Russian GRAU major Emblem

The Main Agency of Missiles and Artillery of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (GRAU) (Russian: Главное ракетно-артиллерийское управление МО РФ (ГРАУ), Glavnoye raketno-artilleriyskoye upravleniye MO RF (GRAU)) is a department of the Russian (ex Soviet) Ministry of Defense. It is subordinate to the Chief of Armament and Munition of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, a vice-minister of defense. State motto (Russian): Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! (Transliterated: Proletarii vsekh stran, soedinyaytes!) (Translated: Workers of the world, unite!) Capital Moscow Official language None; Russian (de facto) Government Federation of Soviet republics Area  - Total  - % water 1st before collapse 22,402,200 km² Approx. ... The Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation is responsible for the army and navy of the Russian Federation and presents the President and Prime Minister with information on the condition and requirments of the army and navy. ... The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (UTC) (Russian: Transliteration: Vooruzhyónniye síly Rossíyskoy Federátsii) is the military of Russia, established after the break-up of the Soviet Union. ...

In particular, the GRAU is responsible for assigning GRAU indices to Russian army munitions and equipment. Motto: none Anthem: Hymn of the Russian Federation Capital Moscow Largest city Moscow Official language(s) Russian Government Semi-presidential Federal republic  - President of Russia Vladimir Putin  - Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov Independence From the Soviet Union   - Declared June 12, 1991   - Finalized December 25, 1991  Area    - Total 17,075,400 km...

Arsenals of the GRAU, according to Kommersant-Vlast in 2005, include the 60th at Kaluga, the 55th at Rzhev, the 75th at Serpukhov south of Moscow, (all three in the Moscow Military District) and the 80th at Gagarskiy, the 116th at Krasnodk-Tyabrskiy and the 5th, all in the Volga-Urals Military District.^[1] Kommersant (Cyrillic: Коммерса́нтъ) (which literally translates as The Businessman) is a commerce-oriented newspaper published in Russia. ... Konstantin Tsiolkovsky State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga, built in 1967 Kaluga (Калу́га in Russian) is a city in central Russia on the Oka River 188 km southwest of Moscow, administrative center of Kaluga Oblast. ... Rzhev is the uppermost town situated on the Volga river. ... Serpukhov (Russian: ) is an old town in Moscow Oblast, Russia, which is situated at the confluence of the Oka and the Nara Rivers. ... The Moscow Military District is a military district of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. ... Volga-Ural Military District headquarters The Volga-Ural Military District is a military district of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, formed on 1 September 2001 by the amalgamation of the Volga Military District and the Ural Military District. ...

GRAU indices

Armed Forces of the
Russian Federation

Services (Vid) Russian Air Force Russian Ground Forces Russian Navy Independent troops Strategic Rocket Forces Russian Space Forces Russian Airborne Troops Other troops Naval Infantry Naval Aviation Missiles and Artillery Command Ranks of the Russian Military Air Force ranks and insignia Army ranks and insignia Navy ranks and insignia History of the Russian Military Military History of Russia History of Russian military ranks Military ranks of the Soviet Union

