NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Gun violence

Gun violence, especially that involving youths and gang activity, is great public concern in the United States.^[1] High profile incidents, such as the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. and more recently the Columbine High School massacre and the Beltway sniper attacks, help to fuel debate over gun policies.^[2] Research has shown that changes in gun ownership are significantly correlated with homicide rates.^[3] In comparison with other countries, the United States has a much higher homicide rate than other developed countries, whereas rates of property crime and other types of crime are comparable.^[4]^[5]^[6] In 2005, 68% of the 14,860 homicides in the United States were committed with a firearm.^[7] Many more suffer non-fatal gunshot wounds, with approximately 48,000 gunshot injuries in the United States during 2000.^[8] Firearms were also used in 16,907 suicides in the United States during 2004,^[9] with a significant association between household firearm ownership and gun suicide rates.^[10] Download high resolution version (834x641, 81 KB)Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold (Columbine massacre) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Download high resolution version (834x641, 81 KB)Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold (Columbine massacre) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Staff and students evacuate Columbine High School shortly after the shooting. ... A gang is a group of individuals who share a common identity and, in current usage, engage in illegal activities. ... Assassin and Targeted killing redirect here. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, the lead section of this article may need to be expanded. ... Staff and students evacuate Columbine High School shortly after the shooting. ... Locations of the 15 sniper attacks numbered chronologically. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Etymology: Latin homicidium, from homo- human being + caedere- to cut, kill Homicide is the intentional or negligent killing of another human being by one or more persons. ... A developed country is a country that has achieved (currently or historically) a high degree of industrialization, and which enjoys the higher standards of living which wealth and technology make possible. ... Etymology: Latin homicidium, from homo- human being + caedere- to cut, kill Homicide is the intentional or negligent killing of another human being by one or more persons. ... An assortment of modern handheld firearms using fixed ammunition, including military assault rifles, a sporting shotgun (fourth from bottom), and a tactical shotgun (third from bottom). ... For other uses, see Suicide (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Suicide (disambiguation). ...

Homicide rates

In comparison with other countries, the United States has a much higher homicide rate than other developed countries, whereas rates of property crime and other types of crime are comparable.^[4]^[5]^[6] The percentage of homicides committed using firearms is also much higher than other developed countries.^[5]^[11] Though, many developing countries have higher homicide rates and firearm usage in homicides, including Mexico, Brazil, South Africa, Thailand, Guatemala, Colombia, Estonia, and Russia.^[11]^[12]^[13] Etymology: Latin homicidium, from homo- human being + caedere- to cut, kill Homicide is the intentional or negligent killing of another human being by one or more persons. ... This article, image, template or category should belong in one or more categories. ...

Homicide victimization rates for young Hispanic and African American males in the United States are especially high, compared to other demographic groups.^[14] Those with a criminal record are also more likely to become homicide victims, themselves.^[14] Of all homicide victims age 21 and younger in Boston from 1990 to 1994, 75% had a prior criminal record.^[15] In Philadelphia, the percentage of gun homicide victims that had prior criminal records increased from 73% in 1985 to 93% in 1996.^[14]^[16] In Richmond, Virginia, the risk of gunshot injury is 22 times higher for those males involved with crime.^[17] Victim was the title of a British film made in 1961, directed by Basil Deardon and starring Dirk Bogarde and Sylvia Simms. ... The Hispanic world Hispanic (Spanish Hispano, from Latin HispÄnus, adjective from HispÄnia, Iberian Peninsula) is a term denoting a derivation from Spain, its people and culture. ... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Boston is a town and small port c. ... Nickname: City of Brotherly Love, Philly, the Quaker City Motto: Philadelphia maneto - Let brotherly love continue Location in Pennsylvania Coordinates: Country United States State Pennsylvania County Philadelphia Founded October 27, 1682 Incorporated October 25, 1701 Mayor John F. Street (D) Area - City 369. ... Nickname: River City Motto: Sic Itur Ad Astra (Thus do we reach the stars) Location in the Commonwealth of Virginia Coordinates: Country United States State Virginia County Independent City Mayor L. Douglas Wilder (D) Area - City 62. ... For the East End rap group, go to Gunshot (rappers). ...

In 2005, 75% of the 10,100 homicides committed using firearms in the United States were committed using handguns, compared to 4% with rifles, 5% with shotguns, and the rest with type not specified.^[18] Research has shown that changes in gun ownership are significantly correlated with homicide rates, with such relationships not seen with other types of crime.^[3] When a crime occurs involving a gun, the likelihood that it results in murder is significantly increased.^[19] During the 1980s and early 1990s, handgun homicides accounted for nearly all of the overall increase in the homicide rate, from 1985 to 1993, with other homicide rates declinding during that timeframe.^[11] Etymology: Latin homicidium, from homo- human being + caedere- to cut, kill Homicide is the intentional or negligent killing of another human being by one or more persons. ... A rifle is a firearm with a stock and a barrel that has a spiral groove or grooves (rifling) cut into its interior. ... A pump-action and two semi-automatic action shotguns, 20 boxes of shotgun shells, a clay trap, and three boxes of clay pigeons. ...

Some have argued that correlation between homicide and gun ownership is due to people purchasing guns for self protection, in response to increases in crime.^[20]^[21]^[22] However, the correlation between homicide and gun ownership only holds for homicides committed using firearms, and not for nongun homicides.^[3] From 1993 to 1998, the number of homicides committed with firearms declined by 36%, whereas the number of nongun homicides declined by 18%.^[3] During the same period, the number of households owning guns declined by 17%.^[3] This indicates that levels of gun ownership account for one-third of changes seen in homicide rates.^[3]

Youth violence

The rising trend in homicide rates during the 1980s and early 1990s was most strongly affected young Hispanic and especially African American males in the United States, with the victimization rate tripling for black males age 13-17 and doubling for black males age 18-24.^[14] Often cited as a cause, is the rise in crack cocaine in cities across the United States.^[14]^[23]^[24] With 17% of deaths in 2002 caused by firearms for those ages 15-19 in the United States, firearms were the second leading cause of death for this age group after motor vehicle accidents.^[25] In Rochester, New York, 22% of young males have carried an illegal gun, though most for only a short period of time.^[26] There is little overlap between legal gun ownership and illegal gun carrying among youths.^[26] Those youths in a gang, and those involved in drug selling, are much more likely to carry illegal guns.^[26] The Hispanic world Hispanic (Spanish Hispano, from Latin HispÄnus, adjective from HispÄnia, Iberian Peninsula) is a term denoting a derivation from Spain, its people and culture. ... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... Victim was the title of a British film made in 1961, directed by Basil Deardon and starring Dirk Bogarde and Sylvia Simms. ... Cocaine is a crystalline alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... A car accident in Yate, near Bristol, England, in July 2004. ... Nickname: The Flour City, The Flower City, The Worlds Image Center Motto: Rochester: Made for Living Location of Rochester in New York State Country United States State New York County Monroe Mayor Robert Duffy Area - City 96. ... The term narcotic, derived from the Greek word for stupor, originally referred to a variety of substances that induced sleep (such state is narcosis). ...

