Etymology

Graphology: graphos (from the Greek γράφειν): writing / logos (from the Greek λόγος: science.

It is a generic, as for instance: Anthropology, Psychology, Biology, Geology. With the lexeme Grapho (from the Greek: γράφειν ) there are many words generic: Graphopatology, Graphomaniac, Graphistic, Graphopsychology, psychoGraphology, Graphometric, Graphometry, Graphotechnology,

Graphology is the study and analysis of handwriting especially in relation to human psychology. In the medical field, it can be used to refer to the study of handwriting as an aid in diagnosis and tracking of diseases of the brain and nervous system. The term is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to forensic document examination. Penmanship is the art of writing clearly and quickly. ... Psychological science redirects here. ... Questioned document examination (QDE) is known by many names including forensic document examination, document examination, diplomatics, handwriting examination, and sometimes handwriting analysis, although the latter name is not often used as it may be confused with graphology. ...

Graphology has been a controversial field for more than a century. Although supporters point to the anecdotal evidence of thousands of positive testimonials as a reason to use it for personality evaluation, most empirical studies fail to show the validity claimed by its supporters.^[1][2] Anecdotal evidence is an informal account of evidence in the form of an anecdote, or hearsay. ...

Basic tenets

Graphology is based upon the following basic assertions:

• When we write, the ego is active but it is not always active to the same degree. Its activity waxes and wanes; being at its highest level when an effort has to be made by the writer and at its lowest level when the motion of the writing organ has gained momentum and is driven by it.

• When the action of writing is comparatively difficult, the writer uses those forms of letters which are simpler or more familiar.

• The muscular movements involved in writing are controlled by the central nervous system. The form of the resultant writing movement is modified further by the flexibly assembled coordinative structures in the hand, arm, and shoulder; which follow the principles of dynamical systems. The specific writing organ (mouth, foot, hand, crook of elbow) is irrelevant if it functions normally and is sufficiently adapted to its function.

• The neurophysiological mechanisms which contribute to the written movement are related to conditions within the central nervous system and vary in accordance with them. The written strokes, therefore, reflect both transitory and long term changes in the central nervous system such as Parkinson's disease, or alcohol usage.

• The movements and corresponding levels of muscular tension in writing are mostly outside of conscious control and subject to the ideomotor effect. Emotion, mental state, and biomechanical factors such as muscle stiffness and elasticity are reflected in a person's handwriting.

• One must examine the handwriting or drawing movements by considering them as movements organized by the central nervous system and produced under biomechanical and dynamical constraints. Given these considerations, graphologists proceed to evaluate the pattern, form, movement, rhythm, quality, and consistency of the graphic stroke in terms of psychological interpretations. Such interpretations vary according to the graphological theory applied by the analyst.

• Most schools of thought in graphology concur that a single graphological element can be a component of many different clusters, with each cluster having a different psychological interpretation. The significance of the cluster can be assessed accurately by tracing each component of the cluster back to their origins and adapting the meaning of the latter to the conditions of the milieu in which the form appears.

For other uses of ego and id, see EGO and ID. Id, ego, and superego are the three components of the human mind in the psychoanalytic model introduced by Sigmund Freud in the early 20th century. ... A diagram showing the CNS: 1. ... The Lorenz attractor is an example of a non-linear dynamical system. ... The ideomotor effect is a psychological phenomenon wherein a subject makes motions unconsciously (i. ...

Some basic examples

A sampling from various popular Graphology books ^{[3] [4]} provide these interpretations:

Approaches to graphology

Integrative graphology 

This approach holds that specific stroke structures relate to personality traits. Most systems within this approach use a cluster of stroke formations, to score a specific personality trait. Systems that fall under this umbrella are: fixed signs, trait stroke, French System and Graphoanalysis. It has been described as starting from the inside, and working to the outside.

Holistic graphology 

This is commonly, but incorrectly referred to as Gestalt Graphology. Gestalt graphology was a system of handwriting analysis developed circa 1915 in Germany and was related theoretically to Gestalt psychology. In this approach (Holistic Graphology) a profile is constructed on the basis of form, movement and space. It has been described as starting from the outside, and working to the inside. In this approach, individual traits, such as legibility, are not assigned specific meanings, but can take on different meanings depending on the overall context.

Symbolic analysis 

In this approach, one looks for symbols seen in the handwriting. This can be either Major symbolism, or Minor Symbolism.

• Major symbolism is the meaning ascribed to the stroke, as it related to the page.
• Minor symbolism ascribes a meaning to the stroke, depending upon the picture that the stroke draws. For example, John Wayne's signature shows a blackened out portion, that represents his lung cancer.

