NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Glucagon

Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide acting as an important hormone in carbohydrate metabolism. The polypeptide has a molecular weight of 3485 daltons and was discovered in 1923 by Kimball and Murlin. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (330x885, 23 KB)Glucagon. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (330x885, 23 KB)Glucagon. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (863x557, 1322 KB)From NIH. Uploaded by Brazucs. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (863x557, 1322 KB)From NIH. Uploaded by Brazucs. ... Phenylalanine is one of the standard amino acids. ... Peptides are the family of molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various amino acids. ... Norepinephrine A hormone (from Greek ÏŒÏÎ¼Î® - to set in motion) is a chemical messenger from one cell (or group of cells) to another. ... Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle, one of the central metabolic pathways in aerobic organisms. ... The molecular mass of a substance (less accurately called molecular weight and abbreviated as MW) is the mass of one molecule of that substance, relative to the unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12). ... The unified atomic mass unit (u), or dalton (Da), is a small unit of mass used to express atomic masses and molecular masses. ... 1923 (MCMXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar). ...

Its primary structure in humans is: NH₂-His-Ser-Gln-Gly-Thr-Phe- Thr-Ser-Asp-Tyr-Ser-Lys-Tyr-Leu-Asp-Ser- Arg-Arg-Ala-Gln-Asp-Phe-Val-Gln-Trp-Leu- Met-Asn-Thr-COOH A protein primary structure is a chain of amino acids. ...

History

In the 1920s, Kimball and Murlin studied pancreatic extracts and found an additional substance with hyperglycemic properties.^[1] Glucagon was sequenced in the late-1950s.^[2] A more complete understanding of its role in physiology and disease was not established until the 1970s, when a specific radioimmunoassay was developed. Year 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ... The pancreas is an organ in the digestive and endocrine system that serves two major functions: exocrine (producing pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones, including insulin). ... Hyperglycemia or High Blood Sugar is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma. ... 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1970 calendar). ... Radioimmunoassay is a scientific method used to test hormone levels in the blood without the need to use a bioassay. ...

Physiology

Production

The hormone is synthesized and secreted from alpha cells (α-cells) of the islets of Langerhans, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas. The alpha cells are located in the outer rim of the islet. Alpha cells are endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. ... The endocrine (i. ...

Regulatory mechanism

Decreased secretion of glucagon (inhibition) is caused by: In medicine, blood sugar is a term used to refer to levels of glucose in the blood. ... Catecholamines are chemical compounds derived from the amino acid tyrosine that act as hormones or neurotransmitters. ... In chemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that contains both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. ... Hypoglycemia (hypoglycÃ¦mia in the UK) is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood. ... Grays FIG. 838â€“ The right sympathetic chain and its connections with the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic plexuses. ... The chemical compound acetylcholine, often abbreviated as ACh, was the first neurotransmitter to be identified. ... Cholecystokinin (from Greek chole, bile; cysto, sac; kinin, move; hence, move the bile-sac (gall bladder)) is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein. ...

Somatostatin is a hormone. ... Insulin (from Latin insula, island, as it is produced in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas) is a polypeptide hormone that regulates carbohydrate metabolism. ...

Function

Glucagon helps maintain the level of glucose in the blood by binding to glucagon receptors on hepatocytes, causing the liver to release glucose - stored in the form of glycogen - through a process known as glycogenolysis. As these stores become depleted, glucagon then encourages the liver to synthesize additional glucose by gluconeogenesis. This glucose is released into the bloodstream. Both of these mechanisms lead to glucose release by the liver, preventing the development of hypoglycemia. Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is the most important carbohydrate in biology. ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... The glucagon receptor is a 62 kDa peptide that is activated by glucagon and is a member if the g-protein coupled family of receptors. ... Hepatocytes make up 60-80% of the cytoplasmic mass of the liver. ... The liver is an organ in some animals, including vertebrates (and therefore humans). ... Electron micrograph of a section of a liver cell showing glycogen deposits as accumulations of electron dense particles (arrows). ... Glycogenolysis is the catabolism of glycogen (requiring removal of glucose unit from glycogen and addition of phosphate) thus producing glucose 1-phosphate, and subsequently reconfigured (C-1 -> C-6) to yield glucose 6-phosphate, a potent reaction intermediary leading to glucose available to the blood and brain, pyruvic acid (yet... Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ...

