Top: Increasing atmospheric CO₂ levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. Bottom: The amount of net carbon increase in the atmosphere, compared to carbon emissions from burning fossil fuel.

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Greenhouse gases are components of the atmosphere that contribute to the greenhouse effect. Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human activities. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Certain human activities, however, add to the levels of most of these naturally occurring gases.^[1] Image File history File links Carbon_History_and_Flux-2. ... Image File history File links Carbon_History_and_Flux-2. ... Ice Core sample taken from drill. ... Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed from the remains of dead plants and animals. ... Image File history File links Portal. ... Layers of Atmosphere (NOAA) Air redirects here. ... A schematic representation of the exchanges of energy between outer space, the Earths atmosphere, and the Earth surface. ...

The "Greenhouse effect"

Main article: Greenhouse effect

When sunlight reaches the surface of earth, some of it is absorbed and warms the earth. Because the Earth's surface is much cooler than the sun, it radiates energy at much longer wavelengths than the sun (see black body radiation and Wien's displacement law). Some energy in these longer wavelengths is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere before it can be lost to space. The absorption of this longwave radiant energy warms the atmosphere (the atmosphere also is warmed by transfer of sensible and latent heat from the surface). Greenhouse gases also emit longwave radiation both upward to space and downward to the surface. The downward part of this longwave radiation emitted by the atmosphere is the "greenhouse effect." The term is in fact a misnomer, as this process is not the primary mechanism that warms greenhouses. A schematic representation of the exchanges of energy between outer space, the Earths atmosphere, and the Earth surface. ... As the temperature decreases, the peak of the black body radiation curve moves to lower intensities and longer wavelengths. ... Wiens displacement law is a law of physics that states that there is an inverse relationship between the wavelength of the peak of the emission of a black body and its temperature. ... Sensible heat is heat energy that is transported by a body that has a temperature higher than its surroundings via conduction, convection, or both. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A schematic representation of the exchanges of energy between outer space, the Earths atmosphere, and the Earth surface. ...

The major natural greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36-70% of the greenhouse effect on Earth (not including clouds); carbon dioxide, which causes 9-26%; methane, which causes 4-9%, and ozone, which causes 3-7%. It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes a certain percentage of the greenhouse effect, because the influences of the various gases are not additive. (The higher ends of the ranges quoted are for the gas alone; the lower ends, for the gas counting overlaps.)^[2][3] Other greenhouse gases include, but are not limited to, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and chlorofluorocarbons (see IPCC list of greenhouse gases). Water vapor, also aqueous vapor, is the gas phase of water. ... Cloud forcing (sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing) is the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... Methane is a significant and plentiful fuel which is the principal component of natural gas. ... Ozone (O3) is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. ... A schematic representation of the exchanges of energy between outer space, the Earths atmosphere, and the Earth surface. ... R-phrases S-phrases Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Sulfur hexafluoride is SF6. ... CFC molecules CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are a family of artificial chemical compounds containing chlorine, fluorine and carbon. ... Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are compounds derived from hydrocarbons by replacement of hydrogen atoms by fluorine atoms. ... For other uses, see CFC (disambiguation). ... This is a list of greenhouse gases as used by the IPCC TAR. Gases relevant to radiative forcing only (per IPCC documentation) Gases relevant to radiative forcing and ozone depletion (per IPCC documentation) (Source: IPCC radiative forcing report 1994 updated (to 1998) by IPCC TAR table 6. ...

The major atmospheric constituents (nitrogen, N₂ and oxygen, O₂) are not greenhouse gases. This is because homonuclear diatomic molecules such as N₂ and O₂ neither absorb nor emit infrared radiation, as there is no net change in the dipole moment of these molecules. N2 is a term used in several contexts N2 is the chemical formula for nitrogen gas. ... O2 or O-2 may be: Oceanic Airlines (Guinea) IATA airline designator Oxygen O2 plc, a telecommunications company. ... A computer rendering of the Nitrogen Molecule, which is a diatomic molecule. ... Image of two girls in mid-infrared (thermal) light (false color) Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of radio waves. ... This article is about the electromagnetic phenomenon. ...