Suicide

Research also shows an association between household firearm ownership and gun suicide rates.^[10]^[27] During the 1980s and early 1990s, there was a strong upward trend in adolescent suicides that used guns.^[14] A sharp increase in suicides also occurred in the 1980s among those age 75 and over.^[14]^[28] Suicide rates among the mentally ill and those suffering from chronic disease are greater than the rest of the population.^[14] For other uses, see Suicide (disambiguation). ... Mental illness (or emotional disability, cognitive dysfunction) is a broad generic label for a category of illnesses that may include affective or emotional instability, behavioral dysregulation, and/or cognitive dysfunction or impairment. ... Medicine In medicine, a persistent and lasting condition is said to be chronic (from Greek chronos). ...

Other crime

In the United States, a quarter of commercial robberies are committed with guns.^[29] Robberies committed with guns are three times as likely to result in fatalities compared with robberies where other weapons were used,^[29]^[30]^[31] with similar patterns in cases of family violence.^[32] Philip J. Cook hypothesizes that if guns were less available, criminals may likely commit the crime anyway but with less-lethal weapons.^[33] He points out that the level of gun ownership in the 50 largest U.S. cities correlates with the rate of robberies committed with guns, but not overall robbery rates.^[34]^[35] A significant number of homicides result as a by-product of another violent crime which escalates, with the offender going into the crime without a clear or sustained intent to kill.^[33]^[36]^[31]^[37] Overall robbery and assault rates in the United States are also comparable to other developed countries, such as Australia and Finland, notwithstanding the much lower levels of gun ownership in those countries.^[33]^[37]

Gun ownership

The General Social Survey (GSS) is the primary source for data on firearm ownership, with surveys periodically done by other organizations such as Harris Interactive.^[38] In 2004, 36.5% of Americans had a gun in their home, which is down from 46% in 1989.^[39] Philip J. Cook suggests that increased numbers of female-headed households may be a factor in declining household ownership figures.^[11] In the United States, 11% of households partake in hunting,^[39] with the remaining firearm owners having guns for self protection and other reasons. In 2004, gun ownership in the home figures break down to 20% with a pistol, 19% with a shotgun, and 20% with a rifle.^[39] Throughout the 1970s and much of the 1980s, the level of gun ownership in the home ranged from 45-50%.^[39] Gun ownership also varies across geographic regions, with 25% ownership in the Northeastern United States to 60% in the East South Central States.^[40] The General Social Survey (GSS) is a means for the collection of data on demographic characteristics and attitudes of residents of the United States. ... Harris Interactive is a company. ... It has been suggested that Big-game hunter be merged into this article or section. ... A Browning 9 millimeter Hi-Power Ordnance pistol of the French Navy, 19th century, using a Percussion cap mechanism Derringers were small and easily hidden. ... A pump-action and two semi-automatic action shotguns, 20 boxes of shotgun shells, a clay trap, and three boxes of clay pigeons. ... A rifle is a firearm with a stock and a barrel that has a spiral groove or grooves (rifling) cut into its interior. ... Regional definitions vary The Northeastern United States is a region of the United States defined by the U.S. Census Bureau. ... The East South Central States constitute one of the nine geographic divisions within the United States that are officially recognized by that countrys census bureau. ...

Self protection

Between 1987 and 1990, David McDowall found that guns were used in defense during a crime incident 64,615 times annually.^[22] This equates to use two times out of 1,000 incidents that occurred in this time frame.^[22] For violent crimes (assault, robbery, and rape), guns were used 0.83% of the time in self defense.^[22] Of the times that guns were used in self defense, 71% of the crimes were committed by strangers, with the rest of the incidents evenly divided by offenders that were acquaintances and persons well known to the victim.^[22] Of all incidents where a gun was used for self defense, victims shot at the offender 28% of the time.^[22] In 20% of the self defense incidents, the guns were used by police officers.^[22] During the same time period, there were 46,319 gun homicides,^[41] and the National Crime Victimization Survey estimates that 2,628,532 nonfatal crimes involving guns occurred.^[22] The findings of the McDowall study contradict research done by Gary Kleck, who has computed an estimate of 783,000 and another estimate of 999,068 incidents where guns were used for self protection.^[22] McDowell cites methodological issues with the Kleck studies, in that he used a very small sample size and did not confine self defense to attempted victimizations.^[22] Despite these issues, the results of the Kleck studies have been cited many times in scholarly and popular media.^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47] Another study of gun use in the 1990s, by David Hemenway at the Harvard Injury Control Research Center, found that criminal use of guns is far more common than self defense use of guns.^[48] A police officer is a person who works for a police force. ... The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics for the purposes of building a crime index. ... Gary Kleck is a criminologist at Florida State University who is a strong advocate against gun control. ... Sampling is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of individual observations intended to yield some knowledge about a population of concern, especially for the purposes of statistical inference. ... Victim was the title of a British film made in 1961, directed by Basil Deardon and starring Dirk Bogarde and Sylvia Simms. ... Harvard University (incorporated as The President and Fellows of Harvard College) is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. ...

Public policy

Research and statistics have shown that guns intensify crime situations, and increase the likelihood of a more violent or lethal outcome.^[33] Criminologist Philip J. Cook argues for public policy goals of keeping guns out of violent encounters, and recommends approaches that limit the availability of guns to high-risk groups and the accessibility of guns in volatile situations.^[33] Cook suggests measures such as background checks for gun purchases, banning small, easily concealed handguns, intensive enforcement of illegal gun carrying, and tougher sentences on those convicted of using a gun in a crime.^[33] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... The political issues surrounding guns is an especially contentious topic in the United States. ... It has been suggested that pre-employment screening be merged into this article or section. ...