In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (or organic acid), often with a long aliphatic tail (long chains), either saturated or unsaturated. ... Pyruvic acid Acetoacetic acid Levulinic acid Keto acids are organic acids containing a ketone functional group and a carboxylic acid group. ... Urea is an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen, with the formula CON2H4 or (NH2)2CO. Urea is also known as carbamide, especially in the recommended International Non-proprietary Names (rINN) in use in Europe. ...

Mechanism of action

Glucagon binds to the glucagon receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor located in the plasma membrane. The conformation change in the receptor activates G proteins, a heterotrimeric protein with alpha, beta and gamma subunits. The subunits breakup under GTP hydrolysis and the alpha subunit specifically activates the next enzyme in the cascade, adenylate cyclase. The glucagon receptor is a 62 kDa peptide that is activated by glucagon and is a member if the g-protein coupled family of receptors. ... Figure 1. ... Drawing of a cell membrane A component of every biological cell, the cell membrane (or plasma membrane) is a thin and structured bilayer of phospholipid and protein molecules that envelopes the cell. ... G-proteins, short for guanine nucleotide binding proteins, are a family of proteins involved in second messenger cascades. ... Adenylate cyclase Adenylate cyclase (EC 4. ...

Adenylate cyclase manufactures cAMP (cyclical AMP) which activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase. This enzyme in turn activates phosphorylase B kinase, which in turn, phosphorylates phosphorylase B. Phosphorylase B is the enzyme responsible for the release of glucose-1-phosphate from glycogen polymers. Camp may mean: Gatherings of people: Campsite Temporary settlement of a band of foragers. ... Glucose 1-phosphate is a glucose molecule with a phosphate group on the 1-carbon. ... Electron micrograph of a section of a liver cell showing glycogen deposits as accumulations of electron dense particles (arrows). ...

Pathology

Abnormally-elevated levels of glucagon may be caused by pancreatic tumors such as glucagonoma, symptoms of which include necrolytic migratory erythema (NME), elevated amino acids and hyperglycemia. It may occur alone or in the context of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Tumor or tumour literally means swelling, and is sometimes still used with that meaning. ... A glucagonoma is a rare tumor of the alpha cells of the pancreas that results in up to a 1000-fold overproduction of the hormone glucagon. ... Necrolytic migratory erythema (NME) is a classical symptom observed in patients with glucagonoma and is present in 80% of cases. ... Hyperglycemia or High Blood Sugar is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma. ... Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 is part of a group of disorders that affect the endocrine system. ...

Uses

An injectable form of glucagon is essential first aid in cases of severe hypoglycemia, usually in a dose of 1 milligram. The glucagon is given by intramuscular injection, and quickly raises blood glucose levels. Glucagon can be administered IV at 0.25 - 0.5 unit. Hypoglycemia (hypoglycÃ¦mia in the UK) is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood. ...

Anecdotal evidence suggests a benefit of higher doses of glucagon in the treatment of overdose with beta blockers; the likely mechanism of action is the increase of cAMP in the myocardium, effectively bypassing the inhibitory action of the β-adrenergic second messenger system.^[3] Beta blockers or beta-adrenergic blocking agents are a class of drugs used to treat a variety of cardiovascular conditions and some other diseases. ...

Media

Image File history File links Animation of a rotating glucagon structure. ... The Lake Palanskoye in northern Kamchatka was formed when a large landslide disrupted the drainage pattern, forming a natural dam. ... A megabyte is a unit of information or computer storage equal to exactly one million bytes. ... GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) is a bitmap image format that is widely used on the World Wide Web, both for still images and for animations. ...

References in pop culture

In contemporary usage, parody is a form of satire that imitates another work of art in order to ridicule it. ... Weird Al Yankovic (album) Alfred Matthew Weird Al Yankovic (IPA pronunciation: ; born October 23, 1959) is an American musician, satirist, parodist, accordionist, and television producer. ... The pancreas is an organ in the digestive and endocrine system that serves two major functions: exocrine (producing pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones, including insulin). ... Straight Outta Lynwood is the 12th album by Weird Al Yankovic. ... Insulin (from Latin insula, island, as it is produced in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas) is a polypeptide hormone that regulates carbohydrate metabolism. ... The endocrine (i. ...

