A conspiracy theory attempts to explain the ultimate cause of an event (usually a political, social, or historical event) as a secret, and often deceptive, plot by a covert alliance of powerful people or organizations rather than as an overt activity or as natural occurrence. Researchers who advocate the conspiratorial view claim that most major events in history have been dominated by conspirators who manipulate political happenings from behind the scenes. Secrecy is the practice of hiding information from others. ... Deception (or mystification) is to intentionally distort the truth in order to mislead others. ... Secrecy is the condition of hiding information from others. ...

The term "conspiracy theory" is usually used by mainstream scholars and in popular culture to identify a type of folklore similar to an urban legend, especially an explanatory narrative which is constructed with methodological flaws.^[1] The term is also used pejoratively to dismiss claims that are alleged by critics to be misconceived, paranoid, unfounded, outlandish, irrational, or otherwise unworthy of serious consideration. For example "Conspiracy nut" is used as a pejorative term. Some people who have their theory or speculation labeled a "conspiracy theory" reject the term as prejudicial. Popular culture, or pop culture, (literally: the culture of the people) consists of the cultural elements that prevail (at least numerically) in any given society, mainly using the more popular media, in that societys vernacular language and/or an established lingua franca. ... Folklore is the body of verbal expressive culture, including tales, legends, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs current among a particular population, comprising the oral tradition of that culture, subculture, or group. ... Urban legends are a kind of folklore consisting of stories often thought to be factual by those circulating them (see rumor). ... Look up pejorative in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Critical Overview

The term "conspiracy theory" may be a neutral descriptor for a conspiracy claim. However, conspiracy theory is also used to indicate a narrative genre that includes a broad selection of (not necessarily related) arguments for the existence of grand conspiracies, any of which might have far-reaching social and political implications if true. In non-technical terms, no matter what the context (whether scientific, philosophical, legal, etc) a narrative is a story, an interpretation of some aspect of the world that is historically and culturally grounded and shaped by human personality (per Walter Fisher). ... Look up genre in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Critics say that most conspiracy theories are likely false, and lack enough verifiable evidence to be taken seriously. They raise the question of what mechanisms might exist in popular culture that lead to their invention and subsequent uptake. In pursuit of answers to that question, conspiracy theory has been a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy eventually provoked an unprecedented response of incredulity directed at the official version of the case as expounded in the Report of the Warren Commission. President Kennedy, with his wife, Jacqueline Kennedy, and Texas Governor John Connally in the Presidential limousine shortly before the assassination. ... John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), also referred to as John F. Kennedy, JFK, John Kennedy, or Jack Kennedy, was the 35th President of the United States. ...

Whether or not a particular conspiracy allegation may be impartially or neutrally labelled a conspiracy theory is subject to some controversy. Conspiracy theory has become a highly charged political term, and the broad critique of 'conspiracy theorists' by academics, politicians and the media cuts across traditional left-right political lines. A conspiracy theory attempts to explain the ultimate cause of an event (usually a political, social, or historical event) as a secret, and often deceptive, plot by a covert alliance of powerful people or organizations rather than as an overt activity or as natural occurrence. ...

See also conspiracy in criminal law. In the criminal law, a conspiracy is an agreement between two or more natural persons to break the law at some time in the future, and, in some cases, with at least one overt act in furtherance of that agreement. ...

Examples of common conspiracy theories

Main article: List of conspiracy theories

• 9/11 conspiracy theories, usually relating the September 11, 2001 attacks to US government officials.
• The New World Order, a conspiracy theory in which a powerful and secretive group plans to or does in fact rule the world through a one-world government.
• John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories, claiming the direct involvement of the US government in the assassination.
• Jewish or Zionist global domination conspiracy theories, perhaps the oldest common type of conspiracy theories, most notable of which is the Elders of Zion anti-Semitic conspiracy theory (which was based on a fabricated document).

To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, a variety of conspiracy theories have emerged which contradict the mainstream account of events that day. ... The September 11, 2001 attacks (often referred to as 9/11—pronounced nine eleven) consisted of a series of coordinated terrorist[1] suicide attacks upon the United States, predominantly targeting civilians, carried out on Tuesday, September 11, 2001. ... New World Order (Novus Ordo Mundi) refers to a conspiracy theory in which a powerful and secretive group (Illuminati, Freemasons, etc. ... President Kennedy, with his wife, Jacqueline Kennedy, and Texas Governor John Connally in the Presidential limousine shortly before the assassination. ... This article describes some ethnic, historic, and cultural aspects of the Jewish identity; for a consideration of the Jewish religion, refer to the article Judaism. ... Poster promoting a film about Jewish settlement in Palestine, 1930s: Toward a New Life (in Romanian),The Promised Land (in Hungarian), the small caption (bottom) reads First Palestinian film with sound Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Zionism Zionism is a political movement that supports a homeland for... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... It has been suggested that History of the Protocols of Zion be merged into this article or section. ... The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ...

Conspiracism

When conspiracy theories combine logical fallacies with lack of evidence, the result is a world view known as conspiracism. Conspiracism is a world view that sees major historic events and trends as the result of secret conspiracies. The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout American history in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, published in 1964. The term conspiracism was popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s. Academic interest in conspiracy theories and conspiracism has presented a range of hypotheses on the basis of studying the genre. Among the leading scholars of conspiracism are: Hofstadter, Popper, Barkun, Goldberg, Pipes, Fenster, Mintz, Sagan, Johnson, and Posner. Richard Hofstadter (August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was a noted American historian and was the Dewitt Clinton Professor of American History at Columbia University. ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... Pre-Colonial America For details, see the main Pre-Colonial America article. ... The Paranoid Style in American Politics is an essay by the American historian Richard J. Hofstadter, first published in Harpers magazine in November 1964. ... 1964 (MCMLXIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1964 calendar). ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes: "belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history":^[2] Look up Conspiracy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Conspiracy, as a legal term, is an agreement of two or more people either to commit a crime or to achieve a lawful end by unlawful means: see conspiracy (crime), and conspiracy (civil). ...

"Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. As such, conspiracy theories do not typify a particular epoch or ideology".^[3]

Throughout human history, political and economic leaders genuinely have been the cause of enormous amounts of death and misery, and they sometimes have engaged in conspiracies while at the same time promoting conspiracy theories about their targets. Hitler and Stalin would be merely the most prominent examples; there have been numerous others.^[4] In some cases there have been claims dismissed as conspiracy theories that later proved to have some basis in facts.^[5][6] But the idea that history is controlled by grandiose or long-standing conspiracies is dubious. As historian Bruce Cumings has put it: Hitler redirects here. ... Stalin redirects here. ...

"But if conspiracies exist, they rarely move history; they make a difference at the margins from time to time, but with the unforeseen consequences of a logic outside the control of their authors: and this is what is wrong with 'conspiracy theory.' History is moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities."^[7]

The term has also been used by other authors including Michael Kelly, Chip Berlet, and Matthew N. Lyons, among others. Michael Kelly (1957-2003) was an editor-at-large of the Atlantic Monthly and a columnist for the Washington Post. ... John Foster Chip Berlet (born November 22, 1949) is the co-author of Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort and editor of Eyes Right! Challenging the Right Wing Backlash. ...

According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm".^[8]

Proposed origins of conspiracy theories

The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page.

Humans naturally respond to events or situations which have had an emotional impact upon them by trying to make sense of those events, typically in spiritual, moral, political, or scientific terms. Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ...

Events which seem to resist such interpretation—for example, because they are, in fact, unexplainable—may provoke the inquirer to look harder for a meaning, until one is reached that is capable of offering the inquirer the required emotional satisfaction. As sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of World War I: Combatants Allied Powers: United Kingdom France Italy Russia United States Serbia Central Powers: Austria-Hungary Bulgaria Germany Ottoman Empire Commanders Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Ferdinand Foch Georges Clemenceau Nicholas II Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Wilhelm II Reinhard Scheer Franz Josef I Conrad von Hötzendorf Ä°smail Enver Ferdinand I Casualties...

Those events that are most important are hardest to understand, because they attract the greatest attention from mythmakers and charlatans.

This normal process could be diverted by a number of influences. At the level of the individual, pressing psychological needs may influence the process, and certain of our universal mental tools may impose epistemic 'blind spots'. At the group or sociological level, historic factors may make the process of assigning satisfactory meanings more or less problematic. Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature and scope of knowledge. ...

Alternatively, conspiracy theories may arise when evidence available in the public record does not correspond with the common or official version of events. In this regard, conspiracy theories may sometimes serve to highlight 'blind spots' in the common or official interpretations of events.^{[citation needed]}

Psychological origins

According to some psychologists, a person who believes in one conspiracy theory is often a believer in other conspiracy theories and conversely for a person who does not believe in one conspiracy theory there is a lower probability that he, or she, will believe in another one.^[9] This may be attributable to differences in the information upon which parties rely in formulating their conclusions. Thus, a person who believes in a particular conspiracy theory may do so because of awareness of information which is not shared by those that disbelieve the conspiracy theory. In turn, awareness of such information may be correlated with awareness of other information which increases the likelihood that one will believe in other conspiracy theories. Conversely, the lack of awareness of such information may be correlated with the lack of awareness of other information which decreases the likelihood that one will believe in other conspiracy theories.^{[citation needed]} A psychologist is a scientist who studies psychology, the systematic investigation of the human behavior and mental processes. ...

Psychologists believe that the search for meaningfulness features largely in conspiracism and the development of conspiracy theories. That desire alone may be powerful enough to lead to the initial formulation of the idea^{[citation needed]}. Once cognized, confirmation bias and avoidance of cognitive dissonance may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become popular within a social group, communal reinforcement may equally play a part. Confirmation bias is a type of statistical bias describing the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms ones preconceptions. ... Cognitive dissonance is the perception of incompatibility between two cognitions, which can be defined as any element of knowledge, including attitude, emotion, belief, or behavior. ... Communal reinforcement is a social phenomenon in which a concept or idea is repeatedly asserted in a community, regardless of whether sufficient empirical evidence has been presented to support it. ...

Evolutionary psychology may also play a significant role. Paranoid tendencies are associated with an animal's ability to recognize danger^{[citation needed]}. Higher animals attempt to construct mental models of the thought processes of both rivals and predators in order to read their hidden intentions and to predict their future behavior. Such an ability is extremely valuable in sensing and avoiding danger in an animal community. If this danger-sensing ability should begin making false predictions, or be triggered by benign evidence, or otherwise become pathological, the result is paranoid delusions. Evolutionary psychology (abbreviated ev-psych or EP) is a theoretical approach to psychology that explains many mental traits as adaptations in the sense of evolutionary biological, as a product of natural or sexual selection. ...

Projection

Some historians have pointed out the element of psychological projection in conspiracism; that is, the attribution to the supposed "conspirators" of undesirable characteristics of the self. Richard Hofstadter, in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, stated that: Psychological projection (or projection bias) can be defined as unconsciously assuming that others have the same or similar thoughts, beliefs, values, or positions on any given subject as oneself. ... Richard Hofstadter (August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was a noted American historian and was the Dewitt Clinton Professor of American History at Columbia University. ... The Paranoid Style in American Politics is an essay by the American historian Richard J. Hofstadter, first published in Harpers magazine in November 1964. ...