Anthropogenic greenhouse gases

Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions broken down into 8 different sectors for the year 2000.

The concentrations of several greenhouse gases have increased over time.^[4] Human activity increases the greenhouse effect primarily through release of carbon dioxide, but human influences on other greenhouse gases can also be important.^[5] Some of the main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity include: Image File history File links Download high resolution version (650x603, 33 KB) Description This figure shows the relative fraction of man-made greenhouse gases coming from each of eight categories of sources, as estimated by the Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research version 3. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (650x603, 33 KB) Description This figure shows the relative fraction of man-made greenhouse gases coming from each of eight categories of sources, as estimated by the Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research version 3. ... Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin: wise man or knowing man) under the family Hominidae (the great apes). ...

• burning of fossil fuels and deforestation leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations;
• livestock and paddy rice farming, land use and wetland changes, pipeline losses, and covered vented landfill emissions leading to higher methane atmospheric concentrations. Many of the newer style fully vented septic systems that enhance and target the fermentation process also are major sources of atmospheric methane;
• use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in refrigeration systems, and use of CFCs and halons in fire suppression systems and manufacturing processes.
• agricultural activities, including the use of fertilizers, that lead to higher nitrous oxide concentrations.

Greenhouse gas emissions from industry, transportation and agriculture have played a major role in the recently observed global warming.^[6] Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and three groups of fluorinated gases (but not CFCs) are the subject of the Kyoto Protocol, which entered into force in 2005.^[7] CFCs are controlled by the Montreal Protocol, motivated by their effect on stratospheric ozone rather than by their effect on greenhouse warming. Note that ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming though the two processes often are confused. Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed from the remains of dead plants and animals. ... Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land use such as arable land, urban use, logged area or wasteland. ... Sheep are commonly bred as livestock. ... Species Oryza glaberrima Oryza sativa Rice is two species of grass (Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima) native to tropical and subtropical southern & southeastern Asia and in Africa. ... It has been suggested that Refrigerator be merged into this article or section. ... Halon 1211 and Halon 1301 are special-purpose fire extiguishing agents that were banned by the Montreal Protocol. ... Fire extinguisher A fire extinguisher is a device used to put out a fire, often in an emergency situation. ... R-phrases S-phrases Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1850 to 2006 Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is the observed increase in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans in recent decades and the projected... Kyoto Protocol Opened for signature December 11, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan Entered into force February 16, 2005. ... The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. ...

The role of water vapor

Increasing water vapor at Boulder, Colorado.

Water vapor is a naturally occurring greenhouse gas and accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect. Water vapor concentrations fluctuate regionally, but human activity does not directly affect water vapor concentrations except at very local scales. Stratospheric water vapor 1% increase. ... Stratospheric water vapor 1% increase. ...

In climate models an increase in atmospheric temperature caused by the greenhouse effect due to anthropogenic gases will in turn lead to an increase in the water vapor content of the troposphere, with approximately constant relative humidity. The increased water vapor in turn leads to an increase in the greenhouse effect and thus a further increase in temperature; the increase in temperature leads to still further increase in atmospheric water vapor; and the feedback cycle continues until equilibrium is reached. Thus water vapor acts as a positive feedback to the forcing provided by human-released greenhouse gases such as CO₂^[8] (but has never, so far, acted on Earth as part of a runaway feedback). Changes in water vapor may also have indirect effects via cloud formation. Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ...

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter lead author Michael Mann considers citing "the role of water vapor as a greenhouse gas" to be "extremely misleading" as water vapor can not be controlled by humans.^[9][10][11] The IPCC report has discussed water vapor feedback in more detail.^[12] IPCC is the science authority for the UNFCCC The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), to evaluate the risk of climate change brought on by humans, based mainly on... The Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was issued in 2001. ... Michael Mann Michael Mann is a well-known climatologist, author of more than 80 peer-reviewed journal publications. ...

Increase of greenhouse gases

Measurements from Antarctic ice cores show that just before industrial emissions began, atmospheric CO₂ levels were about 280 parts per million by volume (ppm; the units µL/L are occasionally used and are identical to parts per million by volume). From the same ice cores it appears that CO₂ concentrations stayed between 260 and 280 ppm during the preceding 10,000 years. Studies using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggest greater variability, with CO₂ levels above 300 ppm during the period 7,000-10,000 years ago,^[13] though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration/contamination problems rather than actual CO₂ variability.^[14][15] Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ...

