Gladius
Replica pseudo-Pompeii gladius. Note: the triangular ricasso or unsharpened portion of the blade just below the hilt is a historical inaccuracy as no historical gladii have been shown to possess this feature.
Type	Arming sword
Place of origin	Ancient Rome as gladius, Celtic Europe before then.
Service history
In service	4th century BCE through 2nd century CE.
Used by	Legionary in Roman service, Roman-influenced other forces.
Wars	Roman Republic and Roman Empire
Specifications
Weight	1.2-1.6 kg
Length	64-81 cm
Width	4-8 cm
Blade type	steel of varying degrees of Carbon content, pointed, two-edged.
Hilt type	Wood, bone or ivory.

Gladius is a Latin word for sword. Early Roman swords were similar to those used by the Greeks. From the 3rd century BC the Romans adopted swords similar to those used by the Celtiberians and others, during the Conquest of Hispania. This kind of sword was known as the Gladius Hispaniensis, or "Hispanic Sword". It was once thought that they were similar to the later Mainz types, but the evidence now suggests that this was not the case.^[1] Rather these early blades followed a slightly different pattern, being longer and narrower, and were probably those that Polybius^[2] considered good for both cut and thrust. Later extant Gladii are now known as the Mainz, Fulham and Pompei types. In the late Roman period Vegetius^[3] refers to swords called semispathae (or semispathia) and spathae, for both of which he appears to consider gladius an appropriate term. ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1503x3258, 726 KB) Roman gladius, type Pompeji Photographed by myself during a show of Legio XV from Pram, Austria File links The following pages link to this file: Gladius ... A ricasso is a common component of many larger Western swords. ... The term arming-sword refers not so much to a sword design as the situation under which the sword was used. ... Area under Roman control  Roman Republic  Roman Empire  Western Empire  Eastern Empire Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... See also Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century). ... Motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, c. ... A blade is the flat part of a tool or weapon that normally has a cutting edge and/or pointed end typically made of a metal, most recently, steel intentionally used to cut, stab, slice, throw, thrust, or strike an animate or inainimate object. ... See also: Hilt (band) and Peter Hilt Hilt of Szczerbiec The hilt of a sword is its handle, consisting of a guard, grip and pommel. ... Gladius is a role-playing game released in 2003 for the Xbox, PlayStation 2, and GameCube video game consoles. ... It has been suggested that War-sword be merged into this article or section. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 3rd century BC started on January 1, 300 BC and ended on December 31, 201 BC. // Events The Pyramid of the Moon, one of several monuments built in Teotihuacán Teotihuacán, Mexico begun The first two Punic Wars between Carthage... The Celtiberians dwelt in the Iberian Peninsula and spoke a Celtic language. ... The Conquest of Hispania was a historical period that began with the Roman landing at Empúries in 218 B.C. and ended with the conclusion of the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by Caesar Augustus in 17 B.C., including all of the events that occurred in the... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... Mainz is a city in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. ... Polybius (c. ... Vegetius (Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus) was a celebrated military writer of the 4th century. ... Modern replica of a late Roman Empire spatha The spatha was a type of a straight sword with a long point, measuring between 0. ...

A fully equipped Roman soldier would have been armed with a shield (scutum), several javelins (pila), a sword (gladius), probably a dagger (pugio) and perhaps a number of darts (plumbatae). Conventionally, the javelins would be thrown before engaging the enemy, at which point the gladius would be drawn. The soldier generally led with his shield and thrust with his sword. Contrary to popular belief, all types of gladius appear to have also been suitable for cutting and chopping motions as well as for thrusting. A shield is a protective device, meant to intercept attacks. ... Scutum is the Latin word for shield, although it has in modern times come to be associated with the standard semi-cylindrical type carried by Roman legionaries. ... The javelin throw is an athletics (track and field) throwing event where the object to be thrown is the javelin, a spear-like object made of metal and fibreglass. ... Reconstruction of a post-Marian pilum A Roman coin showing Antoninianus of Carinus holding pilum and globe. ... It has been suggested that War-sword be merged into this article or section. ... Bold text This article is about the weapon. ... Pugio reconstruction: a Roman soldier from AD 70 Pugio reconstruction: a Roman soldier AD 175 from a northern province A pugio is a small dagger used by Roman soldiers. ... Plumbatae or mattiobarbuli were lead-weighted darts carried by ancient Roman infantry. ... Plumbatae or Mattiobarbuli were lead-weighted darts carried by ancient Roman infantry. ...