...it is hard to resist the conclusion that this enemy is on many counts the projection of the self; both the ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. The enemy may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship... the Ku Klux Klan imitated Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. The John Birch Society emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation through "front" groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist anti-Communist "crusades" openly express their admiration for the dedication and discipline the Communist cause calls forth.

Hofstadter also noted that "sexual freedom" is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist's target group, noting that "very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments."^[10]

Epistemic bias?

It is possible that certain basic human epistemic biases are projected onto the material under scrutiny. According to one study humans apply a 'rule of thumb' by which we expect a significant event to have a significant cause.^[11] The study offered subjects four versions of events, in which a foreign president was (a) successfully assassinated, (b) wounded but survived, (c) survived with wounds but died of a heart attack at a later date, and (d) was unharmed. Subjects were significantly more likely to suspect conspiracy in the case of the 'major events'—in which the president died—than in the other cases, despite all other evidence available to them being equal. Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature and scope of knowledge. ...

Another epistemic 'rule of thumb' that can be misapplied to a mystery involving other humans is cui bono? (who stands to gain?). This sensitivity to the hidden motives of other people might be either an evolved or an encultured feature of human consciousness, but either way it appears to be universal. If the inquirer lacks access to the relevant facts of the case, or if there are structural interests rather than personal motives involved, this method of inquiry will tend to produce a falsely conspiratorial account of an impersonal event^{[citation needed]}. The direct corollary of this epistemic bias in pre-scientific cultures is the tendency to imagine the world in terms of animism. Inanimate objects or substances of significance to humans are fetishised and supposed to harbor benign or malignant spirits. Cui bono (Good for whom, or Who obtains a benefit) is a latin adage used in criminal investigation. ... In religion, the term Animism is used in a number of ways. ... A fetish (from French fétiche; from Portuguese feitiço; from Latin facticius, artificial and facere, to make) is a natural object believed to have supernatural powers, or in particular a man-made object that has power over others. ...

Clinical psychology

For relatively rare individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or more of several well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: paranoia, denial, schizophrenia, mean world syndrome.^[12] For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... Denial is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person faced with a fact that is uncomfortable or painful to accept rejects it instead, insisting that it is not true despite what may be overwhelming evidence. ... Mean World Syndrome is described as the distinguishing characteristic of Media Induced Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (MIPTSD). ...

Socio-political origins

Christopher Hitchens represents conspiracy theories as the 'exhaust fumes of democracy', the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people. Other social commentators and sociologists argue that conspiracy theories are produced according to variables that may change within a democratic (or other type of) society. Christopher Hitchens Christopher Eric Hitchens (born April 13, 1949) is an author, journalist and literary critic. ...

Conspiratorial accounts can be emotionally satisfying when they place events in a readily-understandable, moral context. The subscriber to the theory is able to assign moral responsibility for an emotionally troubling event or situation to a clearly-conceived group of individuals. Crucially, that group does not include the believer. The believer may then feel excused of any moral or political responsibility for remedying whatever institutional or societal flaw might be the actual source of the dissonance.^[13]

Where responsible behavior is prevented by social conditions, or is simply beyond the ability of an individual, the conspiracy theory facilitates the emotional discharge or closure that such emotional challenges (after Erving Goffman) require. Like moral panics, conspiracy theories thus occur more frequently within communities that are experiencing social isolation or political dis-empowerment. In psychology, closure may refer to the state of experiencing an emotional conclusion to a difficult life event, such as the breakdown of a close interpersonal relationship or the death of loved one. ... E.GOFFMAN Erving Goffman (June 11, 1922 – November 19, 1982), was a Jewish Canadian sociologist and writer. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Social mania. ... Look up alienation, alienate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Mark Fenster argues that "just because overarching conspiracy theories are wrong does not mean they are not on to something. Specifically, they ideologically address real structural inequities, and constitute a response to a withering civil society and the concentration of the ownership of the means of production, which together leave the political subject without the ability to be recognized or to signify in the public realm" (1999: 67).

For example, the modern form of anti-Semitism is identified in Britannica 1911 as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European aristocracy, whose social power waned with the rise of bourgeois society.^[14] The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... -1... bourgeoisie is basically a trem that meens middle class. ...

Disillusionment

In the late 20th century, falling election participation and declines in other key metrics of social engagement were noted by several observers. For a prominent example, see Robert D. Putnam's Bowling Alone thesis. Those who were most influenced by this period, the so-called "Generation X," are characterized by their cynicism towards traditional institutions and authorities, offering a case example of the context of political dis-empowerment detailed above. Robert David Putnam (born January 9, 1941 in Rochester, New York) is a political scientist and professor at Harvard Universitys Kennedy School of Government, well-known for his writings on civic engagement, civil society, and social capital, a concept of which he is probably the leading exponent. ... Robert D. Putnam is the author of the article Bowling Alone: Americas Declining Social Capital (1995) and the book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000). ... Generation X is a term for a cohort of people born following the peak of the post-World War II baby boom, especially in Canada and the United States. ... Cynicism (Greek κυνισμός) was originally the philosophy of a group of ancient Greeks called the Cynics, founded by Antisthenes. ...

