Glass can be made transparent and flat, or into other shapes and colors as shown in this sphere from the Verrerie of Brehat in Brittany.

Glass is a uniform material of arguable phase, usually produced when the viscous molten material cools very rapidly to below its glass transition temperature, without sufficient time for a regular crystal lattice to form. The most familiar form of glass is the Silica-based material used for household objects such as light bulbs and windows. Author: Chmouel Boudjnah. ... Author: Chmouel Boudjnah. ... The Verreries de Bréhat - Glass Studio of Bréhat - are settled in the Citadel, old fortress of the small island of Bréhat, located a few hundred yards from the north coast of Britanny. ... Brittany has an expansive coastline Flag of Brittany (Gwenn-ha-du) Historical province of Brittany région of Bretagne, see Bretagne. ... A material’s glass transition temperature, Tg, is the temperature below which molecules have little relative mobility. ... Quartz crystal Copper(II) sulfate and iodine crystal Synthetic bismuth crystal Insulin crystals Gallium, a metal that easily forms large single crystals A huge monocrystal of potassium dihydrogen phosphate grown from solution by Saint-Gobain for the megajoule laser of CEA. In chemistry and mineralogy, a crystal is a solid... The chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is the oxide of silicon, chemical formula SiO2. ... The light bulb is one of the most significant inventions in the history of the human race, illuminating the darkness of the evening and bringing light indoors at all times in order focus on the task at hand. ... A window is an opening in an otherwise solid and opaque surface through which light and, sometimes, air can pass. ...

Glass is a biologically inactive material that can be formed into smooth and impervious surfaces. When in tension, glass is brittle and will break into sharp shards. When in compression, pure glass can withstand a great amount of force. The properties of glass can be modified or changed with the addition of other compounds or heat treatment. Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology (from Greek Βìο meaning life and Λoγος meaning the study of) is the study of life. ... Heat Treatment is a technique used to alter the physical (and sometimes chemical) properties of a material. ...

Common glass contains about 70-72 weight % of silicon dioxide (SiO₂). The major raw material is sand (or "quartz sand") that contains almost 100% of crystalline silica in the form of quartz. Although it is almost pure quartz, it may still contain a small amount (< 1%) of iron oxides that would color the glass, so this sand is usually enriched in the factory to reduce the iron oxide amount to < 0.05%. Large natural single crystals of quartz are purer silicon dioxide, and upon crushing are used for high quality specialty glasses. Synthetic amorphous silica (practically 100% pure) is the raw material for the most expensive specialty glasses. R-phrases R42 R43 R49 S-phrases S22 S36 S37 S45 S53 Flash point non-flammable Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silicon, Si, 14 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 14, 3, p Appearance as coarse powder, dark gray with bluish tinge Atomic mass 28. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Atomic mass 15. ... Quartz is one of the most common minerals in the Earths continental crust. ...

Properties and uses

The types and uses of glass for scientific and technical purposes are myriad, and range from applications involving the smallest of devices such as DNA microarrays to football field sized enormously powerful neodymium doped glass (as shown above) lasers used for laser fusion applications.

The most obvious characteristic of ordinary glass is that it is transparent to visible light (not all glassy materials are). This transparency is due to an absence of electronic transition states in the range of visible light, and because ordinary glass is homogeneous on all length scales greater than about a wavelength of visible light. (Heterogeneities cause light to be scattered, breaking up any coherent image transmission). Ordinary glass partially blocks UVA (wavelength between 400 and 300 nm) and completely blocks UVC and UVB (wavelengths shorter than 300 nm) due to the addition of compounds such as soda ash (sodium carbonate). History of neodymium laser glass development at LLNL Template:PD US-Gov File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... History of neodymium laser glass development at LLNL Template:PD US-Gov File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Example of an approximately 40,000 probe spotted oligo microarray with enlarged inset to show detail. ... General Name, Symbol, Number neodymium, Nd, 60 Chemical series lanthanides Group, Period, Block n/a, 6, f Appearance silvery white, yellowish tinge Atomic mass 144. ... For alternative meanings see laser (disambiguation). ... In inertial confinement fusion (ICF), nuclear fusion reactions are initiated by heating and compressing a target – a pellet that most often contains deuterium and tritium – by the use of intense laser or ion beams. ... The transition state of a chemical reaction is a particular configuration along the reaction coordinate. ... Prism splitting light Light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength that is visible to the eye (visible light) or, in a technical or scientific context, electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength[1]. The elementary particle that defines light is the photon. ... Uva is a three-letter abbreviation with multiple meanings, as described below: Uva Province in Sri Lanka Uva is a parish in the Portuguese municipality of Vimioso Ultraviolet-A rays (UV-A) Ultraviolet Light Absorber University of Virginia (UVa), in the United States Universiteit van Amsterdam (UvA), one of the... A metre (American spelling: meter; symbol: m) is a unit of length and the current base unit of length in the International System of Units (SI). ... UVC is an abbreviation with several meanings: ultraviolet Universal Virtual Computer This is a disambiguation page &#8212; a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ... A metre (American spelling: meter; symbol: m) is a unit of length and the current base unit of length in the International System of Units (SI). ... Sodium carbonate or soda ash, Na2CO3, is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. ...

Pure SiO₂ glass (also called fused quartz) does not absorb UV light and is used for applications that require transparency in this region, although it is more expensive. This type of glass can be made so pure that when made into fibre optic cables, hundreds of kilometres of glass are transparent at infrared wavelengths. Individual fibres are given an equally transparent core of SiO₂/GeO₂ glass, which has only slightly different optical properties (the germanium contributing to a higher index of refraction). Undersea cables have sections doped with erbium, which amplify transmitted signals by laser emission from within the glass itself. Amorphous SiO₂ is also used as a dielectric material in integrated circuits due to the smooth and electrically neutral interface it forms with silicon. Fused quartz or fused silica are types of glass containing primarily silica in amorphous (non-crystalline) form. ... Fiber Optic strands An optical fiber in American English or fibre in British English is a transparent thin fiber for transmitting light. ... Image of two girls in mid-infrared (thermal) light (false color) Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of radio waves. ... General Name, Symbol, Number germanium, Ge, 32 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 14, 4, p Appearance grayish white Atomic mass 72. ... The refractive index of a material is the factor by which electromagnetic radiation is slowed down (relative to vacuum) when it travels inside the material. ... Cross-section of a submarine communications cable. ... General Name, Symbol, Number erbium, Er, 68 Chemical series lanthanides Group, Period, Block n/a, 6, f Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 167. ... In telecommunication, an optical amplifier is a device that amplifies an optical signal directly, without the need to convert it to an electrical signal, or amplify it electrically, and reconvert it to an optical signal. ... A LASER (acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is an optical source that emits photons in a coherent beam. ... A dielectric, or electrical insulator, is a substance that is highly resistant to electric current. ... Integrated circuit showing memory blocks, logic and input/output pads around the periphery Microchips with a transparent window showing the integrated circuit inside. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silicon, Si, 14 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 14, 3, p Appearance as coarse powder, dark gray with bluish tinge Atomic mass 28. ...