This approach provides the theory that underlies both Holistic Graphology, and Integrative Graphology. Max Pulver^[5][6][7][8] is the best known exponent of this system.

Graphoanalysis (a registered trademark of the International Graphoanalysis Society) is a system of Handwriting Analysis that falls within the approach of Integrative Graphology. ... Gestalt psychology (also Gestalt theory of the Berlin School) is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies; or, that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. ... For other persons named John Wayne, see John Wayne (disambiguation). ... Lung cancer is a disease of uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. ... The author of three graphology books (1931,1934 and 1949) and several articles. ...

Systems of handwriting analysis

Each approach to handwriting analysis has spawned several different systems.

• Integrative Graphology
  • Graphoanalysis was the most influential system in the United States, between 1929 and 2000.
  • Sistema de Xandró.^[9][10][11]

• Holistic Graphology
  • The psychogram^[12][13][14] is the only system to have been taught as part of an academic degree, at an accredited institution in the United States .
  • The Personal Worth Chart was developed by Handwriting Consultants of San Diego^[15] during the early eighties.
  • The psychograph ^[16] was developed by Leslie King during the seventies.
  • Wittlich Character Diagram.^[17][18]
  • Muller - Enskat Protokol^[19][20]
  • Szondi
  • Girolamo Moretti ^[21][22]
  • Augusto Vels The Augusto Vels’s system was verified on the doctoral thesis: "Grafología pedagógica: principios-normas-aplicaciones" (translation: "Pedagogic graphology: principles- procedure-applications") presented by the Mother María Mercedes Almela Sanchis (1962) at the University of Barcelona

Graphoanalysis (a registered trademark of the International Graphoanalysis Society) is a system of Handwriting Analysis that falls within the approach of Integrative Graphology. ... The term psychogram was coined by Hollingworth in 1922, and now refers, in general, to any chart on which personality traits are marked according to a guiding psychological viewpoint. ... The term psychogram was coined by Hollingworth in 1922, and now refers, in general, to any chart on which personality traits are marked according to a guiding psychological viewpoint. ... The term psychogram was coined by Hollingworth in 1922, and now refers, in general, to any chart on which personality traits are marked according to a guiding psychological viewpoint. ...

Training

The only academic institutions in the world that currently offer an accredited degree in handwriting analysis are:

• The University of Urbino, Italy: MA (Graphology)
• The LUMSA University in Rome, Italy: BA (Graphology)
• Emerson University College, Buenos Aires, Argentina: BA (Graphology)
• Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona: Spain: MA (Graphology)

The University of Urbino (Università degli Studi di Urbino, UNIURB) is the university of Urbino, a quite small Renaissance city in the north-eastern part of central Italy. ... The Autonomous University of Barcelona (Catalan: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spanish: Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, UAB) is a public university located in Bellaterra, very close to the city of Barcelona in Spain. ...

Training in the United States

Between 1940 and 1995, New School for Social Research, in New York City, offered a diploma in Graphology. At its peak, the diploma course took 8 semesters, and also included Forensic Document Analysis. This diploma did not have academic accreditation. The New School is an institution of higher learning in New York City, located around Greenwich Village in Lower Manhattan. ... Questioned document examination (QDE) is known by many names including forensic document examination, document examination, diplomatics, handwriting examination, and sometimes handwriting analysis, although the latter name is not often used as it may be confused with graphology. ...

From 1970 to 2000, one could obtain a Graphology track Associate Arts Degree from Felician College, in Lodi, NJ. This was the only academic institution in the United States to have offered graphology for an accredited academic degree. Felician College is a private Roman Catholic college with two campuses, located in Lodi and Rutherford, New Jersey. ...

Training in the United States is currently available through correspondence courses. The quality of instructions varies considerably. Look for instructors that have a successful track record in teaching handwriting analysis.

Writing systems

The majority of material in the field is oriented towards the Latin Writing system. Courses offered in the subject reflect that bias.

Before taking any course, or certification, ensure that it is usable for the local writing system. Writing systems of the world today. ...

Certification

There is no certification that is generally recognized, either within or without the field. Certifications are invariably linked to the organization one belongs to, and are no longer recognized when one resigns from the organization.

Vocabulary

Every system of handwriting analysis has its own vocabulary. Even though two or more systems may share the same words, the meanings of those words may be different. The technical meaning of a word used by a handwriting analyst, and the common meaning is not congruent. Resentment, for example, in common usage, means to feel or exhibit annoyance. In Graphoanalysis, the term indicates a fear of imposition.^[23][24] Graphoanalysis (a registered trademark of the International Graphoanalysis Society) is a system of Handwriting Analysis that falls within the approach of Integrative Graphology. ...