In that context, a typical individual will tend to be more isolated from the kinds of peer networks that grant access to broad sources of information, and may instinctively distrust any statement or claim made by certain people, media, and other authority-bearing institutions. For some individuals, the consequence may be a tendency to attribute anything bad that happens to the distrusted authority. For example, some people attribute the September 11, 2001 attacks to a conspiracy involving the U.S. government (or disfavored politicians) instead of to Islamic terrorists associated with Al-Qaeda (see 9/11 conspiracy theories.) Such charges may also be colored with political motivation. Similar charges (in some circles) were made that the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration was in some way culpable for the Attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. The September 11, 2001 attacks (often referred to as 9/11—pronounced nine eleven) consisted of a series of coordinated terrorist[1] suicide attacks upon the United States, predominantly targeting civilians, carried out on Tuesday, September 11, 2001. ... This article contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Al-Qaeda (Arabic: القاعدة, the foundation or the base) is the name given to a worldwide network of militant Islamist organizations under the leadership of Osama bin Laden. ... Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, a variety of conspiracy theories have emerged which contradict the mainstream account of events that day. ... FDR redirects here. ... Combatants United States Empire of Japan Commanders Husband Kimmel (USN), Walter Short (USA) Chuichi Nagumo (IJN) Strength 8 battleships, 8 cruisers, 29 destroyers, 9 submarines, ~50 other ships, ~390 planes 6 aircraft carriers, 2 battleships, 3 cruisers, 9 destroyers, 8 tankers, 23 fleet submarines, 5 midget submarines, 441 planes Casualties...

Media tropes

Media commentators regularly note a tendency in news media and wider culture to understand events through the prism of individual agents, as opposed to more complex structural or institutional accounts.^[15] If this is a true observation, it may be expected that the audience which both demands and consumes this emphasis itself is more receptive to personalized, dramatic accounts of social phenomena. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

A second, perhaps related, media trope is the effort to allocate individual responsibility for negative events. The media have a tendency to start to seek culprits if an event occurs that is of such significance that it does not drop off the news agenda within a few days. Of this trend, it has been said that the concept of a pure accident is no longer permitted in a news item [1]. Again, if this is a true observation, it may reflect a real change in how the media consumer perceives negative events.

Controversies

Aside from controversies over the merits of particular conspiracy claims (see catalog below), and the various differing academic opinions (above), the general category of conspiracy theory is itself a matter of some public contestation. A controversy is a contentious dispute, a disagreement over which parties are actively arguing. ...

Usage

The term "conspiracy theory" is considered by different observers to be a neutral description for a conspiracy claim, a pejorative term used to dismiss such a claim, and a term that can be positively embraced by proponents of such a claim. The term may be used by some for arguments they might not wholly believe but consider radical and exciting. The most widely accepted sense of the term is that which popular culture and academic usage share, certainly having negative implications for a narrative's probable truth value.

Given this popular understanding of the term, it is conceivable that the term might be used illegitimately and inappropriately, as a means to dismiss what are in fact substantial and well-evidenced accusations. The legitimacy of each such usage will therefore be a matter of some controversy. Disinterested observers will compare an allegation's features with those of the category listed above, in order to determine whether a given usage is legitimate or prejudicial.

Certain proponents of conspiracy claims and their supporters argue that the term is entirely illegitimate, and should be considered just as politically manipulative as the Soviet practice of treating political dissidents as clinically insane. The term conspiracy theory is itself the object of a type of conspiracy theory, which argues that those using the term are manipulating their audience to disregard the topic under discussion, either in a deliberate attempt to conceal the truth, or as dupes of more deliberate conspirators.

When conspiracy theories are offered as official claims (e.g. originating from a governmental authority, such as an intelligence agency) they are not usually considered as conspiracy theories. For example, certain activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee may be considered to have been an official attempt to promote a conspiracy theory, yet its claims are seldom referred to as such. HUAC hearings House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC or HCUA) (1938-1975) was an investigating committee of the United States House of Representatives. ...

The truth of a conspiracy theory

Perhaps the most contentious aspect of a conspiracy theory is the problem of settling a particular theory's truth to the satisfaction of both its proponents and its opponents. Particular accusations of conspiracy vary widely in their plausibility, but some common standards for assessing their likely truth value may be applied in each case:

• Occam's razor - is the alternative story more, or less, probable than the mainstream story? Rules of thumb here include the multiplication of entities test.
• Methodology - are the "proofs" offered for the argument well constructed, i.e., using sound methodology? Is there any clear standard to determine what evidence would prove or disprove the theory?
• Whistleblowers - how many people—and what kind—have to be loyal conspirators?

Each of these tests can have its downsides as well. For instance, overeager application of "Occam's razor" can lead to acceptance of oversimplified views of history. William of Ockham. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... A whistleblower is an employee, former employee, or member of an organization who reports misconduct to people or entities that have the power to take corrective action. ...

Real conspiracies

On some occasions particular conspiracy allegations turn out to be readily verifiable, as in the French government's attempted cover-up following Emile Zola's accusations in the Dreyfus Affair, or in the efforts by the Tsar's secret police to foment anti-Semitism by presenting The Protocols of the Elders of Zion as an authentic text.^[16] Where such success is due to sound investigative methodology, it is clear that it would not exhibit many of the compromising features identified as characteristic of conspiracy theory, and would thus not commonly be considered a 'Conspiracy theory'. In the case of the 1971 revelation of the FBI's COINTELPRO counter-intelligence work against domestic political activists, it is not clear to what extent a 'conspiracy theory' involving government agents was either proposed or dismissed prior to the programme's factual exposure. Émile Zola Émile Zola (April 2, 1840 – September 29, 1902) was an influential French novelist, the most important example of the literary school of naturalism, and a major figure in the political liberalization of France. ... The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal which divided France during the 1890s and early 1900s. ... 1992 Russian edition of the Protocols, adapting Eliphas Levis portrayal of Baphomet. ... The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the federal criminal investigative and intelligence agency, which is the principal investigative arm of the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). ... COINTELPRO (Counter Intelligence Program) is a program of the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the United States. ...