Glasses used for making optical devices are categorized using a six-digit glass code, or alternatively a letter-number code from the Schott Glass catalogue. For example, BK7 is a low-dispersion borosilicate crown glass, and SF10 is a high-dispersion dense flint glass. The glasses are arranged by composition, refractive index, and Abbe number. Table of Opticks, 1728 Cyclopaedia Optics ( appearance or look in ancient Greek) is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter. ... A glass code is a method of classifying glasses for optical use, such as the manufacture of lenses and prisms. ... Schott Glass AG is a manufacturer of high-quality industrial glass products, such as fiber-optics and components used in flat panel displays. ... Dispersion of a light beam in a prism. ... It has been suggested that Kimax be merged into this article or section. ... Crown glass is a type of optical glass used in lenses. ... Flint glass is an optical glass that has relatively high refractive index and low Abbe number. ... In physics and optics, the Abbe number, also known as the V-number or constringence of a transparent material is a measure of the materials dispersion (variation of refractive index with wavelength). ...

Glass is sometimes created naturally from volcanic magma. This glass is called obsidian, and is usually black with impurities. Obsidian is a raw material for flintknappers, who have used it to make extremely sharp knives since the stone age. Collecting obsidian from national parks and other locations may be prohibited by law in some countries, but the same toolmaking techniques can be applied to industrially-made glass. Magma is molten rock located beneath the surface of the Earth (or any other rocky planet), and which often collects in a magma chamber. ... Obsidian from Lake County, Oregon Counterclockwise from top: obsidian, pumice and rhyolite (light color) Obsidian is a rock which is a type of naturally occurring glass, produced by volcanoes (igneous origin) when a felsic lava cools rapidly and freezes without sufficient time for crystal growth (see glass transition temperature). ... A flintknapper is an individual who shapes flint or other stone through the process of knapping or lithic reduction, to manufacture stone tools, strikers for flintlock firearms, or to produce flat-faced stones for building or facing walls. ... In electron microscopy, glass knives are used to make the ultrathin sections needed for imaging. ... Stone Age fishing hook. ... Obsidian from Lake County, Oregon Counterclockwise from top: obsidian, pumice and rhyolite (light color) Obsidian is a rock which is a type of naturally occurring glass, produced by volcanoes (igneous origin) when a felsic lava cools rapidly and freezes without sufficient time for crystal growth (see glass transition temperature). ...

Glass ingredients

Pure silica (SiO₂) has a melting point of about 2,000° C (3,632° F). While pure silica can be made into glass for special applications (see fused quartz), other substances are added to common glass to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃), which lowers the melting point to about 1,000° C (1,832° F); "soda" refers to the original source of sodium carbonate in the soda ash obtained from certain plants. However, the soda makes the glass water soluble, which is usually undesirable, so "lime" (calcium oxide (CaO), generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminum oxide are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 72 percent silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass. Soda-lime glasses account for about 90 percent of manufactured glass. The chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is the oxide of silicon, chemical formula SiO2. ... The melting point of a crystalline solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid. ... Celsius relates to the Celsius or centrigrade temperature scale. ... Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after the German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736), who proposed it in 1724. ... Fused quartz or fused silica are types of glass containing primarily silica in amorphous (non-crystalline) form. ... Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda or soda ash), Na2CO3, is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. ... Look up soda in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Sodium carbonate or soda ash, Na2CO3, is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. ... Lime has several meanings: Look up Lime in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Lime (mineral) - a group of calcium compounds and minerals in which they predominate, including: Limestone Agricultural lime - a mineral soil additive Calcium oxide (also quicklime) - a chemical compound Calcium hydroxide (also slaked lime) - a chemical compound Lime (fruit... Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly known as lime, quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical compound. ... Limey shale overlaid by limestone. ... Soda-lime glass is the kind of glass which is most widely used for various purposes. ...

As well as soda and lime, most common glass has other ingredients added to change its properties. Lead glass, such as lead crystal or flint glass, is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more "sparkles", while boron may be added to change the thermal and electrical properties, as in Pyrex. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion, and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern glasses. Large amounts of iron are used in glass that absorbs infrared energy, such as heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths (biologically damaging ionizing radiation). For PB or pb as an abbreviation, see PB. General Name, Symbol, Number lead, Pb, 82 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 6, p Appearance bluish white Atomic mass 207. ... Lead crystal beads Lead crystal, (also called crystal), is lead glass that has been hand or machine cut with facets. ... Flint glass is an optical glass that has relatively high refractive index and low Abbe number. ... The refractive index (or index of refraction) of a material is the factor by which the phase velocity of electromagnetic radiation is slowed in that material, relative to its velocity in a vacuum. ... General Name, Symbol, Number boron, B, 5 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 13, 2, p Appearance black/brown Atomic mass 10. ... Pyrex is a brand name of borosilicate glass introduced by Corning Glass Works in 1915. ... General Name, Symbol, Number barium, Ba, 56 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, Period, Block 2, 6, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 137. ... Thorium dioxide (ThO2), also called thorium(IV) oxide (IUPAC) is a white, crystalline powder. ... Radioactivity may mean: Look up radioactivity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Lanthanum(III) oxide is a white solid. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... Image of two girls in mid-infrared (thermal) light (false color) Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of radio waves. ... Flash point None R/S statement R: ? S: ? RTECS number  ? Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ...

Glasses that do not include silica as a major constituent are sometimes used for fibre optics and other specialized technical applications. These include fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses. Fiber Optic strands An optical fiber in American English or fibre in British English is a transparent thin fiber for transmitting light. ... A Chalcogenide glass is a glass containing a chalcogenide element (sulphur, selenium or tellurium) as a substantial constituent. ...

In 2006 Italian scientists created a new type of glass using extreme pressure and carbon dioxide. The substance was named amorphous carbonia (a-CO₂) which has an atomic structure resembling that of ordinary window glass ^[1]. Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... Amorphous carbonia, also called a-carbonia or a-CO2, is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass. ...

Glass as a polymer

An innovative way of making glass involves preparation by polymerization. Putting in additives that modify the properties of glass is problematic, because the high temperature of preparation destroys most of them. By polymerizing glass it is possible to embed active molecules, such as enzymes, to add a new level of functionality to the glass vessels. Sol gel is a very good example of glass prepared in this way. This is the article about the process. ... Sol gel is an inorganic, catalytic silicon oxide gel, used for its negative tone photosensitive properties. ...

Colors

Metallic additives in the glass mix can produce a variety of colors. Here cobalt has been added to produce a bluish colored decorative glass.

The inside of a blue glass cup.

Glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, though it can be seen to be green when it is thick, or with the aid of scientific instruments. However, metals and metal oxides can be added to glass during its manufacture to change its color. A small collection of Bristol Blue decorative glassware, hand blown in Bristol, England. ... A small collection of Bristol Blue decorative glassware, hand blown in Bristol, England. ... Color is an important part of the visual arts. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 417 KB) The inside of a weird glass cup, making it appear to be a constellation of stars. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 417 KB) The inside of a weird glass cup, making it appear to be a constellation of stars. ... Color is an important part of the visual arts. ... Mossy, green fountain in Wattens, Austria. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an element that readily forms positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds. ... An oxide is a chemical compound of oxygen with other chemical elements. ...