History

In the West, the book: Examen de ingenios para las ciencias 1575, written by Juan Huarte de San Juan (medical Spanish) according to the research of Jean Charles Gille.

Prospero Aldorisio's ^[25] 1611 manuscript is probably the first book to describe how to analyze handwriting. The major contender is Camilo Baldi's manuscript ^[26] which was unofficially published in 1622. The 1625 edition was probably the first authorized edition of Baldi's book.

Around 1830 Abbé Michon became interested in handwriting analysis. He published his findings ^{[27] [28]} shortly after founding Société Graphologique in 1871. The most prominent of his disciples was J. Crépieux-Jamin who rapidly published a series of books ^{[29] [30]} that were soon published in other languages ^{[31] [32]}. Starting from Michon's integrative approach, Crépieux-Jamin ended up with a holistic approach to graphology.

Alfred Binet was convinced to do research into graphology from 1893 to 1907. He ended up calling it "The science of the future", despite graphologists' rejecting the results of his research. Alfred Binet Alfred Binet (July 8, 1857 – October 18, 1911), French psychologist and inventor of the first usable intelligence test, the basis of todays IQ test. ...

After World War I, interest in graphology continued to spread in Europe as well as the United States. In Germany during the 1920s, Ludwig Klages founded and published his finding in Zeitschrift für Menschenkunde (Journal for the Study of Mankind). His major contribution to the field can be found in Handschrift und Charakter ^[33][34]. “The Great War ” redirects here. ... Friedrich Konrad Eduard Wilhelm Ludwig Klages (born December 10, 1872 in Hannover; died July 29, 1956 in Kilchberg, Zurich) was a German philosopher, psychologist and one of the founders of the graphology. ...

Thea Stein Lewinson and J. Zubin modified Klage's ideas, based upon their experience working for the U.S. Government, publishing their method in 1942^[35].

In 1929 Milton Bunker founded The American Grapho Analysis Society teaching Graphoanalysis. This organization and its system split the American graphology world in two. Students had to choose between Graphoanalysis or Holistic Graphology. Whilst hard data is lacking, anecdotal evidence indicates that 10% of the members of International Graphoanalysis Society(IGAS) were expelled between 1970 and 1980 ^[36]. By the time Peter Ferrera died in 1991, the decimation of IGAS members had resulted in a decline of the influence of Graphoanalysis, and IGAS on American graphology. Graphoanalysis (a registered trademark of the International Graphoanalysis Society) is a system of Handwriting Analysis that falls within the approach of Integrative Graphology. ...

Klara G. Roman was the most prominent of the German refugee scholars. Her books are still considered to be foundations for contemporary American Holistic graphology. She taught at the New School for Social Research in New York, and was succeeded there by Daniel S. Anthony and Florence Anthony. New School University is an institute of higher learning in New York City. ...

Handwriting Workshops Unlimited was organized by Charlie Cole as a series of lectures for advanced students of Graphoanalysis. These lectures featured holistic graphologists such as Thea Lewinson and Klara Roman. By 1960 all of the participants had been expelled by IGAS. These individuals went on to form the American Handwriting Analysis Foundation. Later mass expulsions of IGAS members led to the formation of other societies, such as the American Association of Handwriting Analysts that were orientated towards Holistic graphology.

In 1972 talks between the American Handwriting Analysis Foundation and the American Association of Handwriting Analysis started, with the aim to form a single organization. Those talks resulted in the creation of the Council of Graphological Societies in 1976.

Since the rise of the Internet in the early 1990s, the graphology organizations have suffered major declines in membership. However, due to email lists, communication between graphologists representing different approaches has increased.

Validity

Although graphology had some early support in the scientific community such as Fluckinger, Tripp & Weinberg(1961) ^[37] , Lockowandte (1976) ^[38] and Nevo(1986) ^[39], the results of most of the recent surveys on the ability for graphology to access personality and job performance have been negative ^[40]. Graphology is primarily used as a recruiting tool to screen candidates during the evaluation process. Many studies have been conducted to assess its effectiveness to predict personality and job performance. Recent studies testing the validity of using handwriting for predicting personality traits have been consistently negative ^[39], the results of most of the recent surveys on the ability for graphology to access personality and job performance have been negative as well ^[40]. Here are some of the specific results for the personality tests:

• Graphologists were unable to predict scores on the Eysenck personality questionnaire using writing samples from the same people^[2]
• Graphologists were unable to predict scores on the Myers-Briggs test using writing samples from the same people^[41]
• Using meta-analysis drawn from over 200 studies, graphologists were generally unable to predict any kind of personality trait on any personality test^[42]

Graphologists didn't do better to assess job performance: Hans Jurgen Eysenck (March 4, 1916 - September 4, 1997) was a British psychologist. ... The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assessment is a psychometric questionnaire designed to identify certain psychological differences according to the typological theories of Carl Gustav Jung as published in his 1921 book Psychological Types (English edition, 1923). ... A meta-analysis is a statistical practice of combining the results of a number of studies. ...