Public policy approaches can focus on ways that law enforcement and regulatory agencies may intervene.^[33] This includes intervention at the acquisition state, with policies such as prohibiting youths and those with criminal records from purchasing guns.^[33] Policies can also make it more difficult for guns to be brought to a crime scene, such as restricting and/or regulating who can carry concealed weapons.^[33] Policies can also focus on use of guns in crime, such as mandating increased sentences for those who use guns in crime, or requiring guns to have certain safety features.^[33] Public policy is a course of action or inaction chosen by public authorities to address a problem. ... For the band, see The Police. ... In the context of government and public services regulation (as a process) is the control of something by rules, as opposed to its prohibition. ... Look up acquisition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Gun control proponents often cite the relatively high number of homicides committed with firearms as reason to support stricter gun control laws.^[49] Firearm laws are subject of great debate in the United States, with firearms also widely used for recreational purposes, and for personal protection.^[10] Gun control opponents cite the use of firearms for self protection and deterrent as a reason why more guns can reduce crime.^[50] Gun control opponents also point out that criminals are the least likely to obey firearms laws, and that limiting access to guns by law abiding people makes them more vulnerable to crime.^[22]

Access to handguns

Policy in the United States regarding handgun ownership are lax in comparison to other countries. In 1998, the U.K. banned private ownership of handguns,^[51] with handgun ownership also prohibited in Japan.^[33] U.S. policy aims to maintain the right of legitimate users to own most types of firearms, while restricting access to high risk groups.^[33] Gun dealers in the United States are prohibited from selling handguns to those under age 21, and long guns to those under age 18.^[33] There are also restrictions on selling guns to out-of-state residents.^[33] A handgun is a firearm small enough to be carried and used in one hand. ... Motto: (the Royal motto3) (French for God and my right) Anthem: God Save the Queen 4 Capital London Most populous conurbation Greater London Urban Area English (de facto5) Government Constitutional monarchy - Queen HM Queen Elizabeth II - Prime Minister The Rt Hon Tony Blair MP (Labour) Formation - Union of the Crowns... A long gun is a firearm with an extended barrel, usually designed to be fired braced against the shoulder. ...

Firearms market

Policy that is targeted at the supply-side of the firearms market is based on limited research, with this an active area of ongoing research.^[10] One important consideration is that only 60-70% of firearms sales in the United States are through federally licensed firearm dealers, with the remainder taking place in the "secondary market".^[52]^[53] Most sales to youths and convicted felons take place in the "secondary market",^[52]^[54]^[55]^[56] where cost of firearms may be higher.^[52] Access to "secondary markets" is generally less convenient and involves greater risks, such as the gun having been used previously in a homicide.^[57] Regulations that limit the number of handgun sales in the primary, regulated market to one a month per customer have shown to be effective at reducing illegal gun trafficking by reducing the supply into the "secondary market".^[58] Taxes on firearms and ammunition purchases are another means for government to influence the market.^[59] Other market intervention strategies include gun buy-back programs.^[59] The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF or BATF or BATFE) is a federal agency, a special federal police service within the United States Department of Justice. ... Supply-side economics is a school of macroeconomic thought which emphasizes the importance of tax cuts and business incentives in encouraging economic growth, in the belief that businesses and individuals will use their tax savings to create new businesses and expand old businesses, which in turn will increase productivity, employment... Supply has a number of meanings: In economics, supply is the aggregate amount of any material good that can be called into being at a certain price point; it comprises one half of the equation of supply and demand. ... A tax (also known as a duty) is a financial charge or other levy imposed on an individual or a legal entity by a state or a functional equivalent of a state (e. ... Boxes of ammunition clog a warehouse in Baghdad Ammunition is a generic military term meaning (the assembly of) a projectile and its propellant. ...

Federally licensed firearm dealers in the primary market are regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). Firearm manufacturers are required to put serial numbers on all new firearms. This allows the ATF to trace crime guns back to their source. A report by the ATF released in 1999, found that 0.4 percent of federally licensed dealers sold approximately half of the crime guns used in 1996 and 1997.^[2]^[60] This is sometimes done through "straw purchases".^[2] State laws, such as those in Virginia and California, that restrict the number of gun purchases in a month may help stem such "straw purchases".^[2] An estimated 500,000 stolen guns are also stolen each year, allowing them to get into the hands of prohibited users.^[59]^[52] The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF or BATF or BATFE) is a federal agency, a special federal police service within the United States Department of Justice. ... A serial number is a unique number that is one of a series assigned for identification which varies from its successor or predecessor by a fixed discrete integer value. ... A straw purchase is a situation in which a buyer uses an intermediary (a straw purchaser) through which to acquire one or more firearms from a licensed firearms dealer. ... Official language(s) English Capital Richmond Largest city Virginia Beach Area Ranked 35th - Total 42,793 sq mi (110,862 kmÂ²) - Width 200 miles (320 km) - Length 430 miles (690 km) - % water 7. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Area Ranked 3rd - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 kmÂ²) - Width 250 miles (400 km) - Length 770 miles (1,240 km) - % water 4. ... Everyday instance of theft: the bike which fits on this wheel has disappeared. ...

