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Henan, Shanxi, Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian provinces

The Hakka (Mandarin: Kèjiā) are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people who live predominantly in the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Fujian in China. Their ancestors were often said to have arrived from what is today's central China, centuries ago. It is still a contested issue where the Hakka originated. It is said that in a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various nations throughout the world. The Hakka have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history: in particular, they have been a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.   (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Chiang-hsi; Postal map spelling: Kiangsi) is a southern province of the Peoples Republic of China, spanning from the banks of the Yangtze River in the north into hillier areas in the south. ... Not to be confused with the former Kwantung Leased Territory in north-eastern China. ...   (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Fu-chien; Postal map spelling: Fukien, Foukien; local transliteration Hokkien from Min Nan Hok-kiàn) is one of the provinces on the southeast coast of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Hakka (Simplified Chinese: 客家话, Traditional Chinese: 客家話, Pronunciation in Hakka: Hak-ka-fa/-va, Pinyin: Kèjiāhuà) is a spoken variation of the Chinese language spoken predominantly in southern China by the Hakka ethnic group and descendants in diaspora throughout East and Southeast Asia and around the world. ... Relief image of the bodhisattva Guan Yin from Mt. ... A Confucian temple in Wuwei, Peoples Republic of China. ... Taoism (pronounced or ; also spelled Daoism) refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions and concepts. ... Chinese traditional religion is the blend of religious practices most Han Chinese practiced for thousands of years. ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... Language(s) Chinese languages Religion(s) Predominantly Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism. ... The She (畲) people are an ethnic group. ... Image File history File links China-Hukka. ... Henan (Chinese: 河南; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Ho-nan), is a province of the Peoples Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. ... Shanxi (Chinese: 山西; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Shan-hsi; Postal System Pinyin: Shansi) is a province in the northern part of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Not to be confused with the former Kwantung Leased Territory in north-eastern China. ...   (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Chiang-hsi; Postal map spelling: Kiangsi) is a southern province of the Peoples Republic of China, spanning from the banks of the Yangtze River in the north into hillier areas in the south. ...   (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Fu-chien; Postal map spelling: Fukien, Foukien; local transliteration Hokkien from Min Nan Hok-kiàn) is one of the provinces on the southeast coast of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Language(s) Chinese languages Religion(s) Predominantly Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism. ... Not to be confused with the former Kwantung Leased Territory in north-eastern China. ...   (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Chiang-hsi; Postal map spelling: Kiangsi) is a southern province of the Peoples Republic of China, spanning from the banks of the Yangtze River in the north into hillier areas in the south. ...   (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Fu-chien; Postal map spelling: Fukien, Foukien; local transliteration Hokkien from Min Nan Hok-kiàn) is one of the provinces on the southeast coast of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Languages various Religions Predominantly Taoism, Mahayana Buddhism, traditional Chinese religions, and atheism. ...

Hakkas are most commonly found in the southern Chinese provinces, but may also be found in the northern provinces; for example there are television news programs read in Hakka in Xi'an (Shaanxi). The presence of Hakkas is pan-China. Xian redirects here. ...   (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: ShÇŽnxÄ«; Wade-Giles: Shan-hsi; Postal map spelling: Shensi) is a north-central province of the Peoples Republic of China, and includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River as well as the Qinling Mountains across the...

[edit] Migrations and group identification

The use of the term Hakka to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century). Flag (1890-1912) Anthem Gong Jinou (1911) Qing China at its greatest extent. ...

Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and the invasion of foreign conquerors, since the Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty when China fragmented, during the middle of the Song Dynasty which saw massive depopulation of the north and a flood of refugees southward, when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital, at the fall of the Song to the Mongols in the Yuan Dynasty, and when the Ming Dynasty fell to the Manchu who formed the Qing Dynasty. Some of these migrants did not want to reveal where they were from as under Chinese Laws, a crime of treason committed by one person is punishible by death upon the clan of that person up to nine generations removed. As the locals did not know where the migrants were from, they were referred to as 'guest families'. The Jin Dynasty (晉 pinyin: jìn, 265-420), one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. ... For the band, see Tang Dynasty (band). ... For other uses, see Liu Song Dynasty. ... The Jurchens (Traditional Chinese: 女眞; Simplified Chinese: 女真; pinyin: nÇšzhÄ“n) were a Tungus people who inhabited parts of Manchuria and northern Korea until the 17th century, when they became the Manchus. ... Honorary guard of Mongolia. ... Capital Dadu Language(s) Mongolian Chinese Government Monarchy Emperor  - 1260-1294 Kublai Khan  - 1333-1370 (Cont. ... For other uses, see Ming. ... Flag (1890-1912) Anthem Gong Jinou (1911) Qing China at its greatest extent. ...