• Professional graphologists using handwriting analysis were just as ineffective as lay people at predicting performance^[43]
• A broad literature screen done by King and Koehler confirmed dozens of studies showing the mechanical aspects of graphology (slant, slope, etc.) are essentially worthless predictors of job performance.^[40]

The best way to summarize the appeal that graphology has despite the complete lack of empirical evidence has been put up by Dr Rowan Bayne, a British psychologist who wrote several studies on graphology: "It's very seductive because at a very crude level someone who is neat and well behaved tends to have neat handwriting" and then added that the practice was "useless... absolutely hopeless".^[44]. It is also worth noting that the British Psychological Society for example ranks graphology alongside astrology - giving them both "zero validity"^[44]. Empirical research is any activity that uses direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. ... The British Psychological Society (BPS) is the representative body for psychologists and psychology in the United Kingdom. ... Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut (1888). ...

Overall, despite a few studies that support handwriting analysis, such as Crumbaugh & Stockholm ^[45], the large majority of studies such as Ben-Shakar, Bar-Hillel, Blum, Ben-Abba, & Flug ^[46] and many others indicate overwhelming evidence against its predictive validity.

The Viñals & Puente’s system was verified, as psychological autopsy, on the doctoral thesis “Dr. César Comas Llabería” presented by Francesca Portolés Brasó (2004) at the University of Barcelona (Spain/Europe).

Additional Specific objections

• The Barnum effect and the Dr Fox effect ^[47]. These phenomena make it difficult to validate methods of personality testing. These describe the observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. See, for example, Tallent(1958)^[48]. Non-individualized graphological reports give credence to this criticism.

• Effect Size: Dean's(1992)^[49][50] primary argument against the use of graphology is that the effect size is too small. Regardless of the validity of handwriting analysis, the research results imply that it is not applicable for any specific individual, but may be applicable to a group.

• Vagueness: One of the key points of attack for critics is the ease with which a graphologist can alter the "rules." Formniveau, for example, interprets a sign positively if the individual is high status, and negatively if the individual has low status^{[citation needed]}.

Many skeptics believe the popularity of horoscopes (and astrology in general) is due to the Forer Effect. ... In statistics, effect size is a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables. ...

Legal considerations

Privacy

Graphologists often claim that handwriting analysis in the workplace is legal^[51], citing one or more of the following cases:

• Gilbert v California :388 US 263-267 (1967)
• US v Dionisio :410 US 1 (1973) 1973, Lawyers Edition, Second Series 35, 67; 93 SC 774
• US v Mara aka Marasovich :410 US 19 (1973)
• US v Rosinsky :547 F 2nd 249 ( CA 4th 1977 )
• United States v Wade  :388 US 218, 221-223 (1967)

All of these cases are about Fifth Amendment rights in a criminal investigation. These cases do not address issues relating to psychological analysis of an individual. Neither do they address third party issues. Amendment V (the Fifth Amendment) of the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, is related to legal procedure. ...

A Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information report ^[52] states that handwriting analysis without informed consent is a privacy violation.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

Many graphologists claim that handwriting analysis is non-discriminatory, since it cannot determine Gender, Age, Ethnicity, or other EEOC Protected Classes.^[53] However, thus far, there have been no studies demonstrating that the use of handwriting analysis in employment does not have a disparate impact upon EEOC protected classes. External link: Official site Categories: Stub | United States federal agencies ...

There have been a number of studies on gender^{[54][55][56][57]} and handwriting. Uniformly the research indicates that gender can be determined at a significant level. The published studies on ethnicity^[58][59][60], race^[61][62][63], age^[64][65][66], nationality^[67], gender orientation, weight, and their relationship to handwriting have had mixed results, with a tendency to indicate that they can be determined from handwriting.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

One of the rules of thumb in human resources is that if an individual who has an ADA-defined disability cannot take a test, then nobody can. As a result, tests that cannot be adapted for use by those individuals will not be used by a company. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) is the short title of United States Public Law 101-336, 104 Stat. ...