Federal legislation

Gun Control Act of 1968

The Gun Control Act of 1968 established regulations for gun commerce, restricting mail order sales and shipments to only licensed firearm dealers. The Act also made gun ownership illegal for those with felony or domestic violence convictions, those under indictment, fugitives, illegal aliens, drug users, those dishonorably discharged from the military, and those in mental institutions.^[33] The law also aimed to restrict importation of Saturday night specials and other types of guns, and limit the sale of automatic weapons and semi-automatic weapons conversion kits.^[2] The Gun Control Act of 1968 (also known as GCA or GCA68, and codified as Chapter 44 of Title 18, United States Code) is a federal law in the United States that broadly regulates the firearms industry and firearms owners. ... Mail order is a term which describes the buying of goods or services by mail delivery. ... A felony, in many common law legal systems, is the term for a very serious crime, whereas misdemeanors are considered to be less serious offenses. ... It has been suggested that Domestic violence against men be merged into this article or section. ... In the common law legal system, an indictment is a formal charge of having committed a serious criminal offence. ... A fugitive is a person who is fleeing from custody, whether it be from a government arrest, government or non-government questioning, vigilante violence, or outraged private individuals. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into illegal immigration. ... The term narcotic, derived from the Greek word for stupor, originally referred to a variety of substances that induced sleep (such state is narcosis). ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... A psychiatric hospital (also called at various places and times, mental hospital, mental ward, asylum or sanitarium) is a hospital specializing in the treatment of persons with mental illness. ... Saturday night special is a pejorative or slang term used in the United States for any inexpensive handgun. ... M2 machine gun An automatic firearm is a firearm that will continue to load and fire rounds of ammunition as long as the trigger (or equivalent) is activated or until it runs out of ammunition. ... A semi-automatic firearm automatically loads a round into the chamber after the weapon is fired, but still requires a trigger pull for each round that is fired. ...

Firearm Owners Protection Act

The Firearm Owners Protection Act, also known as the McClure-Volkmer Act, was passed in 1986. It loosened some restrictions in the 1968 Act, allowing federally licensed gun dealers, as well as individual "hobbyists", to sell at gun shows.^[2] The 1986 Act also restricted the ability of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms to conduct inspections, reduced the amount of recordkeeping required of gun dealers, raised the burden of proof for gun law violators, and loosened restrictions on convicted felons on owning firearms.^[2] The Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA) is a United States federal law that revised many statutes in the Gun Control Act of 1968. ... A gun show is a form of exhibition or gathering where guns, gun parts and literature, as well as knives and miscellaneous collectibles are displayed, bought, sold (subject to regulations) and discussed. ... The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF or BATF or BATFE) is a federal agency, a special federal police service within the United States Department of Justice. ... A felony, in many common law legal systems, is the term for a very serious crime; misdemeanors are considered to be less serious. ...

Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act

In the years following the passage of the Gun Control Act of 1968, enforcement was done by requiring people buying guns to show identification and sign a statement that they did not belong in any of the prohibited categories.^[33] Many states enacted background check laws that went beyond the federal requirements.^[61] The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act passed by Congress in 1993 imposed a mandatory waiting period before the purchase of a handgun, so that a background check can be done.^[62] The Brady Act also required a national instant criminal background check system to be established, with checks to be done by firearms dealers.^[63] A state is a set of institutions that possess the authority to make the rules that govern a society, having internal and external sovereignty over a definite territory. ... It has been suggested that pre-employment screening be merged into this article or section. ... The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, also known as the Brady Bill, was passed by the United States Congress, signed into law by President Bill Clinton on November 30, 1993, and went into effect on February 28, 1994. ... Congress in Joint Session. ...

State legislation

Right-to-carry

Laws that permit persons to carry concealed handguns exist in 34 states in the United States.^[10] John Lott has argued that right-to-carry laws create a perception that more potential victims might be carrying firearms, and thus serve as deterrent for crime.^[64] Lott's study has been criticized for not adequately controlling for other factors. When Lott's data was reanalyzed by other researchers, the only statistically significant effect of concealed-carry laws found was an increase in assaults.^[65], with similar findings by Jens Ludwig.^[66] Since concealed-carry permits are only given to adults, Philip J. Cook suggests that analysis should focus on the relationship with adult and not juvenile victimization rates.^[33] He finds a small, positive effect of concealed-carry laws on adult homicide victimization rates, but the effect is not statistically significant.^[33] The National Academy of Science has found no credible evidence that shows right-to-carry laws have an impact, either way, on rates of violent crime.^[10] A handgun is a firearm small enough to be carried and used in one hand. ... John R. Lott Jr. ... Deterrence ALOHA!! is a means of controlling a persons behavior through negative motivational influences, namely fear of punishment. ... The word juvenile has several meanings: A juvenile is an individual organism that has not yet reached its adult form, maturity or size. ... Victim was the title of a British film made in 1961, directed by Basil Deardon and starring Dirk Bogarde and Sylvia Simms. ... President Harding and the National Academy of Sciences at the White House, Washington, DC, April 1921 The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. ... A violent crime or crime of violence is a crime in which the offender uses or threatens violent force upon the victim. ...

Child Access Prevention (CAP)

Child Access Prevention (CAP) laws, enacted by many states, require parents to safely store firearms, in order to minimize access by children to guns, while maintaining access by adults.^[67] CAP laws hold gun owners liable should a child gain access a loaded gun that is not properly stored.^[67] In most states, CAP law violations are considered misdemeanors.^[67] Florida's CAP law, enacted in 1989, permit felony prosecution of violators.^[67] Research indicates that CAP laws have reduced unintentional gun deaths by 23%,^[68] and gun suicides among those age 14-17 by 11%.^[69] A study by Lott did not detect a relationship between CAP laws and accidental gun deaths or suicides among those age 19 and under between 1979 and 1996.^[70] The National Bureau of Economic Research has found that CAP laws reduce non-fatal gun injuries among both children and adults by 30-40%.^[67] Research also indicates that CAP laws are most effective in states where violations are considered felonies, whereas in states that consider violations as misdemeanors, the impact of CAP laws is not statistically significant.^[71] In the most general sense, a liability is anything that is a hindrance, or puts one at a disadvantage. ... Misdemeanors are lesser criminal acts which are generally punished less severely than felonies; but more so than infractions. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A felony, in many common law legal systems, is the term for a very serious crime, whereas misdemeanors are considered to be less serious offenses. ... John R. Lott Jr. ... The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) is a private, nonprofit, nonpartisan research organization dedicated to studying the science and empirics of economics, especially the American economy. ...

Local restrictions

Some local jurisdictions in the United States have more restrictive laws, such as those enacted in 1976 in Washington, D.C. that ban residents from owning handguns. New York City is also known for its strict gun control laws. Despite local laws, guns are often trafficked into these cities from other parts of the United States, particularly the southern states.^[60]^[72] Nickname: DC, The District Motto: Justitia Omnibus (Justice for All) Location of Washington, D.C., in relation to the states Maryland and Virginia. ... Nickname: Big Apple, City that never Sleeps Location in the state of New York Coordinates: Country United States State New York Boroughs Bronx (The Bronx) New York (Manhattan) Queens (Queens) Kings (Brooklyn) Richmond (Staten Island) Mayor Michael Bloomberg (R) Area - City 1,214. ...