References

See also

v • d • e

Endocrine system: hormones and endocrine glands

Peptide hormones, Steroid hormones Insulin (from Latin insula, island, as it is produced in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas) is a polypeptide hormone that regulates carbohydrate metabolism. ... For the disease characterized by excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine, see diabetes insipidus. ... Proglucagon is a precursor of glucagon, and several other components. ... The endocrine (i. ... The pancreas is an organ in the digestive and endocrine system that serves two major functions: exocrine (producing pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones, including insulin). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Norepinephrine A hormone (from Greek ÏŒÏÎ¼Î® - to set in motion) is a chemical messenger from one cell (or group of cells) to another. ... An endocrine gland is one of a set of internal organs involved in the secretion of hormones into the blood. ... Peptide hormones are a class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals. ... Steroid hormones are steroids which act as hormones. ...

Hypothalamus: TRH, CRH , GnRH, GHRH, somatostatin, dopamine - Posterior pituitary: vasopressin, oxytocin, lipotropin - Anterior pituitary: GH, ACTH, , LH, FSH, prolactin, endorphins, POMC (TSH, MSH, lipotropin) - Pineal gland: melatonin The hypothalamus (from Greek á½‘Ï€Î¿Î¸Î±Î»Î±Î¼Î¿Ï‚ = under the thalamus) is a region of the mammalian brain located below the thalamus, forming the major portion of the ventral region of the diencephalon and functioning to regulate certain metabolic processes and other autonomic activities. ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), also called thyrotropin-releasing factor (TRF) or protirelin, is a tripeptide hormone that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by the anterior pituitary. ... Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), also called corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) or corticoliberin, is a polypeptide hormone involved in the stress response. ... Gonadotropin-releasing hormone 1 (GNRH1 also called LHRH) is a peptide hormone responsible for the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary. ... Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), also known as growth hormone-releasing factor (GRF or GHRF), is a 44-amino acid peptide hormone produced in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. ... Somatostatin is a hormone. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The posterior pituitary (also called the neurohypophysis) comprises the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. ... Arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as argipressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a human hormone that is mainly released when the body is low on water; it causes the kidneys to conserve water by concentrating the urine and reducing urine volume. ... Oxytocin should not be confused with oxycodone hydrochloride whose trade name is OxyContin. ... Lipotropin is a pituitary hormone It comes in two forms: gamma lipotropin (Î³-LPH) beta lipotropin (Î²-LPH) It is derived from proopiomelanocortin. ... The anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis) comprises the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. ... Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin) is a 191 amino acid, single chain polypeptide hormone which is synthesised, stored and secreted by the stomatotraph cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland, which stimulates growth and cell reproduction in humans and other vertebrate animals. ... Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH or corticotropin) is a polypeptide hormone synthesised (from POMC, pre-opiomelanocortin) and secreted from corticotropes in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland in response to the hormone corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) released by the hypothalamus. ... Luteinizing hormone (LH) is a hormone synthesized and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. ... Follicle stimulating hormone Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is a hormone synthesised and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland. ... Prolactin is a peptide hormone synthesised and secreted by lactotrope cells in the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary gland). ... // Runners high redirects here. ... Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) is a precursor polypeptide with 241 amino acid residues. ... Thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as TSH or thyrotropin) is a hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland. ... Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) is a peptide hormone produced by cells in the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland. ... Lipotropin is a pituitary hormone It comes in two forms: gamma lipotropin (Î³-LPH) beta lipotropin (Î²-LPH) It is derived from proopiomelanocortin. ... The pineal gland (also called the pineal body or epiphysis) is a small endocrine gland in the brain. ... Melatonin, 5-methoxy-N-acetyltryptamine, is a hormone found in all living creatures from algae[1] to humans, at levels that vary in a diurnal cycle. ...

Thyroid: thyroid hormone (T₃ and T₄) - Parathyroid: PTH - Adrenal medulla: epinephrine, norepinephrine - Adrenal cortex: aldosterone, cortisol, DHEA - Pancreas: glucagon- insulin, somatostatin The thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. ... The thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. ... The thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. ... Categories: Anatomy stubs | Endocrine system ... Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is secreted by the parathyroid glands as a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids. ... In mammals, the adrenal gland (also known as suprarenal glands) are the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit atop the kidneys; their name indicates that position (ad, near or at + renes, kidneys). They are chiefly responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol... Adrenaline redirects here. ... Norepinephrine (INN) or noradrenaline (BAN) is a catecholamine and a phenethylamine with chemical formula C8H11NO3. ... In mammals, the adrenal gland (also known as suprarenal glands) are the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit atop the kidneys; their name indicates that position (ad, near or at + renes, kidneys). They are chiefly responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol... Aldosterone is a steroid hormone synthesized from cholesterol by the enzyme aldosterone synthase. ... Cortisol is a corticosteroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that is involved in the response to stress; it increases blood pressure, blood sugar levels, may cause infertility in women, and suppresses the immune system. ... Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), is a natural steroid hormone produced from cholesterol by the adrenal glands, the gonads, adipose tissue and the brain. ... The pancreas is an organ in the digestive and endocrine system that serves two major functions: exocrine (producing pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones, including insulin). ... Insulin (from Latin insula, island, as it is produced in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas) is a polypeptide hormone that regulates carbohydrate metabolism. ... Somatostatin is a hormone. ...