Some argue that the reality of such conspiracies should caution against any casual dismissal of conspiracy theory. Many "conspiracy theory" authors and publishers, such as Robert Anton Wilson and Disinfo, use proven conspiracies as evidence of what a secret plot can accomplish. In doing so, they attempt to rebut the assumption that conspiracies don't exist, or that any "conspiracy theory" is necessarily false. A number of true or possibly true conspiracies are cited in making this case; the Mafia, the Business Plot, MKULTRA, various CIA involvements in overseas coups d'état, Operation Northwoods, the 1991 Testimony of Nayirah before the US Congress, the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male, the General Motors streetcar conspiracy and the Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate, among others. Robert Anton Wilson Robert Anton Wilson or RAW (born January 18, 1932) is a futurist, libertarian, essayist, and novelist. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... For other uses, see Mafia (disambiguation). ... The Business Plot, The Plot Against FDR, or The White House Putsch, was an alleged conspiracy to overthrow President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 by a retired general backed by big money interests. ... Declassified MKULTRA documents Project MKULTRA (also known as MK-ULTRA) was the code name for a CIA mind-control research program that began in the 1950s[1], and continued until the late 1960s[2]. There is much published evidence that the project involved not only the use of drugs to... A coup détat (pronounced ), or simply coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government through unconstitutional means by a part of the state establishment — mostly replacing just the high-level figures. ... Northwoods Memorandum (March 13, 1962) Click PDF Operation Northwoods, or Northwoods, was a 1962 plan to generate U.S. public support for military action against the Cuban government of Fidel Castro as part of the U.S. governments Operation Mongoose anti-Castro initiative. ... Nurse Nayirah was a creation of PR firm Hill & Knowlton for promoting the 1991 Gulf War. ... The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972), also known as the Public Health Service Syphilis Study was a clinical study, conducted around Tuskegee, Alabama, where 399 (plus 200 control group without syphilis) poor -- and mostly illiterate -- African American sharecroppers became part of a study on the treatment and natural history of... The General Motors streetcar conspiracy refers to a contention that General Motors (GM), acting in conjunction with several other companies and through the National City Lines (NCL) holding company, illegally acquired many streetcar systems in various cities around the United States, dismantled and replaced them with buses for the express... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

The argument is often advanced that the non-existence of any given conspiracy is shown by the lack of leakers or whistleblowers. Given the success of the British government in getting thousands of people to keep the ULTRA secret — and thereby ensuring that no reliable history of World War Two could be published until the 1970s — it is apparent that this is not necessarily a reliable indicator. Ultra (sometimes capitalized ULTRA) was the name used by the British for intelligence resulting from decryption of German communications in World War II. The term eventually became the standard designation in both Britain and the United States for all intelligence from high-level cryptanalytic sources. ... This article is becoming very long. ...

Falsifiability

Philosopher Karl Popper proposed the term, "the conspiracy theory of society" to criticize the methodology of Marx, Hitler and others whom he deemed to be deluded by "historicism" - the reduction of history to an overt and naive distortion via a crude formulaic analysis usually predicated on an agenda replete with unsound presuppositions. Karl Popper argued that science is written as a set of falsifiable hypotheses; metaphysical or unscientific theories and claims are those which do not admit any possibility for falsification. Critics of conspiracy theories sometimes argue that many of them are not falsifiable and so cannot be scientific. This accusation is often accurate, and is a necessary consequence of the logical structure of certain kinds of conspiracy theories. These take the form of uncircumscribed existential statements, alleging the existence of some action or object without specifying the place or time at which it can be observed. Failure to observe the phenomenon can then always be the result of looking in the wrong place or looking at the wrong time — that is, having been duped by the conspiracy. This makes impossible any demonstration that the conspiracy does not exist. Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH, MA, Ph. ... Science in the broadest sense refers to any system of knowledge attained by verifiable means. ... In science and the philosophy of science, falsifiability, contingency, and defeasibility are roughly equivalent terms referring to the property of empirical statements that they must admit of logical counterexamples. ... A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon or reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between multiple phenomena. ... Plato and Aristotle, by Raphael (Stanza della Segnatura, Rome). ... In predicate logic, an existential quantification is the predication of a property or relation to at least one member of the domain. ...

In response to this objection to conspiracy theories, some argue that no political or historical theory can be scientific by Popper's criterion because none reliably generate testable predictions.^{[citation needed]} In fact, Popper himself rejected the claims of Marxism and psychoanalysis to scientific status on precisely this basis. This does not necessarily mean that either conspiracy theory, Marxism, or psychoanalysis are baseless, irrational, and false; it does suggest that if they are false there is no way to prove it. Marxism refers to the philosophy and social theory based on Karl Marxs work on one hand, and to the political practice based on Marxist theory on the other hand (namely, parts of the First International during Marxs time, communist parties and later states). ... // Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods based on the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. ...

Falsifiability has been widely criticised for misrepresenting the actual process of scientific discovery by a number of scholars, notably paradigm theorists and Popper's former students Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend, and Imre Lakatos. Within epistemological circles, falsifiability is not now considered a tenable criterion for determining scientific status, although it remains popular. Most philosophers of science continue to maintain that there are some rationaly justifiable methodological premises, in terms of which some theories can be criticized, while they reject the idea that falsifiability alone is a sufficient criterion. Since the late 1960s, the word paradigm (IPA: ) has referred to a thought pattern in any scientific discipline or other epistemological context. ... Thomas Samuel Kuhn (July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively on the history of science and developed several important notions in the philosophy of science. ... Paul Karl Feyerabend (January 13, 1924 - February 11, 1994) was an Austrian-born philosopher of science, who later lived in England, the United States, New Zealand, Italy, and finally Switzerland. ... Lakatos – book by Brendan Larvor. ... Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature and scope of knowledge. ... Philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations, and implications of science, including the formal sciences, natural sciences, and social sciences. ...