Gun show sales

The sale of firearms at gun shows creates a loophole in laws regulating sale of firearms, with some unlicensed dealers there.^[2] According to the Violence Policy Center, illegal transactions usually occur through "straw purchases", out-of-state sales, and sales from "personal" collections.^[73] The Violence Policy Center (VPC) is a Washington, DC based organization that conducts studies that serve the aim of furthering gun control legislation. ...

Public opinion

The GSS found that 81.3% of Americans were supportive of gun permit laws in 2004, and 72.4% supported more restrictions on handguns.^[39] Support for gun permit laws rose significantly from 73.3% in 1987 to 80.1% in 1990.^[39] A handgun is a firearm small enough to be carried and used in one hand. ...

Prevention programs

Violence prevention and educational programs have been established in many schools and communities across the United States. These programs aim to change personal behavior of both children and their parents, encouraging children to stay away from guns, ensure parents store guns safely, and encourage children to solve disputes without resorting to violence.^[74] Programs aimed at altering behavior range from passive (requiring no effort on part of the individual) to active (supervising children, or placing a trigger lock on a gun).^[74] The more effort required of people, the more difficult it is to implement a prevention strategy.^[75]^[76] Prevention strategies focused on modifying the situational environment and the firearm itself may be more effective.^[74] Empirical evaluation of gun violence prevention programs has been limited.^[10] Of the evaluations that have been done, results indicate such programs have minimal effectiveness.^[74] Students in Rome, Italy. ... A male Caucasian toddler child A child (plural: children) is a young human. ... A parent is a father or mother; one who begets or one who gives birth to or nurtures and raises a child; a relative who plays the role of guardian // Mother This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... It has been suggested that Adjudication be merged into this article or section. ... Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. ... Passive has several meanings: In grammar it describes a grammatical voice. ... Trigger lock on a revolver Close-up of the trigger lock, showing the warning A trigger lock is a device designed to prevent a firearm from being discharged while the device is in place. ... This article lacks information on the importance of the subject matter. ... Evaluation is the systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or someone. ...

Gun safety parent counseling

One of the most widely used parent counseling programs is Steps to Prevent Firearm Injury program (STOP), which was developed in 1994 by the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence.^[74] STOP was superceded by STOP 2 in 1998.^[74] STOP has been evaluated and found not to have a significant effect on gun ownership or firearm storage practices by inner-city parents.^[77] Marjorie S. Hardy suggests further evaluation of STOP is needed, as this evaluation had a limited sample size and lacked a control group.^[74] The Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence in the United States is a not-for-profit organization headed by James Brady, former U.S. White House Press Secretary to President Ronald W. Reagan. ...

Children

Prevention programs geared towards children have also not been greatly successful.^[74] Many inherent challenges arise when working with children, including their tendency to perceive themselves as invulnerable to injury,^[78] limited ability to apply lessons learned,^[79]^[80] their innate curiosity,^[79] and peer pressure that may encourage reckless behavior.^[79] Peer pressure comprises a set of group dynamics whereby a group in which one feels comfortable may override personal habits, individual moral inhibitions or idiosyncratic desires to impose a group norm of attitudes and/or behaviors. ...

Gun safety

The goal of gun safety programs, usually administered by local firearms dealers and clubs, is to teach older children and adolescents how to safely handle firearms.^[74] There has been no systematic evaluation of the effect of these programs on children.^[74] For adults, no positive effect on gun storage practices has been found as a result of these programs.^[81]^[82] Also, researchers have found that gun safety programs for children may likely increase a child's interest in obtaining and using guns, which they cannot be expected to use safely all the time, even with training.^[83]

Gun avoidance

Eddie Eagle Gun Safety Program, administered by the National Rifle Association (NRA), geared towards younger children from pre-kindergarden to Grade 6, teaches kids that real guns are not toys with a "just say no" approach.^[74] This article concerns the National Rifle Association of the USA. For the UK organisation, see National Rifle Association, UK The National Rifle Association, or NRA, is a 501(c)(4) group for the protection of gun rights in the United States, established in New York in 1871 as the American... In the United States and Germany, kindergarten (German for garden of children) refers to the first level of a childs formal education. ...

The Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence in the United States is a not-for-profit organization headed by James Brady, former U.S. White House Press Secretary to President Ronald W. Reagan. ... Nickname: Capital of Silicon Valley Location of San Jose within Santa Clara County, California. ...

Community programs

Programs targeted at entire communities, such as gun-free school zones, community revitalization, after-school programs, and media campaigns, may be more effective in reducing the general level of violence that children are exposed to.^[84]^[85] Community-based programs that have specifically targeted gun violence include Safe Kids/Healthy Neighborhoods Injury Prevention Program in New York City,^[86]^[87] and Safe Homes and Havens in Chicago.^[74] Evaluation of such community-based programs is difficult, due to many confounding factors and the multifaceted nature of such programs.^[74] A community usually refers to a group of people who interact and share certain things as a group, but it can refer to various collections of living things sharing an environment, plant or animal. ... A public service announcement (PSA) or community service announcement (CSA) is a non-commercial advertisement, typically on radio or television, broadcast for the public good. ... Nickname: Big Apple, City that never Sleeps Location in the state of New York Coordinates: Country United States State New York Boroughs Bronx (The Bronx) New York (Manhattan) Queens (Queens) Kings (Brooklyn) Richmond (Staten Island) Mayor Michael Bloomberg (R) Area - City 1,214. ... Nickname: The Windy City, The Second City, Chi Town Motto: Urbs In Horto (Latin: City in a Garden), I Will Location in Chicagoland and Illinois Coordinates: Country United States State Illinois County Cook Incorporated March 4, 1837 Mayor Richard M. Daley (D) Area - City 606. ...

Intervention programs

Intervention programs, such as Operation Ceasefire in Boston and Project Exile in Richmond, Virginia during the 1990s, have shown to be effective.^[10]^[88] Boston is a town and small port c. ... Nickname: River City Motto: Sic Itur Ad Astra (Thus do we reach the stars) Location in the Commonwealth of Virginia Coordinates: Country United States State Virginia County Independent City Mayor L. Douglas Wilder (D) Area - City 62. ...

