter combinations, and how to pronounce them transliterated into the International Phonetic Alphabet. This is the pronunciation of Standard German. Note that the pronunciation of standard German varies slightly from region to region. In fact, most German speakers can be told where they come from by their accent in standard German (not to be confused with the different German dialects). For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words see here. ... Standard German is the prescriptive norm variant of the German language used as a written language, in formal contexts, and for communication between different dialect areas. ... Standard German is the prescriptive norm variant of the German language used as a written language, in formal contexts, and for communication between different dialect areas. ...

Foreign words are usually pronounced approximately as they are in the original language.

Consonants

One pronounces double consonants as single consonants, except in compound words. In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the vocal tract sufficient to cause audible turbulence. ...

• b: at end of syllable: [p]; otherwise: [b] or [b̥]
• c: before ä, e, and i: [ʦ]; otherwise: [k]
• ch: after a, o, and u: [x]; after other vowels or initially: [ç]; the suffix -chen always [ç]
• chs: [ks] within a morpheme (e.g. Dachs [daks] "badger"); [çs] or [xs] across a morpheme boundary (e.g. Dachs [daxs] "roof (genitive)")
• d: at end of syllable: [t]; otherwise: [d] or [d̥]
• dsch: [ʤ] or [d̥ʒ̊] (used in loanwords and transliterations only)
• dt: [t]
• f: [f]
• g: in the ending -ig: [ç] or [k] (Southern German); at the end of a syllable: [k]; otherwise: [g] or [g̊]
• h: before a vowel: [h]; when lengthening a vowel: silent
• j: [j]
• k: [k]
• l: [l]
• m: [m]
• n: [n]
• p: [p]
• pf: [pf] in all cases with some speakers; with other speakers [f] at the beginning of words (or at the beginning of compound wordsʼ elements) and [pf] in all other cases
• ph: [f]
• ng: usually: [ŋ]; in compound words where the first element ends in "n" and the second element begins with "g": [ŋg] or [ŋg̊]
• qu: [kv] or [kw] in a few regions
• r: the standard German pronunciation of r varies a lot regionally:
  • [ʁ] before vowels, [ɐ] otherwise; or
  • [ɐ] after long vowels, [ʁ] otherwise; or
  • [r] in all cases
• s: before and between vowels: [z] or [z̥]; before consonants or when final: [s]; before p or t at the beginning of a word or syllable: [ʃ]
• sch: [ʃ]
• ss: [s]
• ß: [s]
• t: [t]
• th: [t]
• ti: in -tion, -tiär, -tial: [ʦj]; otherwise: [ti]
• tsch: [ʧ]
• tz: [ʦ]
• v: in foreign borrowings: [v]; otherwise: [f]
• w: [v]
• x: [ks]
• z: [ʦ]

In morpheme-based morphology, a morpheme is the smallest lingual unit that carries a semantic interpretation. ...

Short vowels

Consonants are sometimes doubled in writing to indicate the preceding vowel is to be pronounced as a short vowel. One-syllable words are pronounced with long vowels, with some exceptions such as an, das, es, in, mit, and von. The e in the ending -en is often silent as in bitten "to ask, request". The ending -er is often pronounced [ɐ], but in some regions, people say [ʀ̩] or [r̩]. The e in the ending -el is pronounced short as in the english word funnel in spite of the single consonant on the end. This ending occurs in words such as Tunnel "tunnel" or Mörtel "mortar" or in proper names such as Fennel.

• a: [a] as in Wasser "water"
• ä: [ɛ] as in Ärzte "(medical) doctors"
• e: [ɛ] as in Bett "bed"; unstressed [ə] as in Ochse "ox"
• i: [ɪ] as in Mittel "means"
• o: [ɔ] as in kommen "to come"
• ö: [œ] as in Göttin "goddess"
• u: [ʊ] as in Mutter "mother"
• ü: [ʏ] as in Müller "miller"
• y: [ʏ] as in Dystrophie "dystrophy"

Long vowels

A vowel usually has a long sound if the vowel in question occurs:

• as the final letter (except for e)
• followed by a single consonant as in bot (engl. offered)
• before a single consonant followed by a vowel as in Wagen (engl. car)
• doubled as in Boot (engl. boat)
• followed by an h as in Weh (engl. pain)

Long vowels are generally pronounced with greater tenseness than short vowels. Tenseness is a term used in phonology to describe a particular vowel quality that is phonemically contrastive in many languages, including English. ...

The long vowels map as follows:

• a, ah, and aa: [aː]
• ä, äh: [ɛː] or [eː]
• e, eh, and ee: [eː]
• i, ie, ih, and ieh: [iː]
• o, oh, and oo: [oː]
• ö: [øː]
• u and uh: [uː]
• ü and üh: [yː]
• y: [yː]

Diphthongs

• au: [aʊ]
• eu and äu: [ɔʏ]
• ei, ai, ey, and ay: [aɪ]

See also

• German phonology
• Antiqua-Fraktur dispute
• Spelling
• Punctuation
• English spelling
• Dutch orthography