• Iron(II) oxide results in bluish-green glass, frequently used for beer bottles. Together with chromium it gives a richer green color, used for wine bottles.
• Sulphur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulphides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black. In borosilicate glasses rich in boron, sulphur imparts a blue color. With calcium it yields a deep yellow color. ^[2]
• Manganese can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron, or in higher concentrations to give glass an amethyst color. Manganese is one of the oldest glass additives, and purple manganese glass was used since early Egyptian history.
• Selenium, like manganese, can be used in small concentrations to decolorize glass, or in higher concentrations to impart a reddish color, caused by selenium atoms dispersed in glass. It is a very important agent to make pink and red glass. When used together with cadmium sulfide ^[3], it yields a brilliant red color known as "Selenium Ruby".
• Small concentrations of cobalt (0.025 to 0.1%) yield blue glass. The best results are achieved when using glass containing potash. Very small amounts can be used for decolorizing.
• Tin oxide with antimony and arsenic oxides produce an opaque white glass, first used in Venice to produce an imitation porcelain.
• 2 to 3% of copper oxide produces a turquoise color.
• Pure metallic copper produces a very dark red, opaque glass, which is sometimes used as a substitute for gold in the production of ruby-colored glass.
• Nickel, depending on the concentration, produces blue, or violet, or even black glass. Lead crystal with added nickel acquires purplish color. Nickel together with small amount of cobalt was used for decolorizing of lead glass.
• Chromium is a very powerful colorizing agent, yielding dark green ^[4] or in higher concentrations even black color. Together with tin oxide and arsenic it yields emerald green glass. Chromium aventurine, in which aventurescence was achieved by growth of large parallel chromium(III) oxide plates, was also made from glass with added chromium.
• Cadmium together with sulphur results in deep yellow color, often used in glazes. However, cadmium is toxic.
• Adding titanium produces yellowish-brown glass. Titanium is rarely used on its own, is more often employed to intensify and brighten other colorizing additives.
• Metallic gold, in very small concentrations (around 0.001%), produces a rich ruby-colored glass ("Ruby Gold"), while lower concentrations produces a less intense red, often marketed as "cranberry". The color is caused by the size and dispersion of gold particles. Ruby gold glass is usually made of lead glass with added tin.
• Uranium (0.1 to 2%) can be added to give glass a fluorescent yellow or green color ^[5]. Uranium glass is typically not radioactive enough to be dangerous, but if ground into a powder, such as by polishing with sandpaper, and inhaled, it can be carcinogenic. When used with lead glass with very high proportion of lead, produces a deep red color.
• Silver compounds (notably silver nitrate) can produce a range of colors from orange-red to yellow. The way the glass is heated and cooled can significantly affect the colors produced by these compounds. The chemistry involved is complex and not well understood.

Iron(II) oxide, also called ferrous oxide, is a black-colored powder with the chemical formula FeO. It consists of the element iron in the oxidation state of 2 bonded to oxygen. ... General Name, Symbol, Number chromium, Cr, 24 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 6, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 51. ... Bottles of Wine A wine bottle is a bottle used for holding wine, generally made of glass. ... For the chemical element see: sulfur. ... General Name, Symbol, Number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Atomic mass 12. ... It has been suggested that Kimax be merged into this article or section. ... General Name, Symbol, Number calcium, Ca, 20 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, Period, Block 2, 4, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 40. ... General Name, Symbol, Number manganese, Mn, 25 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 7, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 54. ... Mossy, green fountain in Wattens, Austria. ... For other meanings of the term, see Amethyst. ... Se redirects here. ... Red may be any of a number of similar colours at the lowest frequencies of light discernible by the human eye. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The term blue may refer any of a number of similar colours. ... Potash Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) mixed with other potassium salts. ... Tin oxide (stannous oxide) is a chemical material in state of powder , it can help in whiting and this is the main jop for it , but since the tin is rejected federally , some are stop using it . ... Antimony trioxide is the most important commercial compound of antimony. ... R-phrases , , , S-phrases , , , Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... White rose. ... Venice (Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venexia) is the capital of region Veneto, and has a population of 271,663 (census estimate January 1, 2004). ... Fine China redirects here. ... Copper forms two oxides, copper(I) oxide (cuprous oxide, Cu2O) a red powder and copper(II) oxide (cupric oxide, CuO) a black powder. ... Turquoise (or turquois) is opaque, blue-to-green hydrated copper aluminium phosphate mineral according to the chemical formula CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·5H2O. It is rare and valuable in finer grades and has been enjoyed as a gem and ornamental stone for thousands of years owing to its unique... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Atomic mass 63. ... Ruby is a red gemstone. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic and silvery with a gold tinge Atomic mass 58. ... Violet (named after the flower violet) refers to any of a group of reddish blue or bluish purple colors. ... Unlucky black cat. ... Lead crystal beads Lead crystal, (also called crystal), is lead glass that has been hand or machine cut with facets. ... Lead glass is potassium silicate glass which has been impregnated with lead oxide (from 12% to 28% by weight) in its fabrication. ... General Name, Symbol, Number chromium, Cr, 24 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 6, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 51. ... An emerald color is a shade of green that is particularly light and bright, with a faint bluish cast. ... Aventurine is a form of quartz, characterised by its translucency and the presence of platy mineral occlusions that give a shimmering or glistening effect termed aventurescence. ... In gemology, aventurescence (sometimes called aventurization) is an optical reflectance effect seen in certain gems. ... Chromium(III) oxide, also known as chromium sesquioxide or chromia, is one of four oxides of chromium, chemical formula Cr2O3. ... General Name, Symbol, Number cadmium, Cd, 48 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 5, d Appearance silvery gray metallic Atomic mass 112. ... General Name, Symbol, Number titanium, Ti, 22 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 4, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 47. ... Rubber duckies. ... Brown, when used as a general term, is a color which is a dark orange, red or rose, of very low intensity. ... General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Atomic mass 196. ... Wikibooks has more about this subject: Marketing Marketing is a social and managerial function that attempts to create, expand and maintain a collection of customers. ... Cranberry glass (or Gold Ruby glass as it is known in Europe) is a red glass made by adding gold chloride to the molten glass. ... General Name, Symbol, Number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Atomic mass 238. ... Mossy, green fountain in Wattens, Austria. ... Missing image A selection of uranium glasses Uranium farce, also known as vaseline farce, is a pale yellow or yellow-green glass made by the inclusion of uranium. ... Radioactive decay is the set of various processes by which unstable atomic nuclei emit subatomic particles (radiation). ... In pathology, a carcinogen is any substance or agent that promotes cancer. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d Appearance lustrous white metal Atomic mass 107. ... R-phrases , S-phrases , , , , Flash point non-flammable Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... The colour orange occurs between red and yellow in the visible spectrum at a wavelength of about 585–620 nanometres. ...