Handwriting clearly falls into the group of tests that cannot be adapted to be administered to individuals who fall within one or more ADA-defined disabilities. Blind people, for example, do not develop the required fluency in handwriting, for the writing to be correctly analyzed.

Questions that Handwriting Analysts ask before doing an analysis can be illegal under this act.^[68]

Graphology in court testimony

Cameron v Knapp, 137 Misc. 2d 373, 520 N.Y.S.2d 917 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. Co. 1987) (handwriting expert may testify as to the authenticity of a writing but not as to an individual's physical or mental condition based on a handwriting sample) stands as current U.S. case law for the rejection of graphology as psychological testimony.

Carroll v State [276 Ark 160; 634 SW 2d 99, 101-102 (1982)] will be remembered for its implications on the propriety of allowing graphologists to testify. The opposing Handwriting Analysts displayed a distinct lack of professional courtesy to each other. In doing so, they undermined the scientific validity of both Integrative Graphology and Holistic Graphology.^[50]

Daubert

Daubert defined several criteria that admissible expert testimony has to meet. The Daubert Standard is a legal precedent set in 1993 by the Supreme Court of the United States regarding the admissibility of expert witnesses testimony during legal proceedings. ...

• Be falsifiable, refutable, and testable;
• Be valid and reliable;
• Subject to published peer review;
• Held to standards within the field;
• Be generally accepted in the Scientific Community;

Depending upon the specific system of handwriting analysis that is used, it fails between two and five criteria.

Applications of graphology

Employment profiling

A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and proceeds to do a personality profile, matching the congruency of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position.^[69]

A graphological report is meant to be used in conjunction with other tools, such as comprehensive background checks, practical demonstration or record of work skills. Graphology supporters state that it can complement but not replace traditional hiring tools.

Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure ^[70] to guarded success.^[71] The most substantial reason for not using handwriting analysis in the employment process is the absence of evidence of a direct link between handwriting analysis and various measures of job performance^[72]

The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical grounds^[73] and on legal grounds.^[74]

Business compatibility

This is an additional service offered by some handwriting analysts. The focus of these reports can be one, or more of the following:

Company-wide 

This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the company.

The average company employee 

For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire company are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with the focus being how good a fit the individual is.

Division wide 

This is a report that describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the division.

The average division employee 

For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire division are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with focus being how well the individual will fit into the existing company psychodynamic profile.

Unit wide 

This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the unit.

The average unit employee 

For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire unit are used, to create three hypothetical employees. Those are then compared to the applicant, with a focus on how good a fit the individual is.

The unit manager / Co-worker 

This explores the differences in personal style between a manager/co-worker and potential employee. The end result is on how each can maximize productivity and minimize personal friction.

Composite reports 

This explores the difference in personal style between every employee in a group. The idea is for each member of the group to learn not only their own strengths and weakness, but also those of their co-workers, and how they can more harmoniously work together. The resulting reports not only deal with the individual on a one-to-one level within the group, but also each individual as a part of a group of three, four, five, etc people within the group.

The content of these reports can range from a simple perspectrograph, to a four wheel Wittlich Diagram and accompanying twenty five thousand word analysis.

Psychological analysis

These reports can range from a ten item check off list to a 25 page report on the makeup of an individual from the perspective of Freudian Psychoanalysis, Transactional Analysis^[75], or another personality theory. Today psychoanalysis comprises several interlocking theories concerning the functioning of the mind. ... Transactional analysis, commonly known as TA to its adherents, is a psychoanalytic (ie, consciously post-Freudian) theory of psychology developed by Canadian-born US psychiatrist Eric Berne during the late 1950s. ... Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies personality and individual differences. ...

A major value of a graphological analysis lies in the increased understanding of people and the ability consequently to enjoy improved relationships both personally and professionally.^[76]

Marital compatibility

In its simplest form only sexual expression and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual(s). The basic theory is that after knowing and understanding how each other is different, any commitment that is made will be more enduring. Typically done for couples, it is not unknown for a polyamorous group to obtain a report prior to the commitment ceremony of a new individual.

In cultures where arranged marriages are common, graphology can be used as an additional checkpoint on the compatibility of the couple prior to the elders giving their consent for the marriage to take place.

Medical diagnosis

Medical graphology ^[77] is probably the most controversial aspect of handwriting analysis. Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this article but an examination of factors pertaining to motor control. Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, pressure, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents. ^[78]. The study of these phenomena is a byproduct of researchers investigating motor control processes and the interaction of nervous, anatomical, and biomechanical systems of the body.

Alfred Kanfer published several papers^[79][80] whose implication was that cancer could be detected using detailed examination of handwriting under the microscope, prior to standard medical tests available at the time. Kanfer reported successful results but subsequent efforts to replicate the studies were unsuccessful.