GRAU indices are of the form <number> <letter> <number>, with the optional suffix <letter> <number>. A specially assigned codename may follow the index. The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (UTC) (Russian: Transliteration: Vooruzhyónniye síly Rossíyskoy Federátsii) is the military of Russia, established after the break-up of the Soviet Union. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Russian Air Force (Russian: Военно-воздушные cилы России, transliteration: Voyenno-vozdushnye sily Rossii) is the air force of Russia. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Russian Ground Forces (Russian: ) are the land forces of the Russian Federation, formed from parts of the collapsing Soviet Army in 1992. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Russian Navy or VMF (Russian: Военно-Морской Флот (ВМФ) - Voyenno- Morskoy Flot (VMF) or Military Maritime Fleet) is the naval arm of the Russian armed forces. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Strategic Rocket Forces of Russia (Russian: Ракетные войска стратегического назначения (РВСН), transliteration: Raketnye voyska strategicheskogo naznacheniya) are a major division of the Russian armed forces that controls Russias land-based ICBMs. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Russian Airborne minor emblem Russian Airborne major emblem The Russian Airborne Troops or VDV ( from Vozdushno-Desantnye Voyska Russian: Воздушно-десантные войска = ВДВ) is an arm of service of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, on a par with the Strategic Rocket Forces and the Russian Space Forces. ... Russian Marines emblem and slogan Naval Infantry of Russia: Victory follows us! The Russian Marines, perhaps better translated as the Russian Naval Infantry, (Russian: Морская пехота ) are an elite force of the Russian Armed Forces. ... Insignia of Russian Air Force The Russian Air Force or VVS (transliterated from Russian: Военно-воздушные силы (Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily)) is the air force of the Russian Federation, , the official designation of the former Soviet Air Force. ... Emblem of the Russian Air Force The following table presents images of the rank insignia used by the Russian Federation Air Force (VVS). ... Emblem of Armed forces of the Russian Federation Emblem of the Land forces of the Russian Federation The independent Russia inherited the ranks of the Soviet Union, although the insignia and uniform was altered a little. ... Insignia of the Russian Navy. ... The military history of Russia may refer to the following things: Military history of Muscovy Military history of Imperial Russia Military history of the Soviet Union Military history of the Russian Federation This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... Modern Russian military ranks trace their roots to Table of Ranks established by Peter the Great. ... The military ranks of the Soviet Union were those introduced after the October Revolution of 1917. ...

For example: «2 S 19  Msta-S», the 2S19 Msta self-propelled howitzer. The 2S19 Msta (Russian: , named after the Msta River) is a conventional self-propelled 152 mm howitzer designed by the Soviet Union during the later part of the Cold War. ...

Misconceptions

Several common misconceptions surround the scope and originating body of these indices. The GRAU designation is not an industrial designation, nor is it assigned by the design bureau. In addition to its GRAU designation, a given piece of equipment could have a design name, an industrial name and a service designation.

For example, some of the surface-to-air missiles in the S-25 Berkut air defense system had at least four domestic designations: Akash Missile Firing French Air Force Crotale battery Bendix Rim-8 Talos surface to air missile of the US Navy A surface-to-air missile (SAM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft. ... The SA-1 Guild is the NATO reporting name for the S-25 Berkut (Russian С-25 Беркут - golden eagle) surface-to-air guided missile, the first operational SAM deployed by the Soviet Union. ...

• design name: La-205
• industry name: Product 205, (izdeliye 205)
• GRAU index: 5V7
• service designation: V-300

Confusion also arises from the fact that some Soviet general-purpose bombs bore a similar-looking designation. For example, the FAB-250sch entered service in 1944 with the design drawing no. 3-01301 and the designation 7-F-334. A general-purpose bomb is an air-dropped bomb intended as a compromise between blast damage, penetration, and fragmentation in explosive effect. ... Year 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Designation scheme

The first part of a GRAU index is a number indicating which of the several main categories of equipment a given item belongs to. The second part, a Cyrillic character, indicates the subcategory. The third part, a number, indicates the specific model. The optional suffix can be used to differentiate variants of the same model. The Cyrillic alphabet (pronounced also called azbuka, from the old name of the first two letters) is actually a family of alphabets, subsets of which are used by certain Slavic languages — Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Rusyn, Serbian, and Ukrainian—as well as many other languages of the former Soviet Union...

1 (Radio and electronics equipment)

• 1K - 1K1, the Buran space shuttle
• 1L - 1L14, the IFF detector for the 9K310 (SA-16 Gimlet) air defense system
• 1S - Radar (1S11, target detecting radar of 1S91 command and control vehicle of 3M12 air defense system)

The Shuttle Buran, serial number 11F35 K1, was the only space shuttle to come out of the Shuttle Buran program that was completed. ... This article is about the space vehicle. ... In telecommunications, identification, friend or foe (IFF) is a crypto identification system designed for command and control. ... 9K38 Igla The 9K38 Igla (Russian 9К38 Игла́ - needle) is a Russian/ Soviet man-portable infra-red homing surface-to-air missile (SAM) system. ... American troops man an anti-aircraft gun near the Algerian coastline in 1943 Anti-aircraft warfare, or air defense, is any method of combating military aircraft from the ground. ... For other uses, see Radar (disambiguation). ... The Trikke is a Human Powered Vehicle (HPV) Automobiles are among the most commonly used engine powered vehicles. ... American troops man an anti-aircraft gun near the Algerian coastline in 1943 Anti-aircraft warfare, or air defense, is any method of combating military aircraft from the ground. ...