Calculation of glass properties

Glass properties can be calculated through statistical analysis of glass databases such as SciGlass and Interglad. If the desired glass property is not related to crystallization (e.g., liquidus temperature) or phase separation linear regression can be applied using common polynomial functions up to the third degree. Below is an example equation of the second degree. The C-values are the glass component concentrations like Na₂O or CaO in percent or other fractions, the b-values are coefficients, and n is the total number of glass components. The glass main component silica (SiO₂) is excluded in the equation below because of over-parametrization due to the constraint that all components sum up to 100%. Many terms in the equation below can be neglected based on correlation and significance analysis. Further details and examples are available at Glassproperties.com. Since the beginning of scientific glass research in the 19th century thousands of glass property-composition datasets were published in the scientific literature, in patents, and other sources. ... Frost crystallization on a shrub. ... The Liquidus Temperature, TL or Tliq, is mostly used for glasses and alloys. ... In the physical sciences, a phase is a set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (i. ... Line of best fit redirects here. ... In mathematics, a polynomial is an expression in which constants and variables are combined using only addition, subtraction, multiplication, and positive whole number exponents (raising to a power). ... The chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is the oxide of silicon, chemical formula SiO2. ...

The liquidus temperature has been modeled using neural networks regression in the following article: C. Dreyfus, G. Dreyfus: "A machine learning approach to the estimation of the liquidus temperature of glass-forming oxide blends"; J. Non-Cryst. Solids, vol. 318, 2003, p 63-78. The Liquidus Temperature, TL or Tliq, is mostly used for glasses and alloys. ... A neural network is an interconnected group of neurons. ...

It is often required to optimize several glass properties simultaneously, including production costs. This can be performed in a spreadsheet as follows:

1. Listing of the desired properties;
2. Entering of models for the reliable calculation of properties based on the glass composition, including a formula for estimating the production costs;
3. Calculation of the squares of the differences (errors) between desired and calculated properties;
4. Reduction of the sum of square errors using the Solver option in Microsoft Excel with the glass components as variables.

It is possible to weight the desired properties differently. Basic information about the principle can be found in the article: N. T. Huff, A. D. Call: "Computerized Prediction of Glass Compositions from Properties"; J. Am. Ceram. Soc., vol. 56, 1973, p 55-57. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

History of glass

Phoenicia and Egypt

A piece of Obsidian

Naturally occurring glass, such as obsidian, has been used since the stone age. According to Pliny the Elder, the Phoenicians made the first glass. Pliny wrote: "The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum (soda and potash) being moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass." ^[6] That the Phoenicians used glass as a glaze for pottery was known as early as 3000 BC. However, there is archaeological evidence to support the claim that the first glass was made in Mesopotamia. Glass beads, seals, and architectural decorations date from around 2500 B.C. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (870x870, 89 KB) Summary A specimen of obsidian from Lake County, Oregon Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Obsidian ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (870x870, 89 KB) Summary A specimen of obsidian from Lake County, Oregon Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Obsidian ... Obsidian from Lake County, Oregon Counterclockwise from top: obsidian, pumice and rhyolite (light color) Obsidian is a rock which is a type of naturally occurring glass, produced by volcanoes (igneous origin) when a felsic lava cools rapidly and freezes without sufficient time for crystal growth (see glass transition temperature). ... Stone Age fishing hook. ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19c portrait. ... Phoenician sarcophagus found in Cadiz, Spain; now in Archaeological Museum of Cádiz. ... Phoenicia was an ancient civilization in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coastal plain of what is now Lebanon and Syria. ...

The color of "natural glass" is green to bluish green. This color is caused by naturally occurring iron impurities in the sand. Common glass today usually has a slight green or blue tint, arising from these same impurities. Glassmakers learned to make colored glass by adding metallic compounds and mineral oxides to produce brilliant hues of red, green, and blue - the colors of gemstones. When gem-cutters learned to cut glass, they found clear glass was an excellent refractor of light. The earliest known beads from Egypt were made during the New Kingdom, about 1500 BC and came in a variety of colors. They were made by winding molten glass around a metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity, especially blue ones because they were reported to have magical powers.

Core-formed amphoriskos (17 cm / 6.7 in tall) 1st century BC, Cyprus

The Egyptians also made small jars and bottles using the core-formed method. Glass threads were wound around a bag of sand tied to a rod and the glass was continually reheated to fuse the threads together. The glass had to be kept in motion until the required shape and thickness was achieved. The final step was to allow the rod to cool then to puncture the bag and remove the rod. The Egyptians also formed the first colored glass rods which they used to create colorful beads and decorations, they also worked with cast glass. ^[7]. By the 5th century BC this technology had spread to at least Greece. In the first century BC there were many glass centres located around the Mediterranean and at the eastern end of the Mediterranean glass blowing, both free-blowing and mould-blowing, was discovered. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1050x1830, 981 KB) Description Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Glass Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1050x1830, 981 KB) Description Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Glass Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used... An inch (plural: inches; symbol or abbreviation: in or, sometimes, ″ - a double prime) is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 5th century BC started on January 1, 500 BC and ended on December 31, 401 BC. // The Parthenon of Athens seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... A glass pipe made by lampworking Hand-blown glass beads and pendants Glassblowing is the process of forming glass into useful shapes while the glass is in a molten, semi-liquid state. ...

Romans

Roman Glass Beaker from the 4th Century A.D.

Roman Glass

The advent of the Roman Empire saw the development of many new techniques and as the Empire spread so did the popularity of glass. Through conquest and trade the use of glass objects and the techniques used for making glass were spread as far as Scandinavia, the British Isles and China. ^[8] This spreading of technology resulted in glass artists congregating in areas such as Alexandria in Egypt where the famous Portland Vase was created, the Rhine Valley where Bohemian glass was developed and to Byzantium where glass designs became very ornate and processes such as enamelling, staining and gilding were developed. At this time many glass objects, such as seals, windows, pipes, and vases were manufactured. Window glass was quite commonly used during the 1st century BC, examples found in Karanis, Egypt were translucent and very thick. After the fall of the Empire, the Emperor Constatine moved to Byzantium where the use of glass continued. However, in the rest of the Empire the use of glass declined and many previously known techniques disappeared. Glass didn't completely go out of use, but it didn't become popular again in the west until its resurgence in the 7th century. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2056x2476, 546 KB) Roman glass baker from second half of the 4th century. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2056x2476, 546 KB) Roman glass baker from second half of the 4th century. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2592x1944, 927 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Glass Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2592x1944, 927 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Glass Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... The Portland Vase The Portland Vase is a first-century Roman glass vase, which served as an inspiration to many glass and porcelain makers from about the beginning of the 18th century onwards. ... The Rhine canyon (Ruinaulta) in Graubünden in Switzerland Length 1. ... Byzantium, present day Istanbul, was an ancient Greek city-state, which according to legend was founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after their king Byzas or Byzantas (Βύζας or Βύζαντας in Greek). ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ...