During the reign of Emperor Qing Kangxi, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the danger posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given money to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù). For other uses, see Kangxi (disambiguation) The Kangxi Emperor (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Kang-hsi; May 4, 1654 – December 20, 1722) was an Emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty,[1] and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, from 1661 to 1722. ...

The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (Punti or 本地) of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, despite having migrated legitimately, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. People were also able to purchase and sell land. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years, and could not be regarded as migrants in any sense) would lead to a series of 19th century skirmishes known as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (土客械鬥) in the Pearl Delta. The problem was not that the two groups spoke a different tongue. In fact the 'locals' were composed of different peoples speaking several mutually unintelligible tongues, as typical of the Chinese country-side all over China, but they would regard each other as 'locals' or Puntis but not the Hakka. Cantonese people (Traditional Chinese: 廣東人; Simplified Chinese: 广东人; Pinyin: GuÇŽngdōng rén; Jyutping: gwong2 dung1 yan4), broadly speaking, are persons originating from the present-day Guangdong province in southern China. ... The Punti (Chinese: 本地; Cantonese IPA: , Jyutping: bun2 dei6; Mandarin Pinyin: BÄ›n Dì), a rough transliteration of the Cantonese term for original locality, refers to the Cantonese-speaking populations of southern China, namely, Guangdong province. ... The Punti (Chinese: 本地; Cantonese IPA: , Jyutping: bun2 dei6; Mandarin Pinyin: BÄ›n Dì), a rough transliteration of the Cantonese term for original locality, refers to the Cantonese-speaking populations of southern China, namely, Guangdong province. ... Punti-Hakka Clan Wars or Hakka-Punti Clan Wars (客家本地宗族戰爭 pinyin: kejia bendi zongzu zhanzheng) refers to battles or conflicts between the Hakka and Punti in Guangdong (廣東), China circa the 1850s, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty (清朝). Hakka literally means guest family, and Punti literally means original land. ...

The term 'Punti' is not however synonymous with 'Cantonese', as a Cantonese in any other part of China, say for example Beijing, would not be able to call himself a 'Punti', as the puntis of the area are the Beijing or Hebei people.

The term 'Punti' is a Hakka word given to the Cantonese by the Hakka people. In Cantonese, the Hakka word 'Punti' is pronounced 'boon-day'.

Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, (in the same way that Punti covered several peoples speaking different tongues) and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members (which showed that relation between the two were very good at times), identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other. Cantonese people (Traditional Chinese: 廣東人; Simplified Chinese: 广东人; Pinyin: Guǎngdōng rén; Jyutping: gwong2 dung1 yan4), broadly speaking, are persons originating from the present-day Guangdong province in southern China. ...

The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands, as well as in the northern provinces such as Shanxi, where there are television news broadcasts in the Hakka language. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups e.g. in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China. Not to be confused with the former Kwantung Leased Territory in north-eastern China. ...   (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Fu-chien; Postal map spelling: Fukien, Foukien; local transliteration Hokkien from Min Nan Hok-kiàn) is one of the provinces on the southeast coast of the Peoples Republic of China. ...   (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Chiang-hsi; Postal map spelling: Kiangsi) is a southern province of the Peoples Republic of China, spanning from the banks of the Yangtze River in the north into hillier areas in the south. ... Not to be confused with the unrelated provinces of Hainan, Henan, and Yunnan. ... Guangxi (Zhuang: Gvangjsih; old orthography: ; Simplified Chinese: 广西; Traditional Chinese: 廣西; Pinyin: GuÇŽngxÄ«; Wade-Giles: Kuang-hsi; Postal System Pinyin: Kwangsi), full name Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (Zhuang: Gvangjsih Bouxcuengh Swcigih; old orthography: ; Simplified Chinese: 广西壮族自治区; Traditional Chinese: 廣西壯族自治區; Pinyin: GuÇŽngxÄ« Zhuàngzú ZìzhìqÅ«) is a Zhuang autonomous region of... (Simplified Chinese: 贵州; Traditional Chinese: è²´å·ž; pinyin: Gùizhōu; Wade-Giles: Kuei-chou; also spelled Kweichow) is a province of the Peoples Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. ... This article is about the Chinese province. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Hakka (Simplified Chinese: 客家话, Traditional Chinese: 客家話, Pronunciation in Hakka: Hak-ka-fa/-va, Pinyin: Kèjiāhuà) is a spoken variation of the Chinese language spoken predominantly in southern China by the Hakka ethnic group and descendants in diaspora throughout East and Southeast Asia and around the world. ... Phonology (Greek phonÄ“ = voice/sound and logos = word/speech), is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sound system of a specific language (or languages). ...