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the concentrations of many of the greenhouse gases have increased. The concentration of CO₂ has increased by about 100 ppm (i.e., from 280 ppm to 380 ppm). The first 50 ppm increase took place in about 200 years, from the start of the Industrial Revolution to around 1973; the next 50 ppm increase took place in about 33 years, from 1973 to 2006. [2]. Many observations are available on line in a variety of Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases. The greenhouse gases with the largest radiative forcing are: A Watt steam engine. ... Over the last two centuries many atmospheric chemical observations have been made from a variety of ground-based, airborne, and orbital platforms and deposited in databases. ...

Global carbon dioxide emissions 1751–2000.

(Source: IPCC radiative forcing report 1994 updated (to 1998) by IPCC TAR table 6.1 [3][4]). The generalised concept of radiative forcing in climate science is any change in the radiation (heat) entering the climate system or changes in radiatively active gases. ... The watt (symbol: W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one joule per second. ... The metre, or meter (U.S.), is a measure of length. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... Parts per million (ppm) is a measure of concentration that is used where low levels of concentration are significant. ... Methane is a significant and plentiful fuel which is the principal component of natural gas. ... This page refers to concentration in the chemical sense. ... R-phrases S-phrases Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Description Global annual fossil fuel carbon dioxide emissions, in million metric tons of carbon, as reported by the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center [1]. Original data: Marland, G., T.A. Boden, and R. J. Andres. ... Description Global annual fossil fuel carbon dioxide emissions, in million metric tons of carbon, as reported by the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center [1]. Original data: Marland, G., T.A. Boden, and R. J. Andres. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... Events Adam Smith is appointed professor of logic at the University of Glasgow March 25 - For the last time, New Years Day is legally on March 25 in England and Wales. ... This article is about the year 2000. ... The generalised concept of radiative forcing in climate science is any change in the radiation (heat) entering the climate system or changes in radiatively active gases. ... Bold textItalic textRecent Developement 35 million dollar prize is now being offerred by a private agency to anybody who can propose a successful solution to the Ozone depletion problem Global monthly average total ozone amount The term ozone depletion is used to describe two distinct but related observations: a slow... R-11, or trichlorofluoromethane, was the first widely used refrigerant. ... Parts per trillion (ppt) is a measure of concentration that is used where very low levels of concentration are significant. ... Disclaimer and references Dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12), usually sold under the brand name Freon-12, is a chlorofluorocarbon halomethane used as a refrigerant and aerosol spray propellant until its manufacture was discontinued in 1995, due to concerns about damage to the ozone layer. ... For other uses, see CFC (disambiguation). ... R-phrases , , , , S-phrases , , , , , Flash point non flammable RTECS number FG4900000 Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Freon is a trade name for a group of chlorofluorocarbons used primarily as a refrigerant. ... IPCC is science authority for the UNFCCC The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess the risk of human-induced climate change. The Panel is open to all... 1994 (MCMXCIV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by United Nations. ...

Removal from the atmosphere and global warming potential

Major greenhouse gas trends

Aside from water vapor near the surface, which has a residence time of days, most greenhouse gases take a very long time to leave the atmosphere. Although it is not easy to know with precision how long, there are estimates of the duration of stay, i.e., the time which is necessary so that the gas disappears from the atmosphere, for the principal greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases can be removed from the atmosphere by various processes: Global trends in major greenhouse gases. ... Global trends in major greenhouse gases. ...

