Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. (October 2007)

In international politics, gunboat diplomacy refers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of military power—implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare, should terms not be agreeable to the superior force. Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... International relations (IR) is an academic and public policy field, a branch of political science, dealing with the foreign policy of states within the international system, including the roles of international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). ... A countrys foreign policy is a set of political goals that seeks to outline how that particular country will interact with other countries of the world and, to a lesser extent, non-state actors. ... For other uses, see War (disambiguation). ...

SMS Panther, a famous gunboat diplomat from the Agadir Crisis.

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Panther was the gun-boat that Germany deployed to the Moroccan port of Agadir, during the Second Moroccan Crisis (also called the Tangier Crisis) of 1911. ... SMS Panther, a famous gunboat diplomat. ...

Origin of the term

The term comes from the age of warring European empires, where such displays typically involved demonstrations of naval might—gunboats were a prominent type of warship and symbolized an advanced military. A country negotiating with a European power—usually over issues of trade—would notice that a warship or fleet of ships had appeared off its coast. The mere sight of such power almost always had a considerable effect, and it was rarely necessary for such boats to use other measures, such as demonstrations of cannon fire. This article is about the political and historical term. ... Naval redirects here. ... A gunboat is literally a boat carrying one or more guns. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article is about economic exchange. ... For other uses, see Cannon (disambiguation). ...

A notable and controversial example of gunboat diplomacy was the Don Pacifico Incident in 1850, in which the British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston dispatched a squadron of the Royal Navy to blockade the Greek port of Piraeus in retaliation for the harming of a British subject, David Pacifico, in Athens, and the subsequent failure of the government of King Otto to compensate the Gibraltar-born (and therefore British) Pacifico. Don Pacifico Incident This incident concerned a Portuguese Jew, named David Pacifico (known as Don Pacifico), who was a trader in Athens during the reign of King Otto. ... The title of Foreign Secretary has been traditionally used to refer to the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. ... Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, KG, GCB, PC (20 October 1784 – 18 October 1865) was a British statesman who served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in the mid-19th century. ... This article is about the navy of the United Kingdom. ... A blockade is any effort to prevent supplies, troops, information or aid from reaching an opposing force. ... It has been suggested that Kaminia (Piraeus), Greece be merged into this article or section. ... This article is about the capital of Greece. ... King Otto or Othon of Greece, (Greek: , Othon, Vasileus tis Ellados) also Prince of Bavaria (June 1, 1815 – July 26, 1867) was made the first modern king of Greece in 1832 under the Convention of London, whereby Greece became a new independent kingdom under the protection of the Great Powers...

The effectiveness of such simple demonstrations of a nation's projection of force capabilities meant that those nations with naval power, especially Britain, could establish military bases (for example, Diego Garcia) and arrange economically advantageous relationships around the world. Aside from military conquest, gunboat diplomacy was the dominant way to establish new trade partners, colonial outposts and expansion of empire. In military and diplomatic calculations, projection of force is the capacity, either implied, or demonstrated in practice, to exert control over distant theatres through military action. ... Diego Garcia ( ) is an atoll located in the heart of the Indian Ocean, some 1,000 miles (1,600 km) south of Indias southern coast. ... This article is about a type of political territory. ... This article is about the political and historical term. ...

Those lacking the resources and technological advancements of European empires found that their own peaceable relationships were readily dismantled in the face of such pressures, and they therefore came to depend on the imperial nations for access to raw materials and overseas markets. A Raw material is something that is acted upon by human labour or industry to create some product that humans desire. ... Look up Market in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

The British diplomat and naval thinker James Cable spelled out the nature of gunboat diplomacy in a series of works published between 1971 and 1994. In these, he defined the phenomenon as "the use or threat of limited naval force, otherwise [sic] than as an act of war, in order to secure advantage or to avert loss, either in the furtherance of an international dispute or else against foreign nationals within the territory or the jurisdiction of their own state."^[1] He further broke down the concept into four key areas:

• Definitive Force: the use of gunboat diplomacy to create or remove a fait accompli.