Although different, and also not different, in some social customs and culture (e.g. linguistic differences) from the surrounding population, the Hakka are not a separate ethnic group: they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties. With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among both the Hakka newcomers and the indigenous peoples, and between the Punti and Hakka. Hakka is one language in the family of languages known as Chinese. ... The Peoples Republic of China officially describes itself as a multinational unitary state and as such officially recognizes 56 nationalities or Mínzú (民族), within China: the Han being the majority (>92%), and the remaining 55 nationalities being the national minorities. ... Language(s) Chinese languages Religion(s) Predominantly Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism. ... Xianglin Luo（1906-1978）， is one of the most renowned researchers in Hakka language and Hakka culture. ... Year 1933 (MCMXXXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The Hakkas have a custom of buying the unwanted baby daughters of the Yue puntis in Guangdong, as Puntis favored sons over daughters. These Punti-moys (本地妹) then made brides for Hakka sons when they grew up. Hakka daughters did not enter Punti households in the same way, and there is no equivalent Hakka-mui term in the Punti vocabulary. The Yue punti genes thus entered Hakka populations.

[edit] Social and cultural influences

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can (February 2008).

Tulou buildings in Fujian

Due to their agrarian lifestyle, the Hakka have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (See Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on an equal balance between texturised meat and vegetables, and fresh vegetables (See Hakka cuisine). A Hakka house in southern Fujian. ... Hakka cuisine is the cooking style of the Hakka, and originally came from southeastern China (Guangdong and Fujian). ...

When Hakkas expanded into areas with preexisting populations, there was often little agricultural land left for them to farm on. As a result, many Hakka men turned towards careers in the military or public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education.

Unlike the majority of other Han Chinese women, Hakka women did not practice footbinding. The bound feet of an adult woman Foot binding (纏足, 包腳, 裹小腳, or 紮腳) is an obsolete Chinese custom, practiced for centuries. ...

During the Qing Dynasty, it was said that some Hakkas used their feet to pull out weeds in rice paddies because they did not want to kneel and crawl on the land of Manchus^{[citation needed]}. Flag (1890-1912) Anthem Gong Jinou (1911) Qing China at its greatest extent. ... A rice paddy in Japan A paddy field is a flooded parcel of farmland for growing rice (from the Malaysian word padi, a noun meaning growing rice). Paddy fields are a typical feature of rice-growing countries of East and Southeast Asia, such as China, Thailand, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia... The Manchu (manju in Manchu; 滿族 (pinyin: mǎnzú) in Chinese, often shortened to 滿 (pinyin: mǎn) are an ethnic group who originated in northeastern Manchuria. ...

[edit] Martial arts

The Hakka community is also a source for a variety of martial arts. Those systems in general are referred to as Hakka Kuen (Hakka Fist). Southern Praying Mantis, Bak Mei and Dragon Kung Fu are examples of styles practised by the Hakka. Hakka Kuen was style of martial arts that developed in the Guangdong province of China in the 18th century. ... Bamboo Forest Praying Mantis more commonly known as Southern Praying Mantis was developed as a kung fu style by the Hakka Chinese. ... Bak Mei (Chinese: 白眉, literally White Eyebrows; also known as Pai Mei, Pei Mei, Bai Mei, Pak Mei, and Bak Mei Pai) is said to have been one of the legendary Five Elders — survivors of the destruction of the Shaolin Temple by the Qing Dynasty imperial regime (1644–1912) — who, according...

[edit] Hakkas in China

Meizhou Prefecture (in yellow) in Guangdong Province, where Xingning and Meixian are located

Image File history File links 内容介绍：梅州在广东的位置 原创者：zhuwq 创作日期：2005年1月 创作方法：将广东地图用扫描仪输入电脑，再将图片导入FLASH，用画笔描出轮廓，着填充，导出JPG图像。 zhuwq授权，任何人都可以使用 http://zh. ... Image File history File links 内容介绍：梅州在广东的位置 原创者：zhuwq 创作日期：2005年1月 创作方法：将广东地图用扫描仪输入电脑，再将图片导入FLASH，用画笔描出轮廓，着填充，导出JPG图像。 zhuwq授权，任何人都可以使用 http://zh. ... Meizhou (梅州) is a prefecture-level city of eastern Guangdong Province in the south of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Xingning (traditional Chinese: 興寧 simplified Chinese: 兴宁) is county-level city, under the jurisdiction of Meizhou, in the Guangdong province of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Meixian is a county in north eastern Guangdong province, the Peoples Republic of China. ...