Etymology

The name is a Latin o-stem noun, its plural being gladii. The diminutive form, gladiolus, is also the name of a flowering plant with sword-shaped leaves. Gladius is used in literature as early as the plays of Plautus (Casina, Rudens). Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... Species About 260, see text Gladiolus (from Latin, the diminutive of gladius, a sword), sometimes called the sword lily, is a genus of flowering plants, iris family (Iridaceae). ... It has been suggested that Angiospermae, and Anthophyta be merged into this article or section. ... Titus Macchius Plautus, generally referred to simply as Plautus, was a playwright of Ancient Rome. ...

Celtic origin

According to Julius Pokorny the term would be of Celtic origin, from Gaulish *kladyos, cognate to Welsh cleddyf and Breton kleze (Old Irish claideb is from the Brythonic, compare claymore), all meaning "sword", ultimately from a PIE base kelad- (extended from a root kel-) cognate to Latin clādēs "injury, damage, defeat".^[4] Gladius could also be a term used to describe a dagger, Pugio.^[5] The Celtic languages are the languages descended from Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, spoken by ancient and modern Celts alike. ... The Chieftain by Albion Swords, a reproduction of a two-handed claymore (Oakeshott XIIIa, ca. ... This article is about the baked good, for other uses see Pie (disambiguation). ... Pugio reconstruction: a Roman soldier from AD 70 Pugio reconstruction: a Roman soldier AD 175 from a northern province A pugio is a small dagger used by Roman soldiers. ...

Acquisition by the Romans

A sword of the Cogotas II culture in Spain, which began about 700 BCE. The shape is indistinguishable from the gladius hispanus.

The Hispanic sword was probably not acquired from Hispania and not from the Carthaginians. Livy^[6] relates the story of Titus Manlius Torquatus taking up a Gallic challenge to a single combat by a large-size soldier at a bridge over the Anio river, where the Gauls and the Romans were encamped on opposite sides of the river. Manlius strapped on a Hispanic sword (Gladius Hispanus^[7]). During the combat he thrust twice with it under the shield of the Gaul, dealing fatal blows to the abdomen. He then removed the Gaul's torc and placed it around his own neck, whence the name, torquatus. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 319 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (341 × 640 pixel, file size: 28 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) <|--categories--> File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Gladius ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 319 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (341 × 640 pixel, file size: 28 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) <|--categories--> File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Gladius ... The Aniene River (in Latin: Anio, formerly called the Teverone) is a 98 km long river in Lazio, Italy. ... A torc, also spelled torq or torque (from Latin torqueo, to twist, because of the twisted shape of the collar) is a rigid circular necklace that is open-ended at the front. ...

The combat happened in the consulships of C. Sulpicius and C. Licinius in about 361 BCE, much before the Punic Wars, but during the frontier wars with the Gauls (366-341 BCE). One theory therefore proposes the borrowing of the word gladius from *kladi- during this period, relying on the principle that k becomes g in Latin only in loans. Ennius attests the word. Gladius may have replaced ensis, which in the literary periods was used mainly by the poets.^[8] The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the city-state of Carthage. ... Quintus Ennius (239 - 169 BC) was a writer during the period of the Roman Republic, and is often considered the father of Roman poetry. ...

The debate on the origin of the gladius Hispanus continues. That it descended ultimately from Celtic swords of the La Tene and Hallstat periods is unquestioned. Whether it did so directly from Celtiberian troops of the Punic Wars or through Gallic troops of the Gallic Wars remains the question of the Hispanic sword. La Tène is a village near the Neuenburger See, also called Lac du Neuchâtel, a lake in Switzerland. ... Hallstatt is a village in the Austrian Salzkammergut where a large prehistoric cemetery of 1045 graves was discovered by Ramsauer in 1846 and excavated during the second half of the 19th century. ... The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the city-state of Carthage. ...

Gladius and gladiator

The gladiator etymologically was a slave (more rarely a free volunteer) who fought to the death using a gladius in a display called a ludus, "game", in origin held as part of the funeral celebration in honor of a notable warrior. The time the custom began is lost in the prehistoric Bronze Age. Pollice Verso (With a Turned Thumb), an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, is a well known history painters researched conception of a gladiatorial combat. ... The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ...