Popper's introduction of the term, "conspiracy theory"

In his two volume work, The Open Society & Its Enemies, 1938–1943 Popper introduced the term "conspiracy theory" to criticize the ideologies driving fascism, Nazism and communism. Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on "conspiracy theories" which drew on imaginary plots driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, racism or classism. Popper did not argue against the existence of everyday conspiracies (as incorrectly suggested in much of the later literature). Popper even uses the term "conspiracy" to describe ordinary political activity in the classical Athens of Plato (who was the principal target of his attack in The Open Society & Its Enemies). Fascism is a radical political ideology that combines elements of corporatism, authoritarianism, nationalism, militarism, anti-anarchism, anti-communism and anti-liberalism. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... A view of the Acropolis of Athens during the Ottoman period, showing the buildings which were removed at the time of independence The history of Athens is the longest of any city in Europe: Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least 3,000 years. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ...

In his critique of Marx and the twentieth century totalitarians, Popper wrote, "I do not wish to imply that conspiracies never happen. On the contrary, they are typical social phenomena."[2]

He reiterated his point, "Conspiracies occur, it must be admitted. But the striking fact which, in spite of their occurrence, disproved the conspiracy theory is that few of these conspiracies are ultimately successful. Conspirators rarely consummate their conspiracy." [3] It is possible that Popper may have developed his attitude to the problematic execution of successful conspiracies from his reading of Machiavelli, who stated in The Discourses that conspiracies rarely achieve their objectives.

Conspiracy theories in fiction

Main article: Conspiracy theories (fictional) Spoiler warning: Particularly since the 1960s, conspiracy theory has been a popular subject of fiction. ...

Because of their dramatic potential, conspiracies are a popular theme in thrillers and science fiction. Complex history is recast as a morality play in which bad people cause bad events, and good people identify and defeat them. Fictional conspiracy theories offer neat, intuitive narratives, in which the conspirators' plot fits closely the dramatic needs of the story's plot. As mentioned above, the cui bono? aspect of conspiracy theories resembles one element of mystery stories: the search for a possibly hidden motive. The thriller is a broad genre of literature, film, and television that includes numerous, often-overlapping sub-genres. ... Science fiction is a form of speculative fiction principally dealing with the impact of imagined science and technology, or both, upon society and persons as individuals. ... Morality plays are a type of theatrical allegory in which the protagonist is met by personifications of various moral attributes who try to prompt him to choose a Godly life over one of evil. ...

Conspiracy Theory is a 1997 thriller about a taxi driver (played by Mel Gibson) who publishes a newsletter in which he discusses what he suspects are government conspiracies, and it turns out that one of them is true. Conspiracy Theory is a 1997 thriller directed by Richard Donner. ...

The X-Files was a popular television show during the 1990s, which followed the investigations of two intrepid FBI agents, Fox Mulder and Dana Scully. Many of the episodes dealt with a plot for alien invasion overseen by elements of the U.S. government led by the mysterious individual known only as the Cigarette Smoking Man. The famous tag line of the series, "The Truth Is Out There", can be interpreted as reference to the meaning-seeking nature of the genre discussed above. The X-Files is an American television series created by Chris Carter. ... Fox William Spooky Mulder (born October 13, 1961) is a fictional character played by David Duchovny on the 1993-2002 television series, The X-Files. ... Dr. Dana Katherine Scully (born February 23, 1964) is a fictional character on the television series The X-Files, played by Gillian Anderson. ... United States is the current Good Article Collaboration of the week! Please help to improve this article to the highest of standards. ... The Cigarette Smoking Man (abbreviated to CSM), is a fictional character played by William B. Davis on the 1993-2002 television series The X-Files. ... A conspiracy theory attempts to explain the ultimate cause of an event (usually a political, social, or historical event) as a secret, and often deceptive, plot by a covert alliance of powerful people or organizations rather than as an overt activity or as natural occurrence. ...

Umberto Eco's novel Foucault's Pendulum is a broad satire on conspiracism in which the characters attempt to construct an all-embracing conspiracy theory starting with the Templars and including the Bavarian Illuminati, the Rosicrucians, hollow Earth enthusiasts, the Cathars, and even the Jesuits. The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown explores a similar theme, without the satire and with religion as its focus: a conspiracy by the Catholic Church has attempted to cover up the "true" story of Jesus. Photo of Umberto Eco by Robert Birnbaum Umberto Eco (born January 5, 1932) is an Italian medievalist, philosopher and novelist, best known for his novel The Name of the Rose and his many essays. ... Cover of Foucaults Pendulum, 1989 Picador edition Foucaults Pendulum (original title: Il pendolo di Foucault) is a novel by Italian novelist and philosopher Umberto Eco. ... The word Templar could refer to the following: Knights Templar (military order), a medieval Christian military order that was very prominent in the Crusades, from the early 1100s until the early 1300s. ... This is an article about groups called the Illuminati. For information on the games, see Illuminati (game) and Illuminati: New World Order. ... The Temple of the Rose Cross, Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618. ... A hollow Earth theory posits that the planet Earth has a hollow interior and probably a habitable inner surface. ... Cathars being expelled from Carcassonne in 1209. ... Seal of the Society of Jesus. ... This article is about the novel. ... Dan Brown (born June 22, 1964) is an American author of thriller fiction, best known for writing the controversial 2003 bestselling novel, The Da Vinci Code. ...