[edit] Hakkas in Guangdong

The Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from Huizhou: the Hakkas there live mostly in the eastern part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) area. Guangxi contains the second-largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (Chinese: 圍龍屋, wéilóngwū or Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) and sijiaolou (Chinese: 四角樓, sìjǐaolóu or Hakka: Si Kok Liu). Huizhou (Simplified Chinese: 惠州; Pinyin: ) is a prefecture-level city in Guangdong province, Peoples Republic of China. ... Xingning (traditional Chinese: 興寧 simplified Chinese: 兴宁) is county-level city, under the jurisdiction of Meizhou, in the Guangdong province of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Meixian is a county in north eastern Guangdong province, the Peoples Republic of China. ...

[edit] Hakkas in Fujian

The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architectural building known as tu lou (土樓), literally meaning earthen structures. The tu lou are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor containing a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.

(see Hakka architecture) A Hakka house in southern Fujian. ...

[edit] Hakkas in Hong Kong

[edit] Historical background

The factual accuracy of this section is disputed. Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.(March 2008)

In contemporary society, the Hakka people in Hong Kong have been identified primarily through their concentration and population in the villages and small towns in the New Territories, which were unpopulated and did not have a native or 'Punti' population. The Hakkas thus became the 'puntis' of these areas when they moved in. During the Qing Dynasty, the Hakka people were displaced and persecuted due to their culture which differs from the Manchu culture of the Qing. Refusing to practice the binding of feet (which was not a practice in Chinese classical eras), the Hakka people were marked out as 'Hak' or 'guest' people in Hong Kong [Cantonese dialect transliteration], as these people never stated which part of China their ancestors were from. The last great migration of the Hakka people towards Hong Kong took place at the time of the 'Tai Ping' revolution (1850-1864). Hakka dissenters featured in the anti-government rebellion and subsequently were persecuted following the failure of the Tai Ping revolution. A major road, Kwong Fuk Road in Tai Po, a town in the New Territories. ... Combatants Qing Empire United Kingdom France (United Kingdom and France join the war later) Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Commanders Xianfeng Emperor Tongzhi Emperor Empress Dowager Cixi Charles George Gordon Frederick Townsend Ward Hong Xiuquan Yang Xiuqing Xiao Chaogui Feng Yunshan Wei Changhui Shi Dakai Li Xiucheng Strength 2,000,000-5...

The Hakka people practised mainstream Confucian practices as any other Han Chinese group, with a hierarchised dependence on authority given through the family head. Christianised by Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries in the mid-19th century who gave food aid to the Hakka and the poor, the Hakka were often slanderously categorised by Puntis with the cult practices of Hong Xiuquan's Taiping Tianguo movement. Thus the new settlers were forced by the circumstances and, not physically by the Puntis, to concentrate on the northern New Territories of Hong Kong. The Hakka people placed a greater reliance on the internal strengths of their own customs, cultural identity and education. This model of community survival, dependent on the integrity of the nuclear clan unit in the face of adversity has contributed to the 20th century outcome of preserving the cultural identity of the Hakka people. British Law was also in force in Hong Kong, preventing any major incidents from taking place. Over the past forty years, due to the social pressures of Hong Kong, many young Hakkas (as well as other internal Chinese migrant groups such as the Shanghai people and the Hoklo people) have been 'localised' and adopted Punti identity. Confucianism (儒家 Pinyin: rújiā The School of the Scholars), sometimes translated as the School of Literati, is an East Asian ethical, religious and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of Confucius. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... A statue of Hong Xiuquan Hóng Xiùquán (洪秀全, Wade-Giles: Hung Hsiu-chüan, born Hong Renkun 洪仁坤, Courtesy name Huoxiu 火秀; January 10, 1812-June 1, 1864) was a Hakka Chinese Christian who led the Taiping Rebellion and established the Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping, in which he was known...