The Vanguard Code of Ethical Practice, amongst others, prohibits medical diagnosis unless one is also licensed to do diagnosis in the state in which they practice.

Jury screening

A graphologist is given handwriting samples of a prospective jury and determines who should be struck, based upon their alleged personality profile. After the trial has begun, the graphologist advises counsel on how to slant their case, for the most favorable response from the jury.^[81]

Graphotherapy

This is the practice of changing a person's handwriting with the goal of changing features of his or her personality. It was pioneered in France during the nineteen-thirties, spreading to the United states in the late fifties. ^[82][83]

The therapy consists of a series of exercises which are similar to those taught in basic calligraphy courses, sometimes in conjunction with music or positive self-talk. There have been anecdotal reports of these exercises curing everything from drug addiction^[82] to anorexia nervosa,^[84] and back to borderline personality disorder.^[82] For other uses, see Anorexia. ... Borderline Personality Disorder (DSM-IV Personality Disorders 301. ...

Forensic document examination

This discipline is better known as questioned document examination within the judicial system. This is used to determine whether or not a document was written by the person who is thought to have written it. As such, this is not an aspect of graphology. Questioned document examination (QDE) is known by many names including forensic document examination, document examination, diplomatics, handwriting examination, and sometimes handwriting analysis, although the latter name is not often used as it may be confused with graphology. ...

Goodtitle Drevett v Braham 100 Eng Rep 1139 (1792) is reportedly the first case at which the testimony of a questioned document examiner was accepted.

Divination

Some individuals believe that one can tell the future from handwriting analysis. Others believe that a handwriting analyst can provide spiritual guidance on situations that they face. These beliefs are claimed to be false for reasons ranging from the complete lack of either scientific or anecdotal evidence, to the application of Aristotelian logic to any of the numerous (and mutually incompatible) theories of handwriting analysis. Most graphologists reject supernatural insights from their assessment of handwriting. Aristotelian logic, also known as syllogistic logic, is the particular type of logic created by Aristotle, primarily in his works Prior Analytics and De Interpretatione. ...

The code of ethics for the International Graphoanalysis Society, British Association of Graphology, and Association Déontologique Européenne de Graphologie prohibits the practice of anything related to the occult. IGAS is the abbreviation for International Graphoanalysis Society. ... For other uses, see Occult (disambiguation). ...

References

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 240th day of the year (241st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... The author of three graphology books (1931,1934 and 1949) and several articles. ... The author of three graphology books (1931,1934 and 1949) and several articles. ... The author of three graphology books (1931,1934 and 1949) and several articles. ... The author of three graphology books (1931,1934 and 1949) and several articles. ... The Inspection Générale des Affaires Sociales (IGAS), created in 1967, is a French governmental body concerned with health and social policies. ... The Inspection Générale des Affaires Sociales (IGAS), created in 1967, is a French governmental body concerned with health and social policies. ... Friedrich Konrad Eduard Wilhelm Ludwig Klages (born December 10, 1872 in Hannover; died July 29, 1956 in Kilchberg, Zurich) was a German philosopher, psychologist and one of the founders of the graphology. ... Friedrich Konrad Eduard Wilhelm Ludwig Klages (born December 10, 1872 in Hannover; died July 29, 1956 in Kilchberg, Zurich) was a German philosopher, psychologist and one of the founders of the graphology. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Era (or Anno Domini), in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 175th day of the year (176th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Dr. Barry L Beyerstein, Ph. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 75th day of the year (76th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Era (or Anno Domini), in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 172nd day of the year (173rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Alfred Binet Alfred Binet (July 8, 1857 – October 18, 1911), French psychologist and inventor of the first usable intelligence test, the basis of todays IQ test. ... Alfred Binet Alfred Binet (July 8, 1857 – October 18, 1911), French psychologist and inventor of the first usable intelligence test, the basis of todays IQ test. ... Alfred Binet Alfred Binet (July 8, 1857 – October 18, 1911), French psychologist and inventor of the first usable intelligence test, the basis of todays IQ test. ... Alfred Binet Alfred Binet (July 8, 1857 – October 18, 1911), French psychologist and inventor of the first usable intelligence test, the basis of todays IQ test. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

See also

Systems of handwriting analysis

• Graphoanalysis
• Psychogram

Graphoanalysis (a registered trademark of the International Graphoanalysis Society) is a system of Handwriting Analysis that falls within the approach of Integrative Graphology. ... The term psychogram was coined by Hollingworth in 1922, and now refers, in general, to any chart on which personality traits are marked according to a guiding psychological viewpoint. ...