• as a consequence of a physical change (condensation and precipitation remove water vapor from the atmosphere).
• as a consequence of chemical reactions within the atmosphere. This is the case for methane. It is oxidized by reaction with naturally occurring hydroxyl radical, OH· and degraded to CO₂ and water vapor at the end of a chain of reactions (the contribution of the CO₂ from the oxidation of methane is not included in the methane GWP). This also includes solution and solid phase chemistry occurring in atmospheric aerosols.
• as a consequence of a physical interchange at the interface between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. An example is the mixing of atmospheric gases into the oceans at the boundary layer.
• as a consequence of a chemical change at the interface between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. This is the case for CO₂, which is reduced by photosynthesis of plants, and which, after dissolving in the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate and carbonate ions (see ocean acidification).
• as a consequence of a photochemical change. Halocarbons are dissociated by UV light releasing Cl· and F· as free radicals in the stratosphere with harmful effects on ozone (halocarbons are generally too stable to disappear by chemical reaction in the atmosphere).
• as a consequence of dissociative ionization caused by high energy cosmic rays or lightning discharges, which break molecular bonds. For example, lightning forms N atoms from N₂ which then react with O₂ to form NO₂.

Two scales can be used to describe the effect of different gases in the atmosphere. The first, the atmospheric lifetime, describes how long it takes to restore the system to equilibrium following a small increase in the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere. Individual molecules may interchange with other reservoirs such as soil, the oceans, and biological systems, but the mean lifetime refers to the decaying away of the excess. It is sometimes erroneously claimed that the atmospheric lifetime of CO₂ is only a few years because that is the average time for any CO₂ molecule to stay in the atmosphere before being removed by mixing into the ocean, uptake by photosynthesis, or other processes. This ignores the balancing fluxes of CO₂ into the atmosphere from the other reservoirs. It is the net concentration changes of the various greenhouse gases by all sources and sinks that determines atmospheric lifetime, not just the removal processes. // Hydroxyl group The term hydroxyl group is used to describe the functional group -OH when it is a substituent in an organic compound. ... In chemistry free radicals are uncharged atomic or molecular species with unpaired electrons or an otherwise open shell configuration. ... In physics and fluid mechanics, the boundary layer is that layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface. ... The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. ... Carbonic acid (ancient name acid of air or aerial acid) has the formula H2CO3. ... In inorganic chemistry, a bicarbonate (IUPAC-recommended nomenclature: hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid. ... In organic chemistry, a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid. ... Ocean acidification is the name given to the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earths oceans, caused by their uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. ... Photochemistry is the study of the interaction of light and chemicals. ... Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ... In chemistry free radicals are uncharged atomic or molecular species with unpaired electrons or an otherwise open shell configuration. ... Atmosphere diagram showing stratosphere. ... Ozone (O3) is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. ... Cosmic rays can loosely be defined as energetic particles originating outside of the Earth. ... Covalently bonded hydrogen and carbon in a molecule of methane. ... Given an assembly of elements, the number of which decreases ultimately to zero, the lifetime (also called the mean lifetime) is a certain number that characterizes the rate of reduction (decay) of the assembly. ...

The second scale is global warming potential (GWP). The GWP depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse gas and its atmospheric lifetime. GWP is measured relative to the same mass of CO₂ and evaluated for a specific timescale. Thus, if a molecule has a high GWP on a short time scale (say 20 years) but has only a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20 year scale but a small one on a 100 year scale. Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than CO₂ its GWP will increase with time. Global warming potential (GWP) is a measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. ...

Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP for several greenhouse gases include:

• CO₂ has a variable atmospheric lifetime (approximately 200-450 years for small perturbations). Recent work indicates that recovery from a large input of atmospheric CO₂ from burning fossil fuels will result in an effective lifetime of tens of thousands of years.^[16][17] Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.
• Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 3 years and a GWP of 62 over 20 years, 23 over 100 years and 7 over 500 years. The decrease in GWP associated with longer times is associated with the fact that the methane is degraded to water and CO₂ by chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
• Nitrous oxide has an atmospheric lifetime of 120 years and a GWP of 296 over 100 years.
• CFC-12 has an atmospheric lifetime of 100 years and a GWP(100) of 10600.
• HCFC-22 has an atmospheric lifetime of 12.1 years and a GWP(100) of 1700.
• Tetrafluoromethane has an atmospheric lifetime of 50,000 years and a GWP(100) of 5700.
• Sulfur hexafluoride has an atmospheric lifetime of 3,200 years and a GWP(100) of 22000.