• Purposeful Force: application of naval force to change the policy or character of the target government or group

• Catalytic Force: a mechanism designed to buy a breathing space or present policy makers with an increased range of options

• Expressive Force: use of navies to send a political message - interestingly this aspect of gunboat diplomacy is undervalued and almost dismissed by Cable.

Gunboat diplomacy comes in contrast to the views held prior to the 18th century influenced by Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis, in which he circuscribed the right to resort to force with what he described as 'temperamenta'. Here are some examples of French words and phrases used by English speakers. ...

Modern contexts

E-3 AWACS modern day gunboat diplomat

Gunboat diplomacy is considered a form of hegemony. As the United States became a military power in the first decade of the 20th century, the Rooseveltian version of gunboat diplomacy, big stick diplomacy, was partially superseded by dollar diplomacy: replacing the big stick with the "juicy carrot" of American private investment. However, during Woodrow Wilson's presidency, conventional gunboat diplomacy did occur, most notably in the case of the U.S. Army's occupation of Veracruz in 1914, during the Mexican Revolution. U.S. Air Force photograph of the E-3 Sentry. ... U.S. Air Force photograph of the E-3 Sentry. ... rolling out of the Boeing factory in the 1970s A Sentry AEW1 of the RAF takes off USAF E-3 Sentry prepared for flight at 4 Wing Cold Lake, Canada The NATO E-3s have the Coat of arms of Luxembourg and the registration LX on the tail. ... Hegemony (pronounced [])[1] (Greek: ) is a concept that has been used to describe the existence of dominance of one social group over another, such that the ruling group -- referred to as a hegemon -- acquires some degree of consent from the subordinate, as opposed to dominance purely by force. ... For other persons named Theodore Roosevelt, see Theodore Roosevelt (disambiguation). ... Thomas Nasts 1904 cartoon recreates an episode in Gullivers Travels Big Stick Diplomacy or Big Stick Policy was the slogan describing U.S. President Theodore Roosevelts corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856—February 3, 1924), was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. ... Combatants United States Mexico Commanders Frank Friday Fletcher Gustavo Mass Manuel Azueta Strength Total: 3948 Landing force: 757 N/A Casualties 22 killed 70 wounded 92 total 152-172 killed 195-250 wounded 347-422 total The United States occupation of Veracruz lasted for six months in response to the... This article is about the Mexican Revolution of 1910. ...

Gunboat diplomacy in the post-Cold War world was still based on naval forces. U.S. administrations have frequently changed the disposition of their major naval fleets to influence opinion in foreign capitals. More urgent diplomatic points were made by the Clinton administration in the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s (in alliance with the United Kingdom's Blair government) and elsewhere, using sea-launched Tomahawk missiles,^[2] and E-3 AWACS airborne surveillance aircraft in a more passive display of military presence. The term "gunboat diplomacy" has been superseded in many circles by "power projection". For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... USN redirects here. ... William Jefferson Bill Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III[1] on August 19, 1946) was the 42nd President of the United States, serving from 1993 to 2001. ... This does not cite any references or sources. ... For other people of the same name, see Tony Blair (disambiguation) Anthony Charles Lynton Blair (born May 6, 1953)[1] is the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, First Lord of the Treasury, Minister for the Civil Service, Leader of the Labour Party, and Member of Parliament for the constituency... A Tomahawk cruise missile The Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) is a long-range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile with stubby wings. ... USS , and HMS Illustrious, two aircraft carriers on a joint patrol. ...

Notable examples

18th century

• War of Jenkins' Ear (1739–48)

Combatants British Empire Spain Commanders Edward Vernon James E. Oglethorpe George Anson Charles Knowles Blas de Lezo Manuel de Montiano Andrés Reggio The War of Jenkins Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748. ...

19th century

• Second Barbary War (1815)
• Opium War
• Nguyen-France war
• Don Pacifico Incident (1850)
• Black Ships (1853–54)
• Anglo-Zanzibar War

Combatants United States British Empire (from 1815) Barbary states: Algiers Tripoli Tunis Commanders Stephen Decatur, Jr. ... There were two Opium Wars between Britain and China. ... Don Pacifico Incident This incident concerned a Portuguese Jew, named David Pacifico (known as Don Pacifico), who was a trader in Athens during the reign of King Otto. ... Japanese 1854 print describing Commodore Matthew Perrys Black Ships. The Black Ships (in Japanese, 黒船, kurofune) was the name given to Western vessels arriving in Japan between the 15th and 19th centuries. ... Combatants British Empire Zanzibar Strength 900 soldiers of the Zanzibar regular army; a detachment of Royal Marines of unknown strength; HMS Philomel; HMS Thrush; HMS Sparrow; HMS Racoon; HMS St George 2,800; HHS Glasgow Casualties Approximately 100 Approximately 500 killed The Anglo-Zanzibar War was fought between the United...