Etruscans held funeral ludi from an unknown provenience. They passed the custom on to the Romans. In Roman gladiatorial theory, prisoners of war were to be sacrificed as a duty to the deceased warrior; hence the games were called munera, "services." Over the centuries services were rendered through many forms of combat. The sacrificed went by many names. The Etruscan civilization existed in Etruria and the Po valley in the northern part of what is now Italy, prior to the formation of the Roman Republic. ...

Even among the Romans combat and weapons were of many forms. That being so, the choice of the word gladius needs to be explained. It must have been appropriate when displays began at Rome. Games were held first by Latin speakers at Capua, a renamed Etruscan city. Livy explains that in 308 BCE the Samnites were defeated by the Campanians, who captured a large cache of new and ornate arms, only acquired by the Samnites in 310 BCE. The Campanians gave these to their gladiators, innovating a new class of gladiator, the Samnites. They fought with the gladius.^[9] Capua is a city in the province of Caserta, (Campania, Italy) situated 25 km (16 mi) north of Napoli, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain. ... Samnite warriors Samnium (Oscan Safinim) was a region of the southern Apennines in Italy that was home to the Samnites, a group of Sabellic tribes that controlled the area from about 600 BC to about 290 BC. Samnium was delimited by Latium in the north, by Lucania in the south... Campania is a region of Southern Italy, bordering on Lazio to the north-west, Molise to the north, Puglia to the north-east, Basilicata to the east, and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west. ...

When the Romans instituted the games at Rome in 264 BCE, they displayed 22 pairs of matched gladiators. They were probably called gladiators then, though the only evidence is Livy's word for it. He may have been speaking anachronistically; however, his description of the Gallic combat above matches the use of the gladius. The dates, certainly, are right. In that same year, the Punic Wars began.

Manufacture

By the time of the Roman Republic, which flourished during the Iron Age, the classical world was well-acquainted with steel and the steel-making process. Pure iron is relatively soft, but pure iron is never found in nature. Natural iron ore contains various impurities in solid solution, which harden the reduced metal by producing irregular-shaped metallic crystals. See also Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century). ... Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... The steel cable of a colliery winding tower. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ...

The Chalybes of the Caucasus region were metallurgists for Iron-Age Europe and they had found that increasing carbon content produced harder steel. In Roman times ore was reduced in a bloomery furnace, as the blast furnace had not yet been invented, at least in western society. The temperature did not become high enough to actually melt the metal. The result was pieces of slag, or blooms, which were forged into the desired shape. Forging continued until the metal cooled (cold forging). The Chalybes (Χάλυβες, Χάλυβοι) were a tribe of Classical Antiquity credited with the invention of iron industry. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Caucasus Mountains. ... A bloomery is a type of furnace once widely used for smelting iron from its oxides. ... Blast furnace in Sestao, Spain. ...

A recent metallurgical study of two Etrurian swords, one in the form of a Greek kopis from 7th century BCE Vetulonia, and one in the form of a gladius Hispanus from 3rd century BCE Chiusi, gives some insight concerning the manufacture of Roman swords.^[10] The Chiusi sword comes from Romanized Etruria; thus, regardless of the names of the forms (which the authors do not identify), the authors believe the process was continuous from the Etruscans to the Romans. The area covered by the Etruscan civilzation. ... An illustration showing a kopis with a hook-like hilt. ... Vetulonia, formerly called Vetulonium or Vatluna, was an ancient town of Etruria, Italy, the site of which is probably occupied by the modern village of Vetulonia, which up to 1887 bore the name of Colonna. ... Chiusi (Etruscan Clevsin) is a town and comune in Siena province, Tuscany. ...

The Vetulonian sword was crafted by the pattern welding process from five blooms reduced at a temperature of 1163 °C. Five strips of varying carbon content were created. A central core of the sword contained the highest: 0.15–0.25% carbon. On its edges were placed four strips of low-carbon steel, 0.05–0.07%, and the whole thing was welded together by forging on the pattern of hammer blows. A blow increased the temperature sufficiently to produce a friction weld at that spot. Forging continued until the steel was cold, producing some central annealing. The sword was 58 cm long.^[10] Pattern welded pocket knife Pattern welding is the practice in sword and knife making of forming a blade of several metal pieces of differing composition that are forge-welded together and twisted and manipulated to form a pattern. ... Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment wherein the microstructure of a material is altered, causing changes in its properties such as strength and hardness. ...