Occupationally, Hakka were agriculture-based, as were about 95% of the Chinese population then. There was high unemployment in those times as Hong Kong was still a backwater. The Hakka 'mountain song' as well as songs of 'eight tones' have become famed, particularly outside of Hong Kong by several Hakka artists. The traditional Hakka mountain song expressed human struggle and toil in the early and harsh settlement of a land which was untreaded by man, requiring clearing and human effort. Hakka folk-art remains a strong reminder of the folk origin and connection and the naturalistic tendencies of the Hakka populace, working within a self-dependent synergistic agrarian bioecosystem, in exactly the same manner as any other Chinese peasant farmer of the time. Geographically segregated from Qing Dynasty control and persecution following China's military failures of the 19th century, the Hakka people placed great reliance on a traditional but free society with the opportunities to trade and improve. The striving ethos in the Hakka people of Hong Kong also emphasized ancestral and cultural customs with strong Confucian leanings, recognised for its Chineseness, and the modern Western Christian thoughts. In Hong Kong, Hakka villages continue to be aggregated loosely around clanship, maintaining blood-ties to families (often identified through genealogy), as most well connected Puntis also do, but is lost amongst the lower class Puntis. Land rights in The New Territories of Hong Kong are based on English Common Law in respect to Land Law, and apply to both Puntis and Hakkas, and any other people of the region, irrespective of their spoken language. These laws are accepted and followed by the Hong Kong SAR government. Buying and selling of land was also done through the ages.

It is well documented that when the British took over Hong Kong, the territory was almost unpopulated. The Hakkas of Hong Kong were one its earliest inhabitants, and many arrived several centuries before the migration into Hong Kong by Punti Cantonese people. The term Hakka refers to a people and not who was the first to arrived in Hong Kong. To be technically correct, the Hakkas are the Puntis of Hong Kong if one were to make Punti mean aboriginal. Late arrivers to Hong Kong, such the Shanghainese during the Chinese Civil War, are not referred to as 'guests' but by the city from which they took their language. The Hakkas were different as they did not reveal their origins because many of them fled when the Chinese Law was that they could be sentenced to death because someone in their clan nine generations removed had committed treason.

[edit] Cuisine

The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home. Hakka cuisine concentrates on the texture of food - the hallmark of Hakka cuisine. Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats, 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate have a central place in their repertoire. In fact the raw materials for Hakka food are no different from raw materials for any other type of regional Chinese cuisine, what you cook depends on what is available in the market. Hakka cuisine may be described as outwardly simple but tasty. The skill in Hakka cuisine lies in the ability to cook meat thoroughly without hardening it, and to naturally bring out the proteinous flavour (umami taste) of meat. Most of the Chinese restaurants in the United Kingdom are Hakka owned. Human taste sensory organs, called taste buds or gustatory calyculi, and concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue, appear to be receptive to relatively few chemical species as tastes. ...

The Hakkas who settled in the harbour and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine. Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats, instead emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables. Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavouring. Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favours offal, an example being Deep-Fried Intestines (炸大腸 or Tza Tai Chong). Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish Salt Baked Chicken (鹽焗雞 or Yam Guk Gai). Another specialty is the Poon Choy (盆菜)^[1]. While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is presently a commonly accepted view. The above dishes and their variations are in fact found and consumed throughout China including Guangdong, and are not particularly unique or confined to the Hakka Chinese population. Offal in China was/is also more expensive than meat, as was/is fatty pork more expensive than lean pork. Offal was/is a premier food in China. Other dishes consumed by Hakkas and many Chinese include chicken's feet and duck's feet. Scrapple sandwich at the Delaware state fair Offal is the entrails and internal organs of a butchered animal. ...

[edit] Modern society

It should be noted that the Hakka's modern societal structure and experience includes far more diverse and complex global elements than the Hong Kong landscape, where only a small fraction of the Hakka reside or have transitioned through.

[edit] Preservation

In the latter half of the 20th century, a stronger emphasis has been placed on Hakka preservation through folk art and customs. A Hakka language dictionary has also been completed auspiciously on 1997 by Dr CF Lau [ISBN Reference: ISBN 962-201-750-9], a devoted contributor to the preservation of the Hakka language in Hong Kong.

[edit] Hakkas worldwide

The Hakkas have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably India, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Myanmar and Thailand. Anthem: Kaba Ma Kyei Capital Naypyidaw , Largest city Yangon (Rangoon) Official languages Burmese Recognised regional languages Jingpho, Shan, Karen, Mon, Rakhine Demonym Burmese Government Military junta  -  Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Senior General Than Shwe  -  Vice Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Vice-Senior General...