Source : IPCC, table 6.7. Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... Methane is a significant and plentiful fuel which is the principal component of natural gas. ... R-phrases S-phrases Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... For other uses, see CFC (disambiguation). ... Freon is a trade name for a group of chlorofluorocarbons used primarily as a refrigerant. ... Carbon tetrafluoride, CF4, is a carbon fluoride. ... Sulfur hexafluoride is SF6. ... IPCC is science authority for the UNFCCC The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess the risk of human-induced climate change. The Panel is open to all...

Related effects

MOPITT 2000 global carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of methane and tropospheric ozone through chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the hydroxyl radical, OH) that would otherwise destroy them. Carbon monoxide is created when carbon-containing fuels are burned incompletely. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide has an atmospheric lifetime of only a few months^[18] and as a consequence is spatially more variable than longer-lived gases. Download high resolution version (540x630, 61 KB)The MOPITT sensor aboard NASA’s Terra satellite has assembled the first view of carbon monoxide in the Earths atmosphere. ... Download high resolution version (540x630, 61 KB)The MOPITT sensor aboard NASA’s Terra satellite has assembled the first view of carbon monoxide in the Earths atmosphere. ... Categories: Stub ... This article is about the year 2000. ... Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. ... Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. ... Methane is a significant and plentiful fuel which is the principal component of natural gas. ... Atmosphere diagram showing the mesosphere and other layers. ... Ozone (O3) is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. ... Hydroxide is a functional group consisting of oxygen and hydrogen: -O−H It has a charge of 1-. The term hydroxyl group is used when the functional group -OH is counted as a substituent of an organic compound. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ...

Another potentially important indirect effect comes from methane, which in addition to its direct radiative impact also contributes to ozone formation. Shindell et al (2005)^[19] argue that the contribution to climate change from methane is at least double previous estimates as a result of this effect.^[20]

See also

• Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases for links to freely available data.
• Biofuel
• Carbon emissions by country
• Carbon sink
• Carbon neutral
• Clean Air Act
• Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
• Effects of global warming
• Emission standard
• Environmental accounting
• Environmental agreements
• European Climate Change Programme
• GHG Vehicle Test Group
• Global Atmosphere Watch
• Global warming
• Hydrogen Economy
• United Nations Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change
• Life cycle cost analysis
• Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency
• Mitigation of global warming
• North American Carbon Program
• Ocean acidification
• Radiative forcing
• Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative
• Renewable energy
• World energy resources and consumption