Graphologists

• Ludwig Klages
• Léopold Szondi
• Robert Saudek
• Max Pulver

Friedrich Konrad Eduard Wilhelm Ludwig Klages (born December 10, 1872 in Hannover; died July 29, 1956 in Kilchberg, Zurich) was a German philosopher, psychologist and one of the founders of the graphology. ... Léopold Szondi - Szondi Lipót (March 11, 1893 - January 24, 1986) was a Hungarian psychiatrist. ... Robert Saudek had an undeniable influence on the content and standing of graphology worldwide. ... The author of three graphology books (1931,1934 and 1949) and several articles. ...

Organizations of handwriting analysts

• International Graphoanalysis Society

IGAS is the abbreviation for International Graphoanalysis Society. ...

Related fields

• Asemic writing
• Questioned document examination
• Calligraphy
• Graphonomics
• Doodle

Asemic writing is an open semantic form of writing. ... Questioned document examination (QDE) is known by many names including forensic document examination, document examination, diplomatics, handwriting examination, and sometimes handwriting analysis, although the latter name is not often used as it may be confused with graphology. ... Contemporary Western Calligraphy. ... The interdisciplinary field of graphonomics is directed towards the scientific analysis of the handwriting process and the handwritten product. ... For other uses, see Doodle (disambiguation). ...

External links

• Graphology at the Open Directory Project
• Skeptic's Dictionary entry on graphology
• BBC article about graphology
• How Graphology Fools People
• "Michon and the Birth of Scientific Graphology" from Vanguard graphological journal January-March 2007
• Graphological analysis based on Moretti's method