Europe

Glass objects from the 7th and 8th centuries have been found on the island of Torcello near Venice. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. About 1000 AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use. Torcello is a quiet island at the northern end of the Venetian Lagoon. ... Venice (Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venexia) is the capital of region Veneto, and has a population of 271,663 (census estimate January 1, 2004). ... Potash Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) mixed with other potassium salts. ...

A 16th Century Stained Glass Window

The 11th century saw the emergence, in Germany, of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres, swinging these out to form cylinders, cutting these while still hot, and then flattening the sheets. This technique was perfected in 13th century Venice. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (728x626, 163 KB) Les Andelys, church Notre Dame, stain glass, 16th century, Normandy. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (728x626, 163 KB) Les Andelys, church Notre Dame, stain glass, 16th century, Normandy. ...

The 11th century also saw the emergence of glass mirrors in Islamic Spain. A mirror, reflecting a vase. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711&#8211;1492). ...

Until the 12th century, stained glass (i.e., glass with some coloring impurities, usually metals) was not widely used. Strictly speaking, stained glass is glass that has been painted with silver stain and then fired. ...

The centre for glass making from the 14th century was Venice in the island of Murano, which developed many new techniques and became the centre of a lucrative export trade in dinner ware, mirrors, and other luxury items. What made Venetian Murano Glass significantly different was that the local quartz pebbles were almost pure silica and were ground into a fine clear sand that was combined with soda ash obtained from the Levant, for which the Venetians held the sole monopoly. This resulted in the Venetians producing a superior form of glass which resulted in them having a trade advantage over other glass producing lands. Venice (Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venexia) is the capital of region Veneto, and has a population of 271,663 (census estimate January 1, 2004). ... A shop with boats, Murano Murano is usually described as an island in the Venetian Lagoon, although like Venice itself it is actually an archipelago of islands linked by bridges. ... A mirror, reflecting a vase. ... The chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is the oxide of silicon, chemical formula SiO2. ... Sodium carbonate or soda ash, Na2CO3, is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. ... The Levant The Levant is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ...

History of Murano Glassmaking

Murano’s reputation as a center for glassmaking was born when the Venetian Republic, fearing fire and destruction to the city’s mostly wood buildings, ordered glassmakers to move their foundries to Murano in 1291. Murano glass is still interwoven with Venetian glass. Murano's glassmakers were soon the island’s most prominent citizens. By the 14th century, glass makers were allowed to wear swords, enjoyed immunity from prosecution by the Venetian state and found their daughters married into Venice’s most affluent families. Of course there was a catch: Glassmakers weren't allowed to leave the Republic. However, many craftsmen took this risk and set up glass furnaces in surrounding cities and as far afield as England and the Netherlands. Murano’s glassmakers held a monopoly on quality glassmaking for centuries, developing or refining many technologies including crystalline glass, enameled glass (smalto), glass with threads of gold (aventurine), multicolored glass (millefiori), milk glass (lattimo), and imitation gemstones made of glass. Today, the artisans of Murano are still employing these century-old techniques, crafting everything from contemporary art glass and glass jewelry to murano glass chandeliers and wine stoppers. The Promovetro Consortium [1] was set up in 1985 to safeguard, promote and defend original glass production on the island of Murano, always a synonym for unique quality and style. The introduction of the Vetro Artistico® Murano mark [2] represents a fundamental milestone for the Consortium which has been its sole administrator in Italy and abroad since 2001. The Consortium is the only body representing the Murano glassworks who can affix the origin mark to their products to make them recognisable on the market in an effort to oppose the numerous attempts at speculation and imitation which damage this Made in Italy symbol. The Consortium, authentic custodian of the Murano art, is committed to defending the glass making tradition of Murano by providing information to the consumer and through initiatives aimed at heightening public awareness of this unique, precious and inimitable product. A shop with boats, Murano Murano is usually described as an island in the Venetian Lagoon, although like Venice itself it is actually an archipelago of islands linked by bridges. ... Located off the shore of Venice, Italy, the island of Murano was a commercial port as far back as the 7th Century. ...

English glass was still sufficiently poor that anything a witness saw through a closed window was not admissible as evidence in court until the late 1700s. Eventually some of the Venetian glass workers moved to other areas of northern Europe and glass making spread with them.

The Crown glass process was used up to the mid-1800s. In this process, the glassblower would spin around 9 pound (4 kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk would then be cut into panes. Venetian glass was highly prized between the 10th and 14th centuries. Around 1688, a process for casting glass was developed, which led to its becoming a much more commonly used material. The invention of the glass pressing machine in 1827 allowed the mass production of inexpensive glass articles. Crown glass is either of two kinds of glass. ... The avoirdupois system is a system of weights defining terms such as pound and ounce. ... A foot (plural: feet or foot;[1] symbol or abbreviation: ft or, sometimes, ′ – a prime) is a unit of length, in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... The metre, or meter (U.S.), is a measure of length. ...

The cylinder method of creating flat glass was first used in the United States of America in the 1820s. It was used to commercially produce windows. This and other types of hand-blown sheet glass was replaced in the 20th century by rolled plate. Cylinder blown sheet is a type of hand-blown window glass. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901&#8211;2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900&#8211;1999...

See also: Broad sheet, Blown plate, Polished plate, Cylinder blown sheet, Machine drawn cylinder sheet Broad sheet is a type of hand-blown glass. ... Blown plate is one of many types of hand-blown glass. ... Polished plate is a type of hand-blown glass. ... Cylinder blown sheet is a type of hand-blown window glass. ... Machine drawn cylinder sheet was the first mechanical method for drawing window glass. ...