The Chiusian sword was created from a single bloom by forging from a temperature of 1237 °C. The carbon content increased from 0.05–0.08% at the back side of the sword to 0.35–0.4% on the blade, from which the authors deduce some form of carburization may have been used. The sword was 40 cm long and was characterized by a wasp-waist close to the hilt. Carburization (often referred to as carburizing) is the name of the process by which carbon is introduced into a metal. ...

Roman swords continued to be forged both as composites and from single pieces. Inclusions of sand and rust weakened the two swords of the study and no doubt limited the strength of swords during the Roman period.

Description

The word gladius acquired a general meaning as any type of sword. This use appears as early as the 1st century CE in the Biography of Alexander the Great by Quintus Curtius Rufus.^[11] The republican authors, however, appear to mean a specific type of sword, which is now known from archaeology to have had variants. Quintus Curtius Rufus was a Roman historical writer in the first or second century AD, generally thought to have written under the reign of Claudius. ...

Gladii were two-edged for cutting and had a tapered point for stabbing during thrusting. A solid grip was provided by a knobbed hilt added on, possibly with ridges for the fingers. Blade strength was achieved by welding together strips, in which case the sword had a channel down the center, or by fashioning a single piece of high-carbon steel, rhomboidal in cross-section. The owner's name was often engraved or punched on the blade.

Stabbing was a very efficient technique as stabbing wounds, especially in the abdominal area, were almost always deadly (see the quotation from Vegetius under pugio). However, the gladius in some circumstances was used for cutting or slashing, as is indicated by Livy's account of the Macedonian Wars, wherein the Macedonian soldiers were horrified to see dismembered bodies.^[12] Vegetius (Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus) was a celebrated military writer of the 4th century. ... Pugio reconstruction: a Roman soldier from AD 70 Pugio reconstruction: a Roman soldier AD 175 from a northern province A pugio is a small dagger used by Roman soldiers. ... Titus Livius (around 59 BC - 17 AD), known as Livy in English, wrote a monumental history of Rome, Ab Urbe Condita, from its founding (traditionally dated to 753 BC). ... The Macedonian Wars were a series of four wars between ancient Rome, its allies, and Macedon. ...

The gladius was sheathed in a scabbard mounted on a belt or shoulder strap, some say on the right, some say on the left (refer to the articles cited in the notes). Some say the soldier reached across his body to draw it, and others affirm that the position of the shield made this method of drawing impossible. A centurion wore it on the opposite side as a mark of distinction.^[13] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Towards the end of the second century A.D. the spatha took the place of the gladius in the Roman legions. Modern replica of a late Roman Empire spatha The spatha was a type of a straight sword with a long point, measuring between 0. ...

Types

Several different designs were used; among collectors and historical reenactors, the three primary kinds are known as the Mainz gladius, the Fulham gladius, and the Pompeii gladius (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have uncovered an earlier version, the Gladius Hispaniensis ("Hispanic sword"). Reenactors of the American Civil War Historical reenactment is an activity in which participants recreate some aspects of a historical event or period. ...

The differences between these varieties are subtle. The original Hispanic sword, or Falcata, had a slight "wasp-waist" or "leaf-blade" curvature. It was used in the republic. The Mainz variety came into use on the frontier in the early empire. It kept the curvature, but shortened and widened the blade and made the point triangular. At home the less battle-effective Pompei version came into use. It eliminated the curvature, lengthened the blade, and diminished the point. The Fulham was a compromise, with straight edges and a long point.^[14] 4th century BC Iberian falcata. ...

Descriptions of the main types follow:

• Gladius Hispaniensis: Used from no later than 200 B.C. until 20 B.C. Blade length 64 cm - 69 cm. Sword length 74 cm - 81 cm. Sword width 5 cm. Short blade, broad towards the handle. (Example 1, Example 2, Example 3)
• Mainz: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms.^[15] Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm. Sword mass: 1.2 kg - 1.6 kg. (Example 1, Example 2, Video demo)
• Fulham or Mainz-Fulham: The sword that gave the name to the type was dredged from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date to a time after the Roman occupation of Britain began. That would have been after the invasion of Aulus Plautius in 43 CE. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered the conjunction point between Mainz and Pompei. Some consider it an evolution or the same as the Mainz type. Blade length 70 cm blade width: 6 cm at the base, 4 cm in the middle, 7 cm in the end. (Example 1, Example 2)
• Pompei (or Pompeianus or Pompeii): Named by moderns after the Roman town of Pompeii, which was destroyed by volcanic eruption, 79 AD, with great loss of life, despite efforts of the Roman navy to get them out. Four instances of the sword type were found there, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. Original blade length of 60 cm, blade length from circa 75 A.D. of 68 cm - 71 cm. From circa 100 A.D. of 83 cm (semi-spatha). From now on the Roman Gladius will be of middle-length. (Example 1, Example 2)

Mainz is a city in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. ... Aulus Plautius (lived 1st century) was the first governor of Roman Britain, serving from 43 to 47. ... Pompeii is a ruined Roman city near modern Naples in the Italian region of Campania, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. ...