Operation Ceasefire

In 1995, Operation Ceasefire was established in Boston, as a strategy for stemming the epidemic of youth gun violence in Boston. Violence was particularly concentrated in poor, inner-city neighborhoods including Roxbury, Dorchester, and Mattapan.^[89] There were 22 youths (under age 24) killed in Boston in 1987, with that figure rising to 73 in 1990.^[89] Operation Ceasefire entailed a problem-oriented policing approach. Particular focus was placed on two elements of the gun violence problem, including illicit gun trafficking^[90] and gang violence.^[89] Within two years of implementing Operation Ceasefire in Boston, the number of youth homicides dropped to ten, with only one handgun-related youth homicide occurring in 1999 and 2000.^[2] The Operation Ceasefire strategy has since been replicated in other cities, including Los Angeles.^[91] Roxbury is a neighborhood within Boston, Massachusetts. ... Dorchester is the largest neighborhood within the City of Boston located within Suffolk County, Massachusetts. ... Mattapan is a neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. ... Problem-oriented policing is a type of community policing that focuses on decentralization of decision-making powers. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with gang. ... Flag Seal Nickname: City of Angels Location Location within Los Angeles County in the state of California Coordinates , Government State County California Los Angeles County Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa (D) Geographical characteristics Area City 1,290. ...

Project Exile

Project Exile in Richmond, Virginia, was a coordinated effort involving Federal, state, and local officials that targeted gun violence. The strategy entailed prosecution of gun violations in Federal courts, where sentencing guidelines were tougher. Project Exile also involved outreach and education efforts through media campaigns, getting the message out about the crackdown.^[92] Project Exile was a federal program started in Richmond, Virginia in 1997. ... Criminal law (also known as penal law) is the body of law that regulates governmental sanctions (such as imprisonment and/or fines) as retaliation for crimes against the social order. ...

Project Safe Neighborhoods

Project Safe Neighborhoods (PSN) is a national strategy for reducing gun violence across the United States, that builds on the successes of Operation Ceasefire and Project Exile.^[93]

Research limitations

In the United States, research into firearms and violent crime is fraught with difficulties, associated with limited data on gun ownership and use,^[40] firearms markets, and aggregation of crime data.^[10]^[3] Research studies into gun violence have primarily taken one of two approaches: case-control studies and social ecology.^[10] Gun ownership is usually determined through surveys, proxy variables, and sometimes with production and import figures.^[11] In statistical analysis of homicides and other types of crime which are rare events, these data tend to have poisson distributions, which also presents methodological challenges to researchers. With data aggregation, such as the Duggan study which aggregated to the state level, it is difficult to make inferences about individual behavior.^[8] This problem, known as ecological fallacy, is not always handled properly by researchers, leading some to jump to conclusions that their data does not necessarily support.^[94] Research is often described as an active, diligent, and systematic process of inquiry aimed at discovering, interpreting and revising facts. ... In general, data consist of propositions that reflect reality. ... Case-control studies are one type of epidemiological study design. ... Social ecology is, in the words of its leading exponents, a coherent radical critique of current social, political, and anti-ecological trends as well as a reconstructive, ecological, communitarian, and ethical approach to society. Social Ecology is a radical view of ecology and of social/political systems. ... There are several uses of the word survey, relating to two primary meanings: land surveying; and statistical surveys of people or other items, such as animals, stars, or messages. ... In statistics, a proxy variable is something that is probably not in itself of any great interest, but from which a variable of interest can be obtained. ... In probability theory and statistics, the Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution. ... The ecological fallacy is a widely recognised error in the interpretation of statistical data, whereby inferences about the nature of individuals are based solely upon aggregate statistics collected for the group to which those individuals belong. ...