Glass artifacts

Since glass is strong and non-reactive, it is a very useful material. Many household objects are made of glass. Drinking glasses, bowls, and bottles are often made of glass, as are light bulbs, mirrors, cathode ray tubes, and windows. In laboratories doing research in chemistry, biology, physics and many other fields, flasks, test tubes, lenses and other laboratory equipment are often made of glass. For these applications, borosilicate glass (such as Pyrex) is usually used for its strength and low coefficient of thermal expansion, which gives greater resistance to thermal shock and allows for greater accuracy in laboratory measurements when heating and cooling experiments. For the most demanding applications, quartz glass is used, although it is very difficult to work. Most such glass is mass-produced using various industrial processes, but most large laboratories need so much custom glassware that they keep a glassblower on staff. Volcanic glasses, such as obsidian, have long been used to make stone tools, and flint knapping techniques can easily be adapted to mass-produced glass. The light bulb is one of the most significant inventions in the history of the human race, illuminating the darkness of the evening and bringing light indoors at all times in order focus on the task at hand. ... A mirror, reflecting a vase. ... The cathode ray tube or CRT, invented by Karl Ferdinand Braun, is the display device used in most computer displays, televisions and oscilloscopes. ... A window is an opening in an otherwise solid and opaque surface through which light and, sometimes, air can pass. ... Michael Faraday, 19th century physicist and chemist, in his lab. ... Chemistry (from Persian language کیمیا Kimia and Greek χημεία khemeia[1] meaning alchemy) is the science of matter at the atomic to molecular scale, dealing primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. ... Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology (from Greek Βìο meaning life and Λoγος meaning the study of) is the study of life. ... Physics (from the Greek, (phúsis), nature and (phusiké), knowledge of nature) is the science concerned with the discovery and understanding of the fundamental laws which govern matter, energy, space, and time. ... Look up flask in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A test tube (Sometimes culture tube) is a kind of laboratory glassware, composed of a fingerlike length of glass tubing, open at the top, sometimes with a rounded lip at the top, and a rounded U shaped bottom. ... A lens. ... It has been suggested that Kimax be merged into this article or section. ... Pyrex is a brand name of borosilicate glass introduced by Corning Glass Works in 1915. ... During heat transfer, the energy that is stored in the intermolecular bonds between atoms changes. ... Thermal shock is the name given to cracking as a result of rapid temperature change. ... Quartz is one of the most common minerals in the Earths continental crust. ... Mass production (also called flow production or repetitive flow production) is the production of large amounts of standardized products on production lines. ... Sculpting hot blown glas, glowing due to blackbody radiation. ... Obsidian from Lake County, Oregon Counterclockwise from top: obsidian, pumice and rhyolite (light color) Obsidian is a rock which is a type of naturally occurring glass, produced by volcanoes (igneous origin) when a felsic lava cools rapidly and freezes without sufficient time for crystal growth (see glass transition temperature). ... A modern hammer is directly descended from ancient hand tools A tool or device is a piece of equipment which typically provides a mechanical advantage in accomplishing a physical task. ... Flint tools were made by stone age peoples worldwide. ...

Glass art

Main article: Glass art

Glass sculpture by Dale Chihuly at a 2005 exhibition sponsored by GlaxoSmithKline in Kew Gardens, London, England. The piece is 13 feet (4 m) high

Hand-blown glass beads and pendants illustrate some of the myriad colors and shapes of glass art. The Canadian Nickel is for scale.

Even with the availability of common glassware, hand blown or lampworked glassware remains popular for its artistry. Some artists in glass include Dale Chihuly, Lino Tagliapietra, Kenji Ito, Hans Godo Frabel, Rene Lalique, and Louis Comfort Tiffany, who were responsible for extraordinary glass objects. The term "crystal glass", derived from rock crystal, has come to denote high-grade colorless glass, often containing lead, and is sometimes applied to any fine hand-blown glass such as Edinburgh Crystal and other brands. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Art glass. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1432x1536, 249 KB) A glass sculpture “The Sun” at the “Gardens of Glass” exhibition in Kew Gardens, London, England. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1432x1536, 249 KB) A glass sculpture “The Sun” at the “Gardens of Glass” exhibition in Kew Gardens, London, England. ... Dale Chihuly. ... Kew Gardens is the name of several places: Kew Gardens is a commonly-used name for the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, London, United Kingdom Kew Gardens is the name of a park in The Beaches neighborhood of Toronto, Ontario, Canada Kew Gardens is also the name of a neighborhood... Image File history File links Glass-beads. ... Image File history File links Glass-beads. ... A Canadian nickel is a coin worth five cents, patterned on the corresponding coin in the neighbouring United States, and introduced in Canada in 1922. ... Lampwork glass beads. ... Dale Chihuly. ... Lino Tagliapietra (b. ... Hans Godo Frabel Hans Godo Frabel (b. ... René Jules Lalique was born in Ay, Marne, France on April 6, 1860, and died May 5, 1945. ... Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848-1933) circa 1908 Louis Comfort Tiffany (February 18, 1848 – January 17, 1933) was an American artist and designer who is best known for his work in stained glass and is the American artist most associated with the Art Nouveau and Aesthetic movements. ... Edinburgh Crystal is a world-famous, high quality, cut glass manufactured since 1867. ...

Someone who works with hot glass is called a glassblower or lampworker, and these techniques are how most fine glassware is created. Warm glass refers to the technique of manipulating glass in a kiln . Sculpting hot blown glas, glowing due to blackbody radiation. ... Lampwork glass beads. ...

Cold work includes traditional stained glass work as well as other methods of shaping glass at room temperature. Glass can also be cut with a diamond saw, or copper wheels embedded with abrasives, and polished to give gleaming facets; the technique used in creating waterford crystal. Art is sometimes etched into glass via the use of acid, caustic, or abrasive substances. Traditionally this was done after the glass was blown or cast. In the 1920s a new mould-etch process was invented, in which art was etched directly into the mould, so that each cast piece emerged from the mould with the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of colored glass, led to cheap glassware in the 1930s, which later became known as Depression glass. As the types of acids used in this process are extremely hazardous, abrasive methods have gained popularity. The world-famous Waterford Crystal Ball is lowered in Times Square, New York City, on New Years Eve Waterford Crystal is a trademark brand of crystal glassware produced in Waterford, Ireland, by the company Waterford Wedgwood plc. ...

Objects made out of glass include vessels (bowls, vases, bottles, and other containers), paperweights, marbles, beads, smoking pipes, bongs, and sculptures. Colored glass is often used, though sometimes the glass is painted; notable examples of painted glass include the work of contemporary artists Judith Schaechter and Walter Lieberman. Innumerable examples exist of the use of stained glass, such as those by John La Farge in Boston's Trinity Church, or the life-sized sculptures among the fine art of Jim Gary. Look up Bowl in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Chinese vase A vase with a sunflower pattern A modern designed vase The vase is an open container, often used to hold cut flowers. ... Reusable glass milk bottles A bottle is a small container with a neck that is narrower than the body and a mouth. ... Paperweights made for the collector are of solid glass, generally having a flat base and a domed top, which acts Rick Ayotte Fruit Weight something like a lens to magnify and make the parts within move in an interesting and attractive way as it is handled. ... Hand-made marbles from West Africa Different glass marbles from a glass-mill For other uses, see Marbles (disambiguation). ... Look up bead in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Youth with pipe, by Hendrick Jansz Terbrugghen A smoking pipe is a device used for smoking combustible substances such as tobacco and cannabis. ... A bong, also commonly known as a water pipe, is a smoking device, generally used to smoke cannabis, but also other substances[1][2]. It is sometimes confused with a hookah pipe. ... A sculpture is a three-dimensional object, which for the purposes of this article is man-made and selected for special recognition as art. ... Strictly speaking, stained glass is glass that has been painted with silver stain and then fired. ... John LaFarge (March 31, 1835&#8211;November 14, 1910) was a painter,stained glass window maker, decorator, and writer. ... Jim Gary (March 17, 1939 – January 14, 2006) was an American sculptor popularly known for his large, colorful creations of dinosaurs made from discarded automobile parts and was recognized internationally for his fine, architectural, landscape, and whimsical monumental art. ...