2 (Artillery systems)

• 2A - Towed artillery systems (2A65 Msta-B)
• 2K - 2K11, Krug surface-to-air missile system; 2К12, Kub surface-to-air missile system
• 2S - Self-propelled artillery systems (2S19 Msta-S)
• 2U - Training equipment

A 2K11 TEL in transit. ... A self-propelled gun is an armored fighting vehicle which primarily based on and serves to transport the gun with which its equipped. ... The 2S19 Msta (Russian: , named after the Msta River) is a conventional self-propelled 152 mm howitzer designed by the Soviet Union during the later part of the Cold War. ...

3 (Army and naval missiles)

• 3M - Various missiles (3M80 Moskit, 3M45 Granit)

Early «Moskit» (ASM-MSS) in Zhukovski, 1999 The Moskit (Mosquito) is a Russian supersonic ramjet cruise missile. ... The P-700 Granit (NATO reporting name SS-N-19 Shipwreck) is a Russian naval anti-ship missile. ...

4 (Naval missiles and army equipment (munitions, reactive armour, etc.))

• 4G - Warheads (4G15, the high explosive/HEAT warhead for the P-15 Termit anti-ship missile)
• 4K - Naval missiles (4K10, the submarine-launched missile R-27 (RSM-25) for D-5 "Zyb" system; 4K40, P-15 Termit missile)
• 4P - Launchers (4P140, the chassis of the BM-37 Uragan MLRS)
• 4S - Launchers (4S95, the launcher of "Kinzhal/Klinok" (SA-15 Gauntlet) air defense complex)
• 4#

• 46N6E (SA-10 Grumble), a SAM for the S-300 PMU-1 air defense system

A B61 nuclear bomb in various stages of assembly; the nuclear warhead is the bullet-shaped silver cannister in the middle-left of the photograph. ... This article is concerned solely with chemical explosives. ... For other uses, see Heat (disambiguation) In physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a difference in temperature. ... The P-15 Termit (Russian: ; English: ) was a type of missile developed by the Soviet Unions Raduga design bureau in the 1950s. ... Image:RBS-15 missile launch. ... A submarine-launched missile (SM) is a guided missile fired from a submarine. ... The R-27 was a submarine-launched ballistic missile developed by the Soviet Union and employed by the Soviet Navy from 1968 through 1988. ... The P-15 Termit (Russian: ; English: ) was a type of missile developed by the Soviet Unions Raduga design bureau in the 1950s. ... The BM-27 began its service with the Soviet army in the late 1970s as its first modern spin and fin stabilized heavy multiple rocket launcher. ... BM-13 Katyusha RM-70 of the Polish Army A multiple rocket launcher is a type of unguided rocket artillery system, in use since the Second World War. ... A 9K330 TELAR. Photo from Field Artillery Magazine. ... A single S-300-PM missile TEL ready to fire. ... Akash Missile Firing French Air Force Crotale battery Bendix Rim-8 Talos surface to air missile of the US Navy A surface-to-air missile (SAM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft. ... A single S-300-PM missile TEL ready to fire. ...