Notes and references

^ Bjerregaard, Beth, Alan J. Lizotte (1995). "Gun Ownership and Gang Membership". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 86(1): pp. 37-58.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Rushefsky, Mark E. (2002). “Criminal Justice: To Ensure Domestic Tranquility (Chapter 7)”, Public Policy in the United States: At the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century. M.E. Sharpe, Inc..
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Duggan, Mark (2001). "More Guns, More Crime". Journal of Political Economy 109(5): 1086-1114.
^ ^a ^b Crime comparisons between Canada and the United States. Statistics Canada.
^ ^a ^b ^c Firearm Crimes, Canada Vs. U.S.. Canada Firearms Centre.
^ ^a ^b Fingerhut, L.A., J. C. Kleinman (1990). "International and interstate comparisons of homicide among young males". Journal of the American Medical Association 263(24).
^ Expanded Homicide Data Table 6 - Murder, Types of Weapons Used Percent Distribution within Region, 2005. Federal Bureau of Investigation.
^ ^a ^b Committee on Law and Justice (2004). “Chapter 1”, Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
^ Self-inflicted Injury/Suicide. National Center for Health Statistics. Retrieved on 2006-11-06.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Committee on Law and Justice (2004). “Executive Summary”, Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Committee on Law and Justice (2004). “Chapter 3”, Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
^ Krug, E.G, K.E. Powell, L.L. Dahlberg (1998). "Firearm-related deaths in the United States and 35 other high- and upper-middle income countries". International Journal of Epidemiology 7: pp. 214-221.
^ The Seventh United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (1998 - 2000). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Retrieved on 2006-11-08.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Cook, Philip J., Jens Ludwig (2000). “Chapter 2”, Gun Violence: The Real Costs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195137930.
^ Kennedy, David M., Anne M. Piehl, Anthony A. Braga (1996). "Youth Violence in Boston: Gun Markets, Serious Youth Offenders, and a Use-Reduction Strategy". Law and Contemporary Problems 59(1): pp. 147-183.
^ McGonigal, Michael D., John Cole, C. William Schwab, Donald R. Kauder, Michael F. Rotondo, Peter B. Angood (1993). "Urban Firearm Deaths: A Five-Year Perspective". Journal of Trauma 35(4): pp. 532-536.
^ McLaughlin, Colleen R., Jack Daniel, Scott M. Riener, Dennis E. Waite, et al.. "Factors Associated with Assault-Related Firearm Injuries in Male Adolescents". Working paper, Virginia Department of Juvenile Justice.
^ Expanded Homicide Data Table 7 - Murder Victims by Weapon, 2001-2005. Federal Bureau of Investigation.
^ Cook, Philip J., Mark H. Moore (1995). “Gun Control”, Wilson, James Q., Joan Petersilia Crime. Institute of Contemporary Studies Press.
^ Kleck, Gary (1991). Point Blank: Guns and Violence in America. Aldine de Gruyter. ISBN 0202304191.
^ Kleck, Gary, E. Britt Patterson (1993). "The Impact of Gun Control and Gun Ownership Levels on Violence Rates". Journal of Quantitative Criminology 9(3): pp. 249-287.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k McDowall, David, Brian Wiersema (1994). "The Incidence of Defensive Firearm Use by US Crime Victims, 1987 through 1990". American Journal of Public Health 84: pp. 1982-1984.
^ Cork, Daniel (1999). "Examining Time-Space Interaction in City-Level Homicide Data: Crack Markets and the Diffusion of Guns Among Youth". Journal of Quantitative Criminology 15: pp. 379-406.
^ Grogger, Jeff, Mike Willis (1998). "The Introduction of Crack Cocaine and the Rise of Urban Crime Rates". National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 6352, National Bureau of Economic Research.
^ America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being 2005 - Adolescent Mortality. 2006 Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lizotte, Alan J., Gregory J. Howard, Marvin D. Krohn, Terence P. Thornberry (1997). "Patterns of Illegal Gun Carrying Among Urban Young Males". Valparaiso University Law Review 31(2).
^ Kellermann, A.L., F.P. Rivara, G. Somes, et al. (1992). "Suicide in the home in relation to gun ownership". New England Journal of Medicine 327: pp. 467-472.
^ Ikeda, Robin M., Rachel Gorwitz, Stephen P. James, Kenneth E. Powell, James A. Mercy (1997). Fatal Firearm Injuries in the United States, 1962-1994: Violence Surveillance Summary Series, No. 3. National Center for Injury and Prevention Control.
^ ^a ^b Cook, Philip J. (1987). "Robbery Violence". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 70(2).
^ Kleck, Gary, K. McElrath (1991). "The Effects of Weaponry on Human Violence". Social Forces 69: pp. 669-692.
^ ^a ^b Zimring, Franklin E. (1972). "The Medium is the Message: Firearm Caliber as a Determinant of Death from Assault". Journal of Legal Studies 1: pp. 97-123.
^ Saltzman, L., J.A. Mercy, et al. (1992). "Weapon Involvement and Injury Outcomes in Family and Intimate Assaults". Journal of the American Medical Association 267: pp. 3043-3047.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r Cook, Philip J., Jens Ludwig (2000). “Chapter 3”, Gun Violence: The Real Costs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195137930.
^ Cook, Philip J. (1979). "The Effect of Gun Availability on Robbery and Robbery Murder: A Cross-Section Study of Fifty Cities". Policy Studies Review Annual 3: pp. 743-781.
^ Kleck, Gary (1997). Targeting guns: Firearms and their control. Aldine de Gruyter.
^ Zimring, Franklin E. (1968). "Is Gun Control Likely to Reduce Violent Killings?". University of Chicago Law Review 35: pp. 21-37.
^ ^a ^b Zimring, Franklin E., Gordon Hawkins (1997). Crime Is Not the Problem: Lethal Violence in America. Oxford University Press.
^ Gun Ownership: Two in Five Americans Live in Gun-Owning Households. Harris Interactive. Retrieved on 2006-11-08.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f General Social Survey. GSS Cumulative Data Set (1972-2004).
^ ^a ^b Azrael, Deborah, Philip J. Cook, Matthew Miller (2004). "State and Local Prevalence of Firearms Ownership Measurement, Structure, and Trends". Journal of Quantitative Criminology 20(1): pp. 43-62.
^ Uniform Crime Reports, 1987-1990. Federal Bureau of Investigation.
^ Suter, E.A. (1992). "Firearms and the killing threshold (Letter)". New England Journal of Medicine 326: pp. 1159.
^ Kates, D.B. (1991). "The value of civilian handgun possession as a deterrent to crime or a defense against crime". American Journal of Criminal Law 18: pp. 113-167.
^ "Go ahead, make our day", The New Republic, February 22, 1988, pp. pp. 7-9.
^ "Do guns save lives?", Time, August 12, 1988, pp. pp. 25-26.
^ "Are we "a nation of cowards"?", Newsweek, November 15, 1993, pp. pp. 93-94.
^ Kopel, D.B. (1993). "Hold your fire: gun control won't stop rising violence" 63: pp. 58-65.
^ Hemenway, D., D. Azrael, M. Miller (2000). "Gun use in the United States: results from two national surveys". Injury Prevention 6: pp. 263-267.
^ Kassirer, Jerome P. (1991). "Firearms and the killing threshold. (Editorial)". New England Journal of Medicine 325(23): pp. 1647-1651.
^ Baker, James Jay (July 1992). "Second amendment message in Los Angeles". American Riflemen: pp. 32-34.