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The Open Directory Project (ODP), also known as dmoz (from , its original domain name), is a multilingual open content directory of World Wide Web links owned by Netscape that is constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors. ... Psychological science redirects here. ... The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates, in Europe, back to the Late Middle Ages. ... A psychologist is an expert in psychology, the systematic investigation of the human body, including behavior, cognition, and affect. ... For other uses, see Emotion (disambiguation). ... means basic pussy and the dick In psychology, biological psychology or psychobiology[1] is the application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and behavior. ... The Greek letter Psi is often used as a symbol of psychology. ... Cognitive Psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. ... The field of cognitive neuroscience concerns the scientific study of the neural mechanisms underlying cognition and is a branch of neuroscience. ... A brain of a cat Psychologists and scientists do not always agree on what should be considered Comparative Psychology. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... Evolutionary psychology (EP) attempts to explain mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. ... Experimental psychology approaches psychology as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method. ... Mathematical Psychology is an approach to psychological research that is based on mathematical modeling of perceptual, cognitive and motor processes, and on the establishment of law-like rules that relate quantifiable stimulus characteristics with quantifiable behavior. ... Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology and neurology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors. ... Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies personality and individual differences. ... Physiological psychology is sometimes related to psychiatry, and in fact may end up becoming the parent branch which contains psychiatry. ... Positive psychology is a relatively young branch of psychology that studies the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. ... Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, and understand language. ... Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of mental illness or mental distress, or the manifestation of behaviors and experiences which may be indicative of mental illness or psychological impairment. ... Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates, or percepts. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In the broadest sense qualitative research is research which uses only dichotomous data — that is, data which can take only the values 0 (zero) and 1 (one). ... Quantitative psychological research is psychological research which performs statistical estimation or statistical inference. ... Social psychology is the scientific study of how peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Allport, 1985). ... Image File history File links Psi2. ... Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of samples of behavior in order to infer generalizations about a given individual. ... The Greek letter Psi is often used as a symbol of psychology. ... Counseling psychology is an application of the basic professional skills in psychology to a population that has been more located in schools rather than hospitals and clinics. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Industrial and organizational psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, W-O psychology, occupational psychology, personnel psychology or talent assessment) concerns the application of psychological theories, research methods, and intervention strategies to workplace issues. ... Legal psychology involves the application of empirical psychological research to legal institutions and people who come into contact with the law. ... Relationship counseling is the process of counseling the parties of a relationship in an effort to recognize and to better manage or reconcile troublesome differences. ... Educational psychology or school psychology is the psychological science studying how children and adults learn, the effectiveness of various educational strategies and tactics, and how schools function as organizations. ... Analytical psychology (or Jungian psychology) refers to the school of psychology originating from the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, and then advanced by his students and other thinkers who followed in his tradition. ... Behaviorism (also called learning perspective) is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors. ... In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach to understanding the mind, which argues that mental function can be understood by quantitative, positivist and scientific methods, and that such functions can be described as information processing models. ... A Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a psychotherapy based on modifying cognitions, assumptions, beliefs and behaviors, with the aim of influencing disturbed emotions. ... Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes, emotion, personality, behavior, and relationships. ... Existential psychotherapy is partly based on the existential belief that human beings are alone in the world. ... Family therapy, also referred to as couple and family therapy and family systems therapy, is a branch of psychotherapy that works with families and couples in intimate relationships to nurture change and development. ... Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a comprehensive, active-directive, philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy which focuses on resolving cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems in human beings. ... Feminist Therapy Code of Ethics* (Revised, 1999) Preamble Feminist therapy evolved from feminist philosophy, psychological theory and practice, and political theory. ... Gestalt Therapy is an existential and experiential psychotherapy that focuses on the individuals experience in the present moment, the therapist-client relationship, the environmental and social contexts in which these things take place, and the self-regulating adjustments people make as a result of the overall situation. ... Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. ... Narrative Therapy was initially developed during the 1970s and 1980s, largely by Australian Michael White (Dulwich Centre) and his friend and colleague, David Epston, of New Zealand. ... Today psychoanalysis comprises several interlocking theories concerning the functioning of the mind. ... It has been suggested that Psychodynamic psychology be merged into this article or section. ... Transpersonal psychology is a school of psychology that studies the transpersonal, the transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human mind. ... Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990), Ph. ... Jean Piaget (August 9, 1896 – September 16, 1980) was a Swiss philosopher, natural scientist and developmental psychologist, well known for his work studying children, his theory of cognitive development and for his epistemological view called genetic epistemology. He created in 1955 the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva and... Sigmund Freud (IPA: ), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939), was an Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology. ... Otto Rank (April 22, 1884 – October 31, 1939) was an Austrian psychologist. ... Albert Bandura (born 4 20 1925 in Mundare, Canada), a Ball Licker, is best known for his work on nut sack and on self-efficacy. ... Leon Festinger Leon Festinger (May 8, 1919 – February 11, 1989) was a social psychologist from New York City who became famous for his Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger, 1957). ... For other persons named Carl Rogers, see Carl Rogers (disambiguation). ... Stanley Schachter was born on April 15, 1922, to Nathan and Anna Schachter in Flushing, New York. ... Neal E Miller was born in Milwaukee in 1909. ... Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 - August 9, 1949) was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. ... Abraham (Harold) Maslow (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. ... Gordon Willard Allport (November 11, 1897 - October 9, 1967) was an American psychologist. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Hans Eysenck Hans Jürgen Eysenck (March 4, 1916 - September 4, 1997) was an eminent psychologist, most remembered for his work on intelligence and personality, though he worked in a wide range of areas. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... David McClelland David Clarence McClelland (1917 – March 27, 1998) was an American personality psychologist, social psychologist, and an advocate of quantitative history. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Aaron Temkin Beck (born July 18, 1921) is an American psychiatrist and a professor emeritus at the department of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania. ... Raymond Bernard Cattell (20 March 1905 - 2 February 1998) was a British and American psychologist who theorized the existence of fluid and crystallized intelligences to explain human cognitive ability. ... John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878–September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism, after doing research on animal behavior. ... Kurt Zadek Lewin (September 9, 1890 – February 12, 1947) was a German psychologist and one of the pioneers of social psychology. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) was an influential American psychologist and behaviorist who sought to explain learning and motivation by scientific laws of behavior. ... Jerome Kagan (born 1929) was one of the key pioneers of developmental psychology. ... Jung redirects here. ... For other uses, see Pavlov (disambiguation). ... This page aims to list all topics related to psychology. ... This is an List of counseling topics is incomplete list. ... These are some of the sub-fields within the field of psychology: Abnormal psychology Activity theory Analytical psychology Applied psychology Asian Psychology Behavior analysis Behavioural medicine Behavioural psychology Biobehavioural health Biological psychology Biopsychology Cognitive neuropsychology Cognitive psychology Cognitive neuroscience Community psychology Comparative psychology Clinical psychology Counselling psychology Critical psychology Developmental... This is a list of psychiatric drugs used by psychiatrists to treat mental illness or distress. ... This is a list of major and frequently observed neurological disorders (e. ... List of organizations and societies in psychology. ... This list includes notable psychologists and contributors to psychology, some of whom may not have thought of themselves primarily as psychologists but are included here because of their important contributions to the discipline. ... This is an alphabetical List of Psychotherapies. ... This is a list of important publications in psychology, organized by field. ... A very wide range of research methods are used in psychology. ... The psychological schools are the great classical theories of psychology. ... This is a timeline of psychology. ...