5 (Air defense equipment)

• 5B - SAM warheads (5B18, the warhead for the S-125's V-601 missile)
• 5P - SAM launchers (5P75, the four-missile launcher for the S-125 air defense system)
• 5V - SAM missiles (5V55, SAM for S-300 air defense system)
• 5Ae - Computers (5Ae26, a specialized multi-CPU computer with a performance of 1.5 MIPS)
• 5Ya - SAM's (5Ya23, a SAM for the S-75 air defense system)
• 5#

• 51T6 (SH-11/ABM-4 Gorgone), an exoatmospheric anti-ballistic missile interceptor for the A-135 air defense system
• 53T6 (SH-08/ABM-3 Gazelle), an endoatmospheric interceptor for A-135 air defense system

Two S-125 dual missile launcher trailers. ... Akash Missile Firing French Air Force Crotale battery Bendix Rim-8 Talos surface to air missile of the US Navy A surface-to-air missile (SAM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft. ... Akash Missile Firing French Air Force Crotale battery Bendix Rim-8 Talos surface to air missile of the US Navy A surface-to-air missile (SAM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft. ... This article is about the machine. ... CPU redirects here. ... Million instructions per second (MIPS) is a measure of a computers processor speed. ... An S-75 missile on camoflaged launcher An S-75 missile in elevated position An North Vietnamese S-75 site An S-75 missile in transit A Fan Song radar (left) and what looks like a Low Blow to the right The SA-2 Guideline is the NATO reporting name... An anti-ballistic missile (ABM) is a missile designed to counter ballistic missiles. ...

6 (Firearms, air defense equipment)

• 6B - Body armor (6B1), helmets (6B6)
• 6V - Firearms (6V1, the Dragunov sniper rifle)
• 6G - Firearms (6G3, the RPG-7 man-portable, rocket propelled grenade launcher; 6G17, the VOG-25 40 mm grenade cartridge)
• 6Zh - Firearm equipment (6Zh1M, a 100-round magazine for the PKM machine gun)
• 6P - Firearms (6P1, the 7.62mm AKM)
• 6T - Firearm equipment (6T2, Samozhenkov's carriage for PKS machine gun)
• 6U - Firearm equipment (6U1, personnel carrier vehicle carriage for PKB/PKBM machine gun)
• 6Kh - Knives and bayonets (6Kh3, a sword-bayonet for the AKM)
• 6Ts - Sights (6Ts1, the PSO-1 sight for the Dragunov sniper rifle)
• 6Ch - Firearm equipment (6Ch12, the PBS-1 flash suppressor and silencer)
• 6Sh - Firearm equipment (6Sh5, an ammunition belt)

... A person wearing a helmet. ... Firearms redirects here. ... The Dragunov Sniper Rifle (Russian: , abbreviated SVD, GRAU index 6V1), is a semi-automatic rifle designed by Evgeniy Fedorovich Dragunov in the Soviet Union between 1958 and 1963. ... The RPG-7 (Russian: ) is a widely-produced, portable, shoulder-launched, anti-tank rocket propelled grenade weapon. ... The PK is a 7. ... Avtomat Kalashnikova model 1947 g. ... The PK is a 7. ... traditional Norse knife A knife is a sharp-edged hand tool used for cutting. ... For other uses, see bayonet (disambiguation). ... Sight of a Sig 550 rifle (muzzle) Sight of a Sig 550 rifle (stock) A sight is an optical device used to assist aim by guiding the eye and aligning it with the weapon or other item to be pointed. ... Close-up of the flash suppressor on a Sig 550. ... Several firearms with detachable suppressors Bolt-action rimfire rifle with suppressor Semiautomatic rimfire pistol with suppressor A suppressor or sound moderator is a device attached to a firearm to reduce the amount of noise and flash generated by firing the weapon. ...

7 (Firearm munitions)

• 7B - Ammunition (7B33, the 7.62 x 54 mm R armour-piercing/incendiary round)
• 7G - Grenades (7G1, the RKG-3 handheld HEAT grenade)
• 7Z - Ammunition (7Z1, the 14.5 x 115 mm incendiary round)
• 7N - Ammunition (7N1, the 7.62 x 54 mm round for sniper rifles)
• 7P - Rocket propelled grenades (7P1, a 40mm RPG-7 round)
• 7S - Misc. ammunition (7S1, a signal false-fire of orange smoke)
• 7T - Ammunition (7T2, the 7.62 x 54 mm R tracer round)
• 7U - Ammunition (7U1, the 7.62x54mm low speed (subsonic) US cartridge)
• 7Kh - Training ammunition (7Kh1, the 12.7 x 108 mm blank cartridge)

The 7. ... A hand grenade is a hand-held bomb, made to be thrown by a soldier. ... A rocket propelled grenade (RPG) is a man-portable, shoulder-launched weapon capable of firing an explosive device longer distances than an otherwise unassisted soldier could throw. ... Subsonic has two possible meanings: A speed lower than the speed of sound is called subsonic. ...