Notes

Hannah Arendt (October 14, 1906 – December 4, 1975) was a German political theorist. ... John Foster Chip Berlet (born November 22, 1949) is the co-author of Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort and editor of Eyes Right! Challenging the Right Wing Backlash. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... June 7 is the 158th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (159th in leap years), with 207 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... April 28 is the 118th day of the year (119th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 247 days remaining. ...

References

• American Heritage Dictionary, "Conspiracy theory"
• Barkun, Michael. 2003. A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23805-2
• Chase, Alston. 2003. Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-02002-9
• Fenster, Mark. 1999. Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3243-X
• Goldberg, Robert Alan. 2001. Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09000-5
• Hofstadter, Richard. 1965. The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-674-65461-7
• Johnson, George (1983). Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc.. ISBN 0-87477-275-3.
• Melley, Timothy. 1999. Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8606-8
• Mintz, Frank P. 1985. The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-24393-X
• Pipes, Daniel. 1997. Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes from. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-87111-4
• ---. 1998. The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17688-0
• Popper, Karl R. 1945. The Open Society and Its Enemies. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01968-1
• Posner, Gerald. 1993. Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-385-47446-6
• Sagan, Carl. 1996. The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-394-53512-X
• Vankin, Jonathan, and John Whalen. 2004. The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time. New York: Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2531-2

Richard Hofstadter (August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was a noted American historian and was the Dewitt Clinton Professor of American History at Columbia University. ... Daniel Pipes Daniel Pipes (born September 9, 1949) is an American neoconservative[1] columnist, author, counter-terrorism analyst, and scholar of Middle Eastern history. ... Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH, MA, Ph. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer, astrobiologist, and highly successful science popularizer. ...

Further reading

• Conspiracism, Political Research Associates
• Cziesche, Dominik; Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F. Ruppert (2003). Panoply of the Absurd. Der Spiegel. Der Spiegel. Retrieved on 2006-06-06.
• Parsons, Charlotte (2001). Why we need conspiracy theories. BBC News - Americas. BBC. Retrieved on 2006-06-26.
• Meigs, James B. (2006). The Conspiracy Industry. Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communications, Inc.. Retrieved on 2006-10-13.

2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... June 6 is the 157th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (158th in leap years), with 208 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... June 26 is the 177th day of the year (178th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 188 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 13 is the 286th day of the year (287th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Conspiracist literature

• The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
• Bryan, Gerald B., Talita Paolini, Kenneth Paolini [1940] (2000). Psychic Dictatorship in America. Paolini International LLC. ISBN 0-9666213-1-X.
• Pelley, William Dudley (1950). Star Guests: Design for Mortality. Noblesville, Indiana: Soulcraft Press.
• Robertson, Pat (1992). The New World Order. W Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8499-3394-3.
• Marrs, Texe (1996). Project L.U.C.I.D.: The Beast 666 Universal Human Control System. Living Truth Publishers. ISBN 1-884302-02-5.
• Cooper, Milton William (1991). Behold a Pale Horse. Light Technology Publications. ISBN 0-929385-22-5.
• Icke, David (2004). And the Truth Shall Set You Free: The 21st Century Edition. Bridge of Love. ISBN 0-9538810-5-9.
• McConnachie, James, and Robin Tudge. 2005. The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories. London: Rough Guides. ISBN 1-84353-445-2
• Wilson, Robert Anton. 2002. TSOG: The Thing That Ate the Constitution, Tempe, AZ: New Falcon Publications. ISBN 1-56184-169-2
• York, Byron. 2005. The Vast Left Wing Conspiracy: The Untold Story of How Democratic Operatives, Eccentric Billionaires, Liberal Activists, and Assorted Celebrities Tried to Bring Down a President - and Why They'll Try Even Harder Next Time, New York, Crown Forum. ISBN 1-4000-8238-2

1992 Russian edition of the Protocols, adapting Eliphas Levis portrayal of Baphomet. ... The I Am Activity is a religious organization based upon the teachings of the Ascended Masters and the Great White Brotherhood, whose knowledge and lessons were dictated and published by the Saint Germain Foundation. ... William Dudley Pelley wanted poster William Dudley Pelley (March 12, 1890-July 1, 1965) was an American Fascist and leader of the Silver Legion. ... Image:Pat robertson. ... Texe Marrs is a controversial American preacher and conspiracy theorist from Austin, Texas. ... William Milton Cooper (May 6, 1943 - November 5, 2001) was an American writer, shortwave broadcaster, militia supporter and conspiracy theorist. ... David Icke David Icke, pronounced // (born April 29, 1952) is a former professional football player, reporter, television sports presenter, and British Green Party national spokesperson. ...

See also

Concepts

• Apophenia
• Cabal
• Clustering illusion
• Cock-up theory
• Coincidence theory
• Conspiracy theories (fictional)
• Conspiracy in criminal law
• Category:Conspiracy theorists
• List of alleged conspiracy theories
• Mind Control
• Paranoia
• Paranoia (magazine)
• The Paranoid Style in American Politics
• Proven conspiracies

Apophenia is the experience of seeing patterns or connections in random or meaningless data. ... A cabal is a number of persons united in some close design, usually to promote their private views and interests in a church, state, or other community by intrigue. ... The clustering illusion is the natural human tendency to see patterns where actually none exist. ... Hanlons Razor, a corollary of Finagles law, is an adage which reads - Also worded as - The origin of this adage is unknown. ... The term coincidence theory is used by proponents of controversial theories (often called conspiracy theories) to counter those who dismiss their claims; they mean to express thus that these dismissals rely on too many coincidences to be plausible. ... Spoiler warning: Particularly since the 1960s, conspiracy theory has been a popular subject of fiction. ... In the criminal law, a conspiracy is an agreement between two or more natural persons to break the law at some time in the future, and, in some cases, with at least one overt act in furtherance of that agreement. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Mind control (or thought control) has the premise that an outside source can control an individuals thinking, behavior or consciousness (either directly or more subtly). ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... Paranoia (magazine) [1] Since 1992, PARANOIA: The Conspiracy & Paranormal Reader has presented alternative views and marginalized theories of the inner workings of the cryptocracy. ... The Paranoid Style in American Politics is an essay by the American historian Richard J. Hofstadter, first published in Harpers magazine in November 1964. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Repeat sources of conspiracy allegations

