A Guttman scale is a psychological instrument developed using the scaling technique developed by Louis Guttman in 1944 called Guttman scaling or scalogram analysis. A primary purpose of the Guttman scaling is to ensure that the instrument measures only a single trait (a property called unidimensionality, a single dimension underlies responses to the scale). Guttman's insight was that for unidimensional scales, those who agree with a more extreme test item will also agree with all less extreme items that preceded it. Scaling is the measurement of a variable in such a way that it can be expressed on a continuum. ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ...

A perfect Guttman scale

A hypothetical, perfect Guttman scale consists of a unidimensional set of items that are ranked in order of difficulty from least extreme to most extreme position. For example, a person scoring a "7" on a ten item Guttman scale, will agree with items 1-7 and disagree with items 8,9,10. An important property of Guttman's model is that a person's entire set of responses to all items can be predicted from their cumulative score because the model is deterministic.

Deterministic model

An important objective in Guttman scaling is to maximize the reproducibility of response patterns from a single score. A good Guttman scale should have a coefficient of reproducibility above .85. Another commonly used metric for assessing the quality of a Guttman scale, is Menzel's coefficient of scalability and the coefficient of homogeneity (Loevinger, 1948; Cliff, 1977; Krus and Blackman, 1988). In order to maximize unidimensionality, misfitting items are re-written or discarded.

Stochastic models

Guttman's deterministic model is brought within a probabilistic framework in item response theory models, and especially Rasch measurement. The Rasch model requires a probabilistic Guttman structure when items have dichotomous responses (e.g. right/wrong). In the Rasch model, the Guttman response pattern is the most probable response pattern for a person when items are ordered from least difficult to most difficult (Andrich, 1985). In addition, the Polytomous Rasch model is premised on a deterministic latent Guttman response subspace, and this is the basis for integer scoring in the model (Andrich, 1978, 2005). Analysis of data using item response theory requires comparatively longer instruments and larger datasets, though, in order to scale item and person locations and evaluate fit of data to the model. Item response theory (IRT) is a body of related psychometric theory that provides a foundation for scaling persons and items based on responses to assessment items. ... Rasch models are probabilistic measurement models which currently find their application primarily in psychological and attainment assessment, and are being increasingly used in other areas, including the health profession and market research. ... The polytomous Rasch model is a measurement model that has potential application in any context in which the objective is to measure a trait or ability through a process in which responses to items are scored with successive integers. ...

In practice, actual data from respondents do not closely match Guttman's deterministic model. Several probabilistic models of Guttman implicatory scales were developed by Krus (1977) and Krus and Bart (1974).

Applications

The Guttman scale is used mostly when researchers want to design short questionnaires with good discriminating ability. The Guttman model works best for constructs that are hierarchical and highly structured such as social distance, organizational hierarchies, and evolutionary stages.

Unfolding models

A class of unidimensional models that contrast with Guttman's model are unfolding models. These models also assume unidimensionality but posit that the probability of endorsing an item is proportional to the distance between the items standing on the unidimensional trait and the standing of the respondent. For example, items like "I think immigration should be reduced" on a scale measuring attitude towards immigration would be unlikely to be endorsed both by those favoring open policies and also by those favoring no immigration at all. Such an item might be endorsed by someone in the middle of the continuum. Some researchers feel that many attitude items fit this unfolding model while most psychometric techniques are based on correlation or factor analysis, and thus implicitly assume a linear relationship between the trait and the response probability. The effect of using these techniques would be to only include the most extreme items, leaving attitude instruments with little precision to measure the trait standing of individuals in the middle of the continuum.

Example

Here is an example of a Guttman scale - the Bogardus Social Distance Scale: Bogardus Social Distance Scale was created by Emory S. Bogardus to empirically measure peoples willingness to participate in social contacts of varying degrees of closeness with other kinds of people, such as various racial and ethnic groups, as well as sex offenders, and homosexuals. ...

(Least extreme)

1. Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your country?
2. Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your community?
3. Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your neighbourhood?
4. Are you willing to permit immigrants to live next door to you?
5. Would you permit your child to marry an immigrant?

(Most extreme)

E.g., agreement with item 3 implies agreement with items 1 and 2.

References

• Andrich, D. (1978). A rating formulation for ordered response categories. Psychometrika, 43, 357-74.

• Andrich, D. (2005). The Rasch model explained. In Sivakumar Alagumalai, David D Durtis, and Njora Hungi (Eds.) Applied Rasch Measurement: A book of exemplars. Springer-Kluwer. Chapter 3, 308-328.

• Andrich, D. (1985). An elaboration of Guttman scaling with Rasch models for measurement. In N. Brandon-Tuma (Ed.), Sociological Methodology, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass. (Chapter 2, pp. 33-80.).

• Cliff, N. (1977). A theory of consistency of ordering generalizable to tailored testing. Psychometrika, 42, 375-399.

• Gordon, R. (1977) Unidimensional Scaling of Social Variables: Concepts and Procedures. New York: The Free Press.

• Guttman, L. (1950). The basis for scalogram analysis. In Stouffer et al. Measurement and Prediction. The American Soldier Vol. IV. New York: Wiley

• Kenny D.A., Rubin D.C. (1977). Estimating chance reproducibility in Guttman scaling. Social Science Research, 6, 188-196.

• Krus, D.J. (1977) Order analysis: an inferential model of dimensional analysis and scaling. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 37, 587-601. (Request reprint).

• Krus, D. J., & Bart, W. M. (1974) An ordering theoretic method of multidimensional scaling of items. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34, 525-535.

• Krus, D.J., & Blackman, H.S. (1988).Test reliability and homogeneity from perspective of the ordinal test theory. Applied Measurement in Education, 1, 79-88 (Request reprint).

• Loevinger, J. (1948). The technic of homogeneous tests compared with some aspects of scale analysis and factor analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 45, 507-529.

• Robinson J. P. (1972) Toward a More Appropriate Use of Guttman Scaling. Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 37:(2). (Summer, 1973), pp. 260-267.

• Schooler C. (1968). A Note of Extreme Caution on the Use of Guttman Scales. American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 74:(3) (Nov. 1968), 296-301.

See also

• Bogardus Social Distance Scale -- A well known example of a Guttman scale
• Likert scale
• Thurstone scale
• Mokken scale
• Item response theory
• Diamond of opposites
• Homogeneity (statistics)
• Nonparametric Item Response Theory

Bogardus Social Distance Scale was created by Emory S. Bogardus to empirically measure peoples willingness to participate in social contacts of varying degrees of closeness with other kinds of people, such as various racial and ethnic groups, as well as sex offenders, and homosexuals. ... A Likert scale (pronounced lick-ert) is a type of psychometric response scale often used in questionnaires, and is the most widely used scale in survey research. ... In psychology, the Thurstone scale was the first formal technique for measuring an attitude. ... Item response theory (IRT) is a body of related psychometric theory that provides a foundation for scaling persons and items based on responses to assessment items. ... Diamond of opposites The diamond of opposites is a type of two-dimensional plot used in psychodrama groups. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

External links

• Guttman scaling description