Exceptions

• 71Kh6, the US-KMO Prognoz-2 early warning system satellite
• 73N6 Baikal-1, an automated air defense command and control system
• 76N6, a low-altitude target detector radar
• 75E6 Parol-3, the IFF interrogator for the S-75M and S-125

8 (Army missiles and rocketry)

• 8A - Ballistic missiles
• 8D - Rocket engines (mostly)
• 8K - Missiles (8K51, 8K63 Dvina, 8K64, 8K67, 8K71, 8K81, 8K84)
• 8P - Expendable launch systems
• 8S - Missile propulsion stages
• 8F - Warheads

Diagram of V-2, the first ballistic missile. ... RS-68 being tested at NASAs Stennis Space Center, note the relatively transparent exhaust, this is due to this engines use of hydrogen fuel A rocket engine is a reaction engine that takes all its reaction mass from within tankage and forms it into a high speed jet... The R-12 Dvina was a theatre ballistic missile developed and deployed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. ... An R-16 Missile The R-16 was the first successful ICBM deployed by the Soviet Union. ... R-7 with Sputnik 2 The R-7 Semyorka was the worlds first intercontinental ballistic missile and was deployed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War from 1959 to 1968. ... The UR-200 was an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) developed by OKB-52 of Vladimir Nikolaevich Chelomey in the Soviet Union. ... The UR-100 was an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) developed and deployed by the Soviet Union from 1966 to 1996. ... An expendable launch system or expendable launch vehicle, ELV, is a single-use launch vehicle usually used to launch a payload into space. ...

9 (Army missiles, UAVs)

• 9K - 9К33, Osa surface-to-air missile system; 9К115-2, Metis-M anti-tank missile system; 9K310, the SA-16 Gimlet air defense system
• 9M - 9M62, T-92 UAV from aerial reconnaissance complex "Tipchak"; 9M133, Kornet anti-tank guided missile
• 9S - 9S737, Ranzhir mobile command center

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle over Iraq. ... Akash Missile Firing French Air Force Crotale battery Bendix Rim-8 Talos surface to air missile of the US Navy A surface-to-air missile (SAM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft. ... The AT-13 Saxhorn is the NATO reporting name for the Russian 9К115-2 Metis-M anti-tank missile system. ... The 9M133 Kornet (Russian for Cornet) is a Russian anti-tank guided missile (ATGM). ... Ranzhir-M 9С737М (Ранжир-М) is a mobile command center for several types of Russian anti-aircraft weapons, such as Tor, Tungushka, Strela, and Igla. ...

10 (Equipment)

• 10P - Sights (10P19, the PGO-7V sight for RPG-7V grenade launcher)
• 10R - Radios (10R30 Karat-2, a radio transmitter)

Sight of a Sig 550 rifle (muzzle) Sight of a Sig 550 rifle (stock) A sight is an optical device used to assist aim by guiding the eye and aligning it with the weapon or other item to be pointed. ...