The Harvard Museum of Natural History has a collection of extremely detailed models of flowers made of painted glass. These were lampworked by Leopold Blaschka and his son Rudolph, who never revealed the method he used to make them. The Blaschka Glass Flowers are still an inspiration to glassblowers today. See the Harvard Museum of Natural History's page on the exhibit for further information. Harvard Museum of Natural History complex The Harvard Museum of Natural History is a natural history museum on the grounds of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. ... Lampwork glass beads. ... The Glass Flowers at Harvard, formally The Ware Collection of Blaschka Glass Models of Plants, is a famous collection at the Harvard Museum of Natural History in Cambridge, Massachusetts. ... The Glass Flowers at Harvard, formally The Ware Collection of Blaschka Glass Models of Plants, is a famous collection at the Harvard Museum of Natural History in Cambridge, Massachusetts. ...

Stained glass is an art form with a long history; many churches have beautiful stained-glass windows. Strictly speaking, stained glass is glass that has been painted with silver stain and then fired. ...

Glass in buildings

Main articles: Architectural Glass, Glazing in architecture, and Window

Glass has been used in buildings since the 11th century. Uses for glass in buildings include as a transparent material for windows, as internal glazed partitions and as architectural features. Architectural glass has been used in buildings since the 11th century. ... Glazing, in architecture, is a transparent part of a wall, usually made of glass or plastic (acrylic and polycarbonate). ... A window is an opening in an otherwise solid and opaque surface through which light and, sometimes, air can pass. ...

Glass in buildings can be of a safety type, including wired, toughened and laminated glasses. Glass fibre insulation is common in roofs and walls. Foamed glass, made from waste glass, can be used as lightweight, closed-cell insulation.

As insulation, glass (e.g. fiberglass) is also used. Coming in long, fluffy-looking sheet, it is commonly found in homes. fiberglass insulation is used particularly in attics - this is given an R-rating, denoting the insulating ability.

Glass in vehicles

Main article: Car glass

Power windows or electric windows are automobile windows which can be raised and lowered by depressing a button or switch, as opposed to using a hand-turned crank handle. ...

Glass as a liquid

This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the talk page for details.

Glass is generally treated as an amorphous solid rather than a liquid, though different views can be justified since characterizing glass as either 'solid' or 'liquid' is not an entirely straightforward matter [3]. However, the notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis. Image File history File links Circle-question. ... An amorphous solid is a solid in which there is no long-range order of the positions of the atoms. ...

A myth does exist that glass rods and tubes can bend under their own weight over time. To check it, in the 1920s, Robert John Rayleigh, son of the Nobel Prize winner John William Rayleigh, conducted an experiment on a 1 metre (~39 in) long, 5 millimetre (~3/16 in) thick glass rod, which was supported horizontally on two pins with a 300 gram (~0.66 lb) weight in the middle. Apart from the initial bending of 28 millimetre (~1.1 in), the position of the weight did not change until the end of the experiment, which lasted for 7 years. At the same time, another man, a worker of General Electric named K. D. Spenser, conducted a similar experiment independently. Two months after Rayleigh, he published his own results which also disproved the myth. Spenser suggested that the myth was composed before the 1920s, when the tubes were made by hand, and naturally some of them were curved to begin with. Over time the straight tubes were taken away, and only the curved ones remained. Some people probably thought it was the glass flowing. John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (12 November 1842 – 30 June 1919) was a British physicist who (with William Ramsay) discovered the element argon, an achievement that earned him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904. ... GE redirects here. ...

One of the main reasons people believe glass to be a liquid is its apparent lack of a melting point. There is no temperature at which it simply melts, the viscosity just decreases as temperature rises. [4]

There is no clear answer to the question "Is glass solid or liquid?". In terms of molecular dynamics and thermodynamics it is possible to justify various different views that it is a highly viscous liquid, an amorphous solid, or simply that glass is another state of matter which is neither liquid nor solid.

Behavior of antique glass

The observation that old windows are often thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a matter of centuries. It is then assumed that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape, which is a property of liquid.

The likely source of this belief is that when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the Crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk would be thicker because of centrifugal forces. When actually installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed thicker side down for the sake of stability and visual sparkle. Occasionally such glass has been found thinner side down, as would be caused by carelessness at the time of installation. Sculpting hot blown glas, glowing due to blackbody radiation. ... Centrifugal force (from Latin centrum center and fugere to flee) is a term which may refer to two different forces which are related to rotation. ...

Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness. Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness. Float glass is made by melting raw materilas consisting of sand, limestone, soda ash, dolomite, iron oxide and salt cake. ...

Several other points indicate that the 'cathedral glass' theory is misconceived:

• Writing in the American Journal of Physics^[9], physicist Edgar D. Zanotto states "...the predicted relaxation time for GeO₂ at room temperature is 10³² years. Hence, the relaxation period (characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even longer" (Am. J. Phys, 66(5):392-5, May 1998). In layman's terms, he wrote that glass at room temperature is very strongly on the solid side of the spectrum from solids to liquids.
• If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and Egyptian objects should have flowed proportionately more—but this is not observed.
• If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye after centuries, then changes in optical telescope mirrors should be observable (by interferometry) in a matter of days—but this also is not observed. Similarly, it should not be possible to see Newton's rings between decade-old fragments of window glass—but this can in fact be quite easily done.
• Glass in refracting telescopes, with objective lenses of large diameter, are observed to sag under their own weight (causing a loss of focus), but this is due to elastic deformation and not because of the glass flowing over time; this (along with chromatic aberration and other effects) limits the size of refracting telescopes, with the largest refractor in the world being the Yerkes Observatory telescope with a diameter of 102 centimetres (40 in).
• The "cathedral glass" phenomenon that is often cited as a demonstration of flow generally refers to old leaded glass windows in churches. The windows often appear to have sagged at their bottoms. On closer examination, it is found that the individual pieces of glass have remained flat, and that the bending has occurred at the soft lead "cames" that join the pieces. This bending may be largely due to successive thermal expansions and contractions of the glass over time, combined with the constant weight of the glass above. The lead cames are essentially plastic; that is, they tend not to recover their original shape after being distorted. Thus, successive temperature fluctuations are able to create progressive deformations, and the illusion of flow.

The American Journal of Physics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Association of Physics Teachers devoted to the educational and cultural aspects of physics. ... Dr. Edgar Dutra Zanotto, PhD., is a Materials Engineer from UFSCar - Universidade Federal de São Carlos (Federal University of Sao Carlos - Brazil). He currently teaches glass related subjects in that University for both graduation and post-graduation as he is the head of LaMaV, the Vitreous Materials Laboratory. ... It has been suggested that Optical interferometry be merged into this article or section. ... The phenomenon of Newtons rings is an interference pattern caused by the reflection of light between two surfaces - a spherical surface and an adjacent flat surface. ... Image of a refracting telescope from the Cincinnati Observatory in 1848 A refracting or refractor telescope is a dioptric telescope that uses a lens as its objective to form an image. ... In engineering mechanics, deformation is a change in shape due to an applied force. ... Chromatic aberration is caused by the dispersion of the lens material, the variation of its refractive index n with the wavelength of light. ... The Yerkes Observatory is an astronomy observatory of the University of Chicago, in Williams Bay, Wisconsin. ...