Scabbard

Roman scabbards were made of wood covered with leather and were decorated with a frame made of brass or iron.

The Latin word for the scabbard is vagina and some weapons experts and enthusiasts refer to the scabbard of a gladius by this Latin word. It acquired its modern meaning by means of a simple metaphor. The Romans generally did not use this word in its anatomical sense, but it does show up as a joke in Plautus, Pseudolus 4.7.85: "Did the soldier's 'sword' fit well into your 'sheath'?" The vagina, (from Latin, literally sheath or scabbard ) is the tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in female placental mammals and marsupials, or to the cloaca in female birds, monotremes, and some reptiles. ... Look up metaphor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Titus Macchius Plautus, generally referred to simply as Plautus, was a playwright of Ancient Rome. ... The main character in Broadways A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum Which is based on a number of Plautus plays. ...

Hilt

The hilt of a Roman sword was the capulus. It was often ornate, especially the sword-hilts of officers and dignitaries.

Symbolism

The gladius is frequently depicted in coats of arms, especially of military corps. A modern coat of arms is derived from the medi val practice of painting designs onto the shield and outer clothing of knights to enable them to be identified in battle, and later in tournaments. ...

Coat of arms of the former municipality of Donath, showing the Pompeii gladius. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Donat is a municipality in the Swiss canton of Graubünden. ...

Coat of Arms of Mscisłaŭ, Belarus, showing the Hispanic gladius. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Coat of arms of Kostrzyn, Poland, the Pompeii gladius. Image File history File links POL_Kostrzyn_COA.svg‎ pl: Herb Kostrzyn File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Greater Poland Voivodeship Gladius ...

Notes

Julius Pokorny (1887&#8211;1970) was born in Prague and studied at Vienna university. ... Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies Indo-European is originally a linguistic term, referring to the Indo-European language family. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe. ...

References

• Significant Contributions in the Study of European Arms and Armor, bibliography by the Arms and Armor Society of America.
• Armamentarium: subject bibliographies: swords
• John William Humphrey, John Peter Oleson, Andrew Neil Sherwood, Greek and Roman Technology: a sourcebook

External links

The articles in the links below often differ both in theory and in detail. They should not necessarily be understood as fully professional articles but should be appreciated for their presentational value.

Pictures of ancient swords

• Legion VI's pictures of some real Roman gear
• Roman Military Equipment at the Roman Numismatic Gallery (romancoins.info)

Reenactments, reconstructions, experimental archaeology

• Legio IX Hispana: photos of historical reconstructionists drawing and holding gladii.
• Legio XX Gladius page
• Legio XXIV Gladiator page
• The Roman Legionary and His Equipment in The First Century AD: An Assessment of the findings of The Ermine Street Guard.

Articles on the history or manufacture of the sword

• Iron of the Empire: The History and Development of the Roman Gladius (myArmoury.com article)
• James Hurst, THE ROMAN SWORD IN THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD AND AFTER
• Janet Lang, Study of the Metallography of Some Roman Swords
• Niko Silvester, FROM RAPIER TO LANGSAX: Sword Structure in the British Isles in the Bronze and Iron Ages
• Richard F. Burton, THE SWORD AMONGST THE BARBARIANS (EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE).
• La cuestion del gladius hispaniensis, Spanish language, Celtiberia site.
• Iron Age, Power Point presentation.
• Industrial Chemical Processes of Iron and Steel, intute site.
• Ancient sword cuts a dash (Royal Armouries Museum)

See also

This article is part of the series on: Image File history File links Rmn-military-header. ... Military of ancient Rome (Portal) 800 BC - AD 476 For the military of the East Roman Empire after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, see Byzantine military The Military of ancient Rome (known to the Romans as the militia) relates to the combined military forces of Ancient Rome from the founding of the city of Rome to the...

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