11 (Rocketry and associated equipment)

• 11A - Rocketry (11A51, the Korolev N-1 heavy-lift launcher, 11A511, the Soyuz launcher)
• 11B - Nuclear thermal rocket engines (11B91 (RD0410); 11B97)
• 11G - Equipment (11G12, a refuelling station)
• 11D - Rocket engines (11D43, the RD-253 liquid fuel rocket engine (1-st stage of "Proton" space launcher))
• 11K - Rocketry (11K25 Energia, a heavy-lift rocket for the "Buran" space shuttle)
• 11M - Onboard equipment (11M243, solar array actuators for the 11F624 Yantar-2K satellite)
• 11P - Ground equipment (11P825, the launch complex for the 11K25)
• 11S - Rocket stages (11S59, the 1st and 2nd stages ("unit A") of the Soyuz launch vehicle)
• 11F - Satellites (11F67 Molnia-1, a telecom satellite; 11F35K1, the first production Buran; 11F654 GLONASS satellites)

Two N1 Moon rockets appear on the pads at Baikonur Cosmodrome in early July 1969. ... This article or section seems not to be written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia entry. ... The Proton rocket (Прото́н) (formal designation: UR-500) is a rocket used in an expendable launch system for both commercial and Russian government launches. ... Soyuz rocket on launch pad. ... The Shuttle Buran, serial number 11F35 K1, was the only space shuttle to come out of the Shuttle Buran program that was completed. ... GLONASS GLONASS (Russian ГЛОНАСС; ГЛОбальная НАвигационная Спутниковая Система; Globalnaya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema. ...

14 (Rocketry and associated equipment)

• 14D - Rocket engines (14D30, the "Briz" booster's S5.98M liquid fuel engine)
• 14I - Ground equipment (14I02, the ground equipment for the "Briz" booster's 8P882 system)
• 14P - Ground equipment (14P72, the service system for the "Briz" booster)
• 14S - Boosters (14S12, the "Briz" booster)
• 14T - Ground equipment (14T81, the storage equipment for the "Briz" booster)
• 14F - Satellites (14F10, the IS-MU Naryad anti-satellite weapon)

A booster in space-related applications is usually a solid rocket booster: a solid fuel rocket of which two or more are attached to the main rocket to provide the main thrust in the initial phase of the rockets flight. ... --69. ...

15 (Strategic Missile Forces equipment)

• 15A - Intercontinental ballistic missiles (15A14 and 15A18, the R-36M (SS-18 Satan) ICBM; 15A15, the UR-100MR (SS-17 Spanker) ICBM)
• 15B - Warheads
• 15D - Rocket engines (mostly)
• 15Zh - ICBM's and tactical ballistic missiles (15Zh45, the RT-21M Pioneer (SS-20 Saber) TBM)
• 15N - Command and control vehicles
• 15P - Silo-based launchers (mostly)
• 15U - ICBM ground equipment
• 15F - Warheads

ICBM redirects here. ... The MR-UR-100 Sotka was a MIRV-warhead intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) developed and deployed by the Soviet Union from 1975 to 1991. ... A tactical ballistic missile is a ballistic missile designed for short-range battlefield use. ... The RT-21M Pioneer was a medium-range ballistic missile with a nuclear warhead deployed by the Soviet Union from 1976 to 1988. ... A missile silo is a underground vertical cylindrical container for the storage and launching of ICBMs. ...

17 (Rocketry and associated equipment)

• 17D - Misc. rocket engines (17D58Ae, the stabilization and orientation engine of the "Briz-M" booster)
• 17K - Space-based systems (17K114, a space-based reconnaissance and targeting system)
• 17P - Ground equipment (17P31, the start system for 11K25)
• 17S - Rocket stages (17S40, Unit D of the Proton launcher)
• 17U - Ground equipment (17U551, the "Briz-M" booster testing system)
• 17F - Satellites (17F15 Raduga-1, a telecommunications satellite)

Sources and References

1. ^ Kommersant-Vlast, Vys Rossikaya Armiya, 2005

• Dictionary of GRAU designations at aviation.ru

External links and Further Reading

• History of the GRAU(Russian)
• Article on Russian air-dropped bombs of WWII(Russian)
• Duncan Lennox, 'Russian Missile Designators,' Jane's Intelligence Review, March 1993, p.120
• Steven Zaloga, 'Russian Missile Designations,' Jane's Intelligence Review, August 1994, p.342-349

The initial version of this article was based on material from aviation.ru. It has been released under the GFDL by the copyright holder. GFDL redirects here. ...