Comparison with pitch

Note that pitch, another seemingly-solid material, is in fact a highly viscous liquid, 100 billion times as viscous as water. This property can be seen in the University of Queensland's pitch drop experiment, where each drop has taken approximately 10 years to fall into the beaker. The pitch drop experiment. ... Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deformation under shear stress. ... One thousand million (1,000,000,000) is the natural number following 999,999,999 and preceding 1,000,000,001. ... The University of Queensland (UQ) is the longest-established university in the state of Queensland, Australia, and a member of Australias Group of Eight. ... The pitch drop experiment at the University of Queensland. ...

See also

A decorative glass store in Rome

• Aluminium oxynitride
• Acrylic
• Art glass
• Aerogel
• Murano glass
• Venetian Glass
• Beveled glass
• Blenko Glass Company
• Bulletproof glass
• Crystal glass
• Edinburgh crystal
• Favrile iridescent glass - Tiffany's technique to make stained glass art
• Fiberglass
• Float glass
• Fire polishing
• Glass container industry
• Glass-reinforced plastic
• Glass recycling
• Lexan
• Magnifying glass
• Marvering
• Metallic glass
• Obsidian (volcanic glass)
• Opaline glass
• Prince Rupert's Drops
• Pyrex
• Recycling glass
• Sea glass
• Stained glass
• Trinitite
• Tyrone Crystal
• Waterford Crystal
• Water glass

Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1152x864, 464 KB) Summary My picture in Rome, Italy. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1152x864, 464 KB) Summary My picture in Rome, Italy. ... Nickname: The Eternal City Motto: SPQR: Senatus PopulusQue Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area    - City 1285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban... Alon can be several things: Alon Corporation, an aircraft manufacturer Alon USA aluminium oxynitride (AlON), known under the trade name ALON This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... Look up acrylic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Located off the shore of Venice, Italy, the island of Murano was a commercial port as far back as the 7th Century. ... Venetian glass is a type of glass object made in Venice, Italy, world-renowned for being colorful, elaborate, and skilfully made. ... Beveled glass is usually made by taking one-quarter inch-thick clear glass and creating a one-inch bevel on both sides around the entire periphery. ... Blenko Glass Company, known for its artistic hand-blown glass, is located in Milton, West Virginia. ... Strictly, Bulletproof glass would be glass that is capable of stopping all manner of bullets fired at it. ... Lead crystal beads Lead crystal, (also called crystal), is lead glass that has been hand or machine cut with facets. ... Edinburgh Crystal is a world-famous, high quality, cut glass manufactured since 1867. ... Favrile iridescent glass is a type of art glass patented in 1880 by Louis Comfort Tiffany. ... Bundle of fiberglass Fiberglass or glassfibre is material made from extremely fine fibers of glass. ... Float glass is made by melting raw materilas consisting of sand, limestone, soda ash, dolomite, iron oxide and salt cake. ... An oxyhydrogen flame is the flame attending the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen, and is characterized by a very high temperature. ... Glass bottles for cucumber slices Glass containers are a common part of everyday life - we enjoy beverages such as water, soft drink, juice, beer, wine, spirit from bottles - jams and spreads from jars. ... The composite Rutan VariEze, a home-build light aircraft Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), is a composite material or fiber-reinforced plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine fibers made of glass. ... Glass recycling is the process of turning waste glass into usable products. ... Bottles made of Lexan LEXAN® is a registered trademark for General Electric Companys brand of highly-durable polycarbonate resin thermoplastic intended to replace glass where strength justifies its cost. ... A magnifying glass A magnifying glass is a single convex lens which is used to produce a magnified image of an object. ... Rolling hot glass on a metal surface to add a skin of cool semi-solid glass that allows control over the rate at which a bubble within the glass expands. ... This article or section should be merged with Amorphous metal Amorphous Metals are metals whose structure defies the typical crystalline nature of most metals and alloys. ... Obsidian from Lake County, Oregon Counterclockwise from top: obsidian, pumice and rhyolite (light color) Obsidian is a rock which is a type of naturally occurring glass, produced by volcanoes (igneous origin) when a felsic lava cools rapidly and freezes without sufficient time for crystal growth (see glass transition temperature). ... Opaline glass vases Opaline glass is a decorative style of glass made in France between 1810 and 1890. ... Prince Ruperts Drops (or Ruperts Balls) are a glass curiosity created by dripping hot molten glass into cold water. ... Pyrex is a brand name of borosilicate glass introduced by Corning Glass Works in 1915. ... Glass recycling is the process of turning waste glass into usable products. ... Sea glass or beach glass is colored glass that has been found upon the seashore or along the beaches of large lakes. ... Strictly speaking, stained glass is glass that has been painted with silver stain and then fired. ... Sample of Trinitite. ... Tyrone Crystal is a glassware manufacturing company in Dungannon, County Tyrone in Northern Ireland, which has an international reputation of producing fine quality glass products. ... The world-famous Waterford Crystal Ball is lowered in Times Square, New York City, on New Years Eve Waterford Crystal is a trademark brand of crystal glassware produced in Waterford, Ireland, by the company Waterford Wedgwood plc. ... Sodium silicate, also known as water glass, is a compound used in cements and textile processing. ...

References

Agricola can refer to a number of different topics and people,ha hja ha including: andrew is a turd The surname Agricola was often used as a Latin translation of one of these Germanic surnames: Bauer, Schneider, Schnitter, Hausmann, Huusman, Huysman, Huysmein. ... Georg Agricola the father of mineralogy De re metallica (Latin for On the Nature of Metals (Minerals)) is a book cataloging the state of the art of mining, refining, and smelting metals, published in 1556. ...

Bibliography

• Noel C. Stokes; The Glass and Glazing Handbook; Standards Australia; SAA HB125-1998
• Brugmann, Birte. Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves: A Study on the Provenance and Chronology of Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves, Based on Visual Examination. Oxbow Books, 2004. ISBN 1-84217-104-6

External links

Look up glass in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Glass

• Corning Museum of Glass, especially Research, Teach, and Learn section.

• Is glass liquid or solid? by Philip Gibbs on the spr USENET physics FAQ
• Antique windowpanes and the flow of supercooled liquids
• article on the non-flowness of glass
• Page devoted to the AFU glass flow controversy, with links to citations
• A comprehensive guide to art glass and crystal around the world
• Murano Glass Working Description Furnace & Moleria
• Informative website about the glass industry
• Page stating that glass does not flow
• Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass
• The Straight Dope article on glass, article discusses why glass is a liquid treated as a solid
• Recycling Glass - Waste Management Issues
• The Physics of Glass Just Got Blurry

Glass can be recycled along with many other things which can be looked up on Recycling Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wiktionary is a multilingual, Web-based project to create a free content dictionary, available in over 150 languages. ... Image File history File links Commons-logo. ... Wikimedia Commons logo by Reid Beels The Wikimedia Commons (also called Commons or Wikicommons) is a repository of free content images, sound and other multimedia files. ... The international recycling symbol. ...