20th century

• Great White Fleet (1907)
• Agadir Crisis (1911)
• First Taiwan Strait Crisis (1954-55)
• Second Taiwan Strait Crisis (1958)
• Third Taiwan Strait Crisis (1995-96)

USS Kansas sails ahead of the USS Vermont as the fleet leaves Hampton Roads, Virginia on December 16, 1907. ... SMS Panther, a famous gunboat diplomat. ... Taiwan Strait The First Taiwan Strait Crisis (also called the 1954-1955 Taiwan Strait Crisis or the 1955 Taiwan Strait Crisis) was a short armed conflict that took place between the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) governments. ... Taiwan Strait The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, also called the 1958 Taiwan Strait Crisis, was a conflict that took place between the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) governments in which the PRC was accused by Taiwan of shelling the islands of Matsu and... Taiwan Strait The Third Taiwan Strait Crisis, also called the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait Crisis or the 1996 Taiwan Strait Crisis, was the effect of a series of missile tests conducted by the Peoples Republic of China in the waters surrounding Taiwan including the Taiwan Strait from July 21...

References

Literature:

• Cable, J.: Gunboat diplomacy. Political Applications of Limited Naval Forces, London 1971 (re-edited 1981 and 1994)
• Wiechmann, G.: Die preußisch-deutsche Marine in Lateinamerika 1866-1914. Eine Studie deutscher Kanonenbootpolitik (The Prussian-German Navy in Latin America 1866-1914. A study of german Gunboat diplomacy), Bremen 2002
• Eberspächer, C.: Die deutsche Yangtse-Patrouille. Deutsche Kanonenbootpolitik in China im Zeitalter des Imperialismus (The German Yangtse patrol. German Gunboat diplomacy in China in the age of imperialism), Bochum 2004
• Healy, D.: Gunboat Diplomacy in the Wilson Era. The U.S. Navy in Haiti 1915-1916, Madison WIS 1976
• Hagan, K. J.: American Gunboat Diplomacy and the Old Navy 1877-1889, Westport/London 1973
• Preston, A./Major, J.: Send a Gunboat! A study of the Gunboat and its role in British policy, 1854-1904, London 1967

Articles:

• Long, D. F.: "Martial Thunder": The First Official American Armed Intervention in Asia, in: Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 42, 1973, p. 143-162
• Willock, R.: Gunboat Diplomacy: Operations of the (British) North America and West Indies Squadron, 1875-1915, Part 2, in: American Neptune, Vol. XXVIII, 1968, p. 85-112
• Bauer, K. J.: The "Sancala" Affair: Captain Voorhees Seizes an Argentine Squadron, in: American Neptune, Vol. XXIV, 1969, p. 174-186

Movies:

• OUR FIGHTING NAVY (GB 1937, director Norman Walker)
• THE SAND PEBBLES ("Kanonenboot am Yangtse-kiang", german title, USA 1966, director Robert Wise)
• YANGTSE INCIDENT (BATTLE HELL, american title, "Helden zur See", austrian title, "Yangtse Zwischenfall", german title, GB 1957, director Michael Anderson)

External links

• 1991 article examining potential role of U. S. Navy in 1990s diplomacy
• Article from a U. S./liberal perspective considering America's global military 'footprint'
• A U. K. sailor's-eye-view of two modern gunboat diplomacy missions
• Storm in a teacup? Gunboats on the Caspian Sea
• Anti-war analyst Noam Chomsky applies the term to NATO's action against Serbia
• TIME magazine on Clinton's Tomahawk Diplomacy
• Ongoing legal dispute at the International Court of Justice over the legality of NATO actions against Serbia