Over the last two centuries many atmospheric chemical observations have been made from a variety of ground-based, airborne, and orbital platforms and deposited in databases. ... Biofuel is any fuel that is derived from biomass — recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. ... This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions. ... A carbon dioxide sink or CO2 sink is the opposite of a carbon source. ... A carbon audit regime is an effective means of accounting for greenhouse gas control efforts. ... A Clean Air Act describes one of a number of pieces of legislation relating to the reduction of smog and atmospheric pollution in general. ... The Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations in the United States, first enacted by Congress in 1975, exist to regulate and improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles) sold in the US in the wake of the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo. ... Conceptual assessment of the risks and impacts of global warming according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and how those risks increase relative to increasing global temperatures. ... Emission standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released into the environment. ... Environmental accounting can be considered either a subset or superset of accounting proper, because it aims to incorporate both economic and environmental information. ... There are numerous international environmental agreements made to protect the environment in different ways. ... The European Climate Change Programme (ECCP) was launched in June 2000 by the European Unions European Commission. ... GHG Vehicle Test Group means vehicles that have identical test group, vehicle make and model, transmission class and driveline, aspiration method (e. ... Global Atmosphere Watchs logo The Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) is a worldwide system established by the World Meteorological Organization – a United Nations agency – to monitor trends in the Earths atmosphere. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1850 to 2006 Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is the observed increase in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans in recent decades and the projected... A hydrogen economy is a hypothetical future economy in which energy, for mobile applications (vehicles, aircraft) and electrical grid load balancing (daily peak demand reserve), is stored as hydrogen (H2). ... The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. ... The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess the risk of human-induced climate change. The Panel is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP. Its... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Total cost of ownership. ... Holding Court membership Chief Justice: John Roberts Associate Justices: John Paul Stevens, Antonin Scalia, Anthony Kennedy, David Souter, Clarence Thomas, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, Samuel Alito Case opinions Massachusetts v. ... Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions aimed at reducing the extent or likelihood of global warming. ... The North American Carbon Program (NACP) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program. ... Ocean acidification is the name given to the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earths oceans, caused by their uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. ... The generalised concept of radiative forcing in climate science is any change in the radiation (heat) entering the climate system or changes in radiatively active gases. ... Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) is a regional initiative by some states in the Northeastern United States region as well as nearby Canadian provinces to reduce greenhouse gas emission. ... World renewable energy in 2005 (except 2004 data for items marked* or **). Enlarge image to read exclusions. ... World energy consumption in TW (=1012 Watt), 1980-2004. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1850 to 2006 Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is the observed increase in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans in recent decades and the projected... // Various prominent bodies have commented on global warming, most notably the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). ... Attribution of recent climate change is the problem of discovering what mechanisms are responsible for observed changes in climate. ... Conceptual assessment of the risks and impacts of global warming according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and how those risks increase relative to increasing global temperatures. ... Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions aimed at reducing the extent or likelihood of global warming. ... Adaptation to global warming covers all actions aimed at reducing the negative effects of global warming. ... The global warming controversy is a debate about the existence and causes of 20th and 21st century global warming, and what steps, if any, society should take in response. ... The politics of global warming looks at the current political issues relating to global warming, as well as the historical rise of global warming as a political issue. ... The economics of global warming relates to the size and distribution of the economic costs and benefits of global warming and of a variety of actions aimed at the mitigation of global warming. ... It has been suggested that Global warming in popular culture be merged into this article or section. ... Global cooling is a theory positing an overall cooling of the Earth and perhaps the commencement of glaciation. ... NASA photograph showing aircraft contrails and natural clouds. ... A schematic representation of the exchanges of energy between outer space, the Earths atmosphere, and the Earth surface. ... IPCC is the science authority for the UNFCCC The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), to evaluate the risk of climate change brought on by humans, based mainly on... Kyoto Protocol Opened for signature December 11, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan Entered into force February 16, 2005. ... A bell-shaped production curve, as suggested by M. King Hubbert in 1956. ... World renewable energy in 2005 (except 2004 data for items marked* or **). Enlarge image to read exclusions. ... The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. ...

References

For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 1 is the 121st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (122nd in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 1 is the 121st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (122nd in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 1 is the 121st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (122nd in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 1 is the 121st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (122nd in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... This article is about the date September 11 in general. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... May 26 is the 146th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (147th in leap years). ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ...

External links

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California_AB_1493

• The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI).
• Well to Wheel analysis.

Image File history File links Wikisource-logo. ... The original Wikisource logo. ...

Carbon dioxide emissions

• CO2 Calculator.
• EU page about reducing CO₂ emissions from light-duty vehicles : the EU's aim is to reach - by 2010 at the latest -an average CO₂ emission figure of 120 g/km for all new passenger cars marketed in the Union.
• International Energy Annual: Reserves
• IEA Publications Bookshop - Key World Energy Statistics
• International Energy Annual 2003: Carbon Dioxide Emissions
• International Energy Annual 2003: Notes and Sources for Table H.1co2 (Metric tons of carbon dioxide can be converted to metric tons of carbon equivalent by multiplying by 12/44)
• DOE - EIA - Alternatives to Traditional Transportation Fuels 1994 - Volume 2, Greenhouse Gas Emissions (includes "Greenhouse Gas Spectral Overlaps and Their Significance")
• NOAA Paleoclimatology Program - Vostok Ice Core
• NOAA CMDL CCGG - Interactive Atmospheric Data Visualization NOAA CO₂ data
• Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre FAQ Includes links to lots of useful Carbon Dioxide statistics
• Australian Greenhouse Gas Initiative

Duty may refer to: Look up duty in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Restored passenger cars on display at the Mid-Continent Railway Museum in North Freedom, WI. A passenger car is a piece of railroad rolling stock that is designed to carry passengers. ...

Methane emissions

• - BBC News - Thawing Siberian bogs are releasing more methane