^ Leitzel, James A. (1998). "Evasion and Public Policy: British and U.S. Firearm Regulations". Policy Studies 19(2): pp. 141-157.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Cook, Philip J., S.Molliconi, T.B. Cole (1995). "Regulating Gun Markets". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 86: pp. 59-92.
^ Cook, Philip J., Jens Ludwig (1996). Guns in America: Results of a Comprehensive Survey of Gun Ownership and Use. Police Foundation.
^ Sheley, Joseph F., James D. Wright (1993). Gun Acquisition and Possession in Selected Juvenile Samples. National Institute of Justice.
^ Wright, James D., Peter H. Rossi (1994). Armed and Considered Dangerous: A Survey of Felons and Their Firearms. Aldine de Gruyter.
^ Ash, Peter, Arthur L. Kellermann, et al (1996). "Gun Acquisition and Use by Juvenile Offenders". Journal of the American Medical Association 275(22): pp. 1754-1758.
^ Cook, Philip J., Jens Ludwig (2000). “Chapter 9”, Gun Violence: The Real Costs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195137930.
^ Weil, Douglas S., Rebecca C. Knox (1996). "Effects of Limiting Handgun Purchases on Interstate Transfer of Firearms". Journal of the American Medical Association 275(22): pp. 1759-1761.
^ ^a ^b ^c Committee on Law and Justice (2004). “Chapter 4”, Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
^ ^a ^b Butterfield, Fox. "Gun Flows to Criminals Laid to Tiny Fraction of Dealers", The New York Times, July 1, 1999.
^ Cook, Philip J., James Blose (1981). "State Programs for Screening Handgun Buyers". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science May 1981: pp. 80-91.
^ The Brady Act did not absolutely mandate background checks, but mandates the waiting period so that background checks can be done. The background check provision has been challenged on grounds that it violates the Tenth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States. In the 1997 case, Printz v. United States, the Supreme Court voided that part of the Brady Act.
^ Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act. Congress of the United States / Government Printing Office.
^ Lott, Jr., John R., David B. Mustard (1997). "Crime, Deterrence, and Right-to-Carry Concealed Handguns". Journal of Legal Studies 26(1): pp. 1-68.
^ Black, Dan, Daniel Nagin (1998). "Do 'Right to Carry' Laws Reduce Violent Crime?". Journal of Legal Studies 27(1): 209-219.
^ Ludwig, Jens (1998). "Concealed-Gun-Carrying Laws and Violent Crime: Evidence from State Panel Data". International Review of Law and Economics 18: 239-254.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e DeSimone, Jeff, Sara Markowitz (September 2005). “The Effect of Child Access Prevention Laws on Non-Fatal Gun Injuries”, NBER Working Paper No. 11613. National Bureau of Economic Research.
^ Cummings Peter, David C. Grossman, Frederick P. Rivara, Thomas D. Koepsell (1997). "State Gun Safe Storage Laws and Child Mortality Due to Firearms". Journal of the American Medical Association 278(13): pp. 1084–1086.
^ Webster, Daniel, John Vernick, et al. (2004). "Association between Youth-Focused Firearm Laws and Youth Suicides". Journal of the American Medical Association 292(5): pp. 594-601.
^ Lott, John, John E. Whitley (2001). "Safe-Storage Gun Laws: Accidental Deaths, Suicides, and Crime". Journal of Law and Economics 44(2): pp. 659–689.
^ Webster, D.W., M. Starnes (2000). "Reexamining the association between child access prevention gun laws and unintentional shooting deaths of children". Pediatrics 106(6): pp. 1466-1469.
^ Wintemute, Garen (2000). “Guns and Gun Violence”, Blumstein, Alfred, Joel Wallman The Crime Drop in America. Cambridge University Press.
^ Violence Policy Center (1998). Gun Shows in America: Tupperware Parties for Criminals, Executive Summary.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Hardy, Marjorie S. (2002). "Behavior-Oriented Approaches to Reducing Gun Violence". The Future of Children 12(2): pp. 101-118.
^ Christophersen, E.R. (1993). “Improving compliance in childhood injury control”, Developmental aspects of health compliance behavior. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 219-231.
^ Williams, A.F. (1982). "Passive and active measures for controlling disease and injury". Health Psychology 1: pp. 399-409.
^ Oatis, Pamela J., Nancy M. Fenn Buderer, Peter Cummings, Rosemarie Fleitz (1999). "Pediatric practice based evaluation of the Steps to Prevent Firearm Injury program". Injury Prevention 5(1): pp. 48-52.
^ Benthin, A., P. Slovic, H. Severan (1993). "A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception". Journal of Adolescence 16: pp. 153-168.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hyson, M.C., G.G. Bollin (1990). "Children's appraisal of home and neighborhood risks: Questions for the 1990s". Children's Environments Quarterly 7(3): pp. 50-60.
^ Coppens, N.M. (1985). "Cognitive development and locus of control as predictors of preschoolers' understanding of safety and prevention". Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 6: pp. 43-55.
^ Cook, P.J., J. Ludwig (May 1997). "Guns in America: National survey on private ownership and use of firearms". Research in Brief, National Institute of Justice.
^ Hemenway, D., S. Solnek, D.R. Azrael (1995). "Firearm training and storage". Journal of the American Medical Association 273(1): 46-50.
^ Wilson, M.H., S.P. Baker, S.P. Teret, et al. (1991). Saving children: A guide to injury prevention. Oxford University Press.
^ Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, Committee on Preventative Psychiatry (1999). "Violent behavior in children and youth: Preventative intervention from a psychiatric perspective". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38(3): pp. 235-241.
^ Arrendondo, S., T. Aultman-Bettride, T.P. Johnson, et al. (1999). Preventing youth handgun violence: A national study with trends and patterns for the state of Colorado. Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence.
^ Davidson, L.L., M S Durkin, L Kuhn, P O'Connor, B Barlow, M C Heagarty (1994). "The impact of the Safe Kids/Healthy Neighborhoods Injury Prevention Program in Harlem, 1988 through 1991". American Journal of Public Health 84(4): pp. 580-586.
^ Klassen, T.P., I.M. MacKay, A.W. Moher, A. I. Jones (2000). "Community-based prevention interventions". The Future of Children 10(1): pp. 83-110.
^ Braga, Anthony A., David M. Kennedy, Elin J. Waring, Anne M. Piehl (2001). "Problem-Oriented Policing, Deterrence, and Youth Violence: An Evaluation of Boston's Operation Ceasefire". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 38(3).
^ ^a ^b ^c Kennedy, David M., Anthony A. Braga, Anne M. Piehl (2001). Reducing Gun Violence: The Boston Gun Project's Operation Ceasefire.
^ Braga, Anthony A., Glenn L. Pierce (2005). "Disrupting Illegal Firearms Markets in Boston: The Effects of Operation Ceasefire on the Supply of New Handguns to Criminals". Criminology & Public Policy 4(4).
^ National Institute of Justice (February 2005). Research Report: Reducing Gun Violence - Operation Ceasefire in Los Angeles.
^ Raphael, Stephen, Jens Ludwig (2003). “Prison Sentence Enhancements: The Case of Project Exile”, Ludwig, Jens, Philip I. Cook Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence. Brookings Institution Press.
^ U.S. Department of Justice (May 13, 2003). Project Safe Neighborhoods - Fact Sheet.
^

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