Kidney: renin, EPO, calcitriol, prostaglandin - Heart atrium: ANP - Stomach: gastrin, ghrelin - Duodenum: CCK, GIP, secretin, motilin, VIP - Ileum: enteroglucagon - Liver: IGF-1 - Adipose tissue: leptin, adiponectin It has been suggested that Renal anomalies and Renal plasma threshold be merged into this article or section. ... Renin, also known as angiotensinogenase, is a circulating enzyme (EC 3. ... Erythropoietin (IPA pronunciation: , alternative pronunciations: ) or EPO is a glycoprotein hormone that is a cytokine for erythrocyte (red blood cell) precursors in the bone marrow. ... Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ... Chemical structure of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). ... In anatomy, the atrium (plural: atria) is the blood collection chamber of a heart. ... Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) or atriopeptin, is a polypeptide hormone involved in the homeostatic control of body water and sodium. ... It has been suggested that some sections of this article be split into a new article entitled Human stomach. ... In humans, gastrin is a hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric acid by the stomach. ... Ghrelin is a hormone that is produced by cells lining the stomach and stimulates the appetite. ... In anatomy of the digestive system, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. ... Cholecystokinin (from Greek chole, bile; cysto, sac; kinin, move; hence, move the bile-sac (gall bladder)) is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein. ... Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) is a member of the secretin family of hormones. ... Secretin is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum. ... Motilin is a polypeptide hormone secreted by the small intestine that increases gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin. ... VIP is a peptide hormone containing 28 amino acid residues. ... Grays Fig. ... An editor has expressed a concern that the topic of this article may be unencyclopedic. ... The liver is an organ in some animals, including vertebrates (and therefore humans). ... Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is a polypeptide protein hormone similar in molecular structure to insulin. ... It has been suggested that Subcutaneous fat be merged into this article or section. ... Leptin is a 16 kDa protein hormone that plays a key role in regulating energy intake and energy expenditure, including the regulation of appetite and metabolism. ... Adiponectin (also referred to as Acrp30, apM1) is a protein hormone that modulates a number of metabolic processes, including glucose regulation and fatty acid catabolism. ...

Testis: testosterone, AMH, inhibin - Ovary: estradiol, progesterone, inhibin, activin, relaxin (pregnancy) - Placenta: hCG, HPL, estrogen, progesterone Human male anatomy The testicles, known medically as testes (singular testis), are the male generative glands in animals. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Anti-MÃ¼llerian hormone (AMH) is a dimeric glycoprotein that inhibits the development of the MÃ¼llerian ducts in a male embryo. ... Inhibin is a peptide that is an inhibitor of FSH synthesis and secretion and participates in the regulation of the menstrual cycle. ... For ovary as part of plants see ovary (plants) Ovaries are egg-producing reproductive organs found in female organisms. ... Estradiol (17Î²-estradiol) (also oestradiol) is a sex hormone. ... Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. ... Inhibin is a peptide that is an inhibitor of FSH synthesis and secretion and participates in the regulation of the menstrual cycle. ... Activin is a peptide that enhances FSH synthesis and secretion and participates in the regulation of the menstrual cycle. ... Categories: Possible copyright violations ... The placenta is an ephemeral (temporary) organ present only in female placental vertebrates during gestation (pregnancy). ... Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a peptide hormone produced in pregnancy, that is made by the embryo soon after conception and later by the syncytiotrophoblast (part of the placenta). ... Human placental lactogen (HPL), also called human chorionic somatomammotropin, is a polypeptide placental hormone. ... Estriol. ... Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. ...

Target-derived NGF, BDNF, NT-3 Nerve growth factor (NGF), the prototypical growth factor, is a protein secreted by a neurons target. ... Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is exactly as it states; a neurotrophic factor usually derived in the brain. ... Neurotrophin-3, or NT-3 is a neurotrophic factor, in the NGF (Nerve Growth Factor)-family of neurotrophins. ...

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