• Jack Chick
• James Shelby Downard
• David Emory
• Myron C. Fagan
• Louis Farrakhan
• Juhan af Grann
• David Ray Griffin
• G. Edward Griffin
• Anthony J. Hilder
• Stanley Hilton
• Michael A. Hoffman II
• David Icke
• Alex Jones (radio)
• Tim LaHaye
• Lyndon LaRouche
• Rauni-Leena Luukanen-Kilde
• Thierry Meyssan
• Robert Parry
• Roberto Pinotti
• John Birch Society
• Liberty Lobby (defunct)
• Paranoia (magazine)

This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... James Shelby Downard (1909-1996) was an American conspiracy theorist whose works, most of which have been published in various anthologies from Feral House, examined percieved occult symbolism and synchronicity behind historical events in the 21st century. ... David Emory is an American talk radio host and personality based in Ben Lomond, California. ... Myron Coureval Fagan (31 October 1887 - 12 May 1972) was a Jewish American[1] writer, producer and director for film and theatre. ... Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan. ... (b. ... David Ray Griffin (born 1939) is a retired professor of philosophy of religion and theology, and member of the 9/11 Truth Movement. ... G. Edward Griffin is an American political commentator. ... Anthony J. Hilder is a documentary film maker and conspiracy theorist. ... Stanley G. Hilton is a San Francisco, California, based attorney, political scientist, and former chief of staff for former Republican presidential candidate Bob Dole. ... Michael A. Hoffman II, (born 1954, New York). ... David Icke David Icke, pronounced // (born April 29, 1952) is a former professional football player, reporter, television sports presenter, and British Green Party national spokesperson. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... A panel from Tim LaHaye’s multi-million selling ‘’Left Behind’’ series, depicting the fate LaHaye anticipates for those who do not follow Jesus Christ. ... Defunct California Proposition 64 North American Labour Party Party for the Commonwealth of Canada Parti pour la république du Canada U.S. Labor Party Lyndon Hermyle LaRouche, Jr. ... Rauni-Leena Luukanen-Kilde is a Finn with an education of a physician, but she is best known for her UFO contacts and related thoughts. ... An intellectual, journalist and French politician, Thierry Meyssan is the author of important investigations into the extreme right wing (particularly about the National Front Militias, which are the object of a parliamentary investigation and causes a separation of the extreme right wing party), as well as into the Catholic Church... Robert Parry is an American investigative journalist who has written extensively about the Iran-Contra scandal, among other things. ... Roberto Pinotti was born in Venice, Italy, in 1944. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Liberty Lobby was a right-wing political advocacy organization which existed in the United States between 1955 and 2001. ... Paranoia (magazine) [1] Since 1992, PARANOIA: The Conspiracy & Paranormal Reader has presented alternative views and marginalized theories of the inner workings of the cryptocracy. ...

External links

• Coverups.com - The Index of Great Cover-Ups
• Conspiracy Archive
• "The Economics of Conspiracy Theories", United Press International, April 10, 2002
• Conspiracy Theories Overview
• The Occult Technology of Power The mechanics of institutionalized conspiracy
• On the hunt for a conspiracy theory, CS Monitor article
• Ground Zero with Clyde Lewis
• The A-Z of Conspiracy Theories
• Centre for Research on Globalization
• The Reptilian Connection — David Icke
• Above Top Secret: The internet's largest conspiracy discussion forum
• NWOWatcher
• The Conspiracy Wiki
• The TinWiki A Conspiracy Theory Wikipedia
• Top Ten Conspiracy Theories of 2002, from AlterNet.
• An Introduction to Conspiratorial History

• Essays about Conspiration theories (in German)
• An Integral Approach to Conspiracy Theory
• Interesting collection of conspiracy theories (in German)
• Sociopathy & Conspiracy (...Conspiracy Likely As A Result Of Sociopathy?)
• 'Conspiracy Theories' and Clandestine Politics by Jeffrey M. Bale in Lobster Magazine
• "On Being a Conspiracy Theorist" by Butler Crittenden, Ph.D.
• The Council Of Truth an open conspiracy discussion community.
• All Embracing but Underwhelming A philosophical discussion on Conspiracy Theory

Front of UPI Headquarters, Washington, D.C. United Press International (UPI) is a global news agency headquartered in the United States filing news in English, Spanish and Arabic. ...

Links critical of conspiracism

• ‘The Paranoid Style in American Politics’ Richard Hofstadter, Harper's 1964 November
• Skeptic's Dictionary on conspiracy theories
• Popular Conspiracy Theories (Balanced but skeptical view of popular conspiracy theories)
• The Dynamics of Conspiracism (site critical of conspiracy theories that scapegoat)
• Amir Butler: Our Credibility Problem is a Conspiracy (A discussion of the spread of conspiracy theories in the Muslim community)
• 10 Characteristics of Conspiracy Theorists (Tips for recognizing conspiracists in electronic discussion fora)
• "Conspiracism as a Flawed Worldview" by Chip Berlet
• "Crank Net a compendium of cranks and questionable theories"

Richard Hofstadter (August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was a noted American historian and was the Dewitt Clinton Professor of American History at Columbia University. ... 1964 (MCMLXIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1964 calendar). ...