Hakka people also emigrated to Australia, Brunei, Canada, the United States, and to many countries in Europe, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and in Central and South America, particularly in Panama and Brazil. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong; many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the Cultural Revolution of China and economic depression in Hong Kong. There once was a sizable Hakka community in Calcutta, but most there have migrated to Canada, the United States, Australia,Taiwan or Austria. Today there are about 90-100 million Hakka speakers around the world. In Malaysia, Hakka people are sometimes known as Khek. For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... West Indies redirects here. ... World map showing the Americas CIA political map of the Americas in an equal-area projection The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the continents of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions. ... , “Calcutta” redirects here. ...

[edit] Hakkas in Indonesia

Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed in Bangka and Belitung islands as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along the Kapuas River in Kalimantan in the 19th century. In the early 20th Century new arrivals from Meixian joined their compatriots as traders and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta and Pontianak. The Kapuas River is a river on the Indonesian island of Borneo. ... Map of Kalimantan (white color) and its subdivisions. ... This page is about the capital city of Indonesia. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

[edit] Bangka Belitung

Hakkas also live in the Indonesia's biggest tin producer islands of Bangka Belitung province^[2]. They were the second majority ethnic group after Malay at about 330,000^[3]. Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia as well. This article is about the metallic chemical element. ... Bangka-Belitung Islands is a province of Indonesia, which includes two main islands, Bangka and Belitung, and several smaller ones that lie from the east of Sumatra to the northeast of South Sumatra province. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... West Kalimantan (Indonesian: Kalimantan Barat often abbreviated to Kalbar) is a province of Indonesia. ...

The first ancestries of Hakkas in Bangka and Belitung have reached the islands in 1700s from Guangdong, many of them worked as tin mining labours. Since that they have stayed the island along with the native Malay people. The condition is much different with Chinese and natives in other region as they always came into clashes before year of 1999 when Indonesian Chinese finally got their freedom again since 1960's. But here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festival such as in celebrating Chinese New Year and Qingming while in other region were heavily banned by government before 1999 ^[4]. The majority religions of Chinese Babel are Confucianism or Buddhism, and significant number of Christian. A little number of them confessed Islam as some of them married Malays. Not to be confused with the former Kwantung Leased Territory in north-eastern China. ... It has been suggested that The Indonesian Ethnic Chinese and the view of nationhood be merged into this article or section. ... A Confucian temple in Wuwei, Peoples Republic of China. ... Buddhism, a Dharmic faith, is usually considered one of the worlds major religions, with between 230 to 500 million followers. ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... This article is about the practice of confession in the Modern confessional in the Church of the Holy Name, Dunedin, New Zealand. ...

Hakkas on the island of Bangka have an unusual accent, said to be heavily influenced by the Malay, especially in younger generation. The younger generations spoke much Malay than older people. Chinese languages employ tones to distinguish different words; differences in tone can change a word's meaning entirely. The Hakka dialect spoken by the islanders has such a different tonal system that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakkas from other regions. But they still said themselves as Thong ngin as well as younger people and spoke Thong boi. Hakka ngin words are unpopular as well as Hakkafa. The Hakka spoken in the Belinyu area in Bangka is considered to be standard. Many Hakkas in the province have moved outside the Islands especially to Jakarta. There were more than 30,000 - 50,000 Chinese Babel in Jakarta. They still spoke their language both Malay and Thong boi. Jakarta (also DKI Jakarta), is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. ...

There were also a big Chinese population from Bangka and Belitung who lived abroad such as in China and Hongkong. They proud to be Chinese Bangka Belitung, so once or twice a year they always returned home to celebrate Chinese new year or pay their respects in Qingming^[5][6]. Hong Kong (香港; Cantonese IPA: ; Jyutping: hoeng1 gong2; Yale: heūng góng; pinyin: Xiānggǎng; Wade-Giles: Hsiang-kang) is one of the two Special Administrative Regions of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Qingming (清明) is a solar term begins when Sun lies between the celestial longitude of 15° and 30°. It sometimes refers in particular to the day when Sun exactly at the celestial longitude of 15°. Introduction Qingming usually begins around April 5, and ends around April 20. ...

[edit] Pontianak

Hakka people in Pontianak live alongside with teochew speaking Chinese. Whilst the teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the hakkas are more dominant in small towns along the Kapuas River in the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their hakka dialect is originally of Mei Xien (Hakka: MoiYan) standard but heavily influenced by the teochews dialect and vocabularies from the local Malay and Dayak tribes. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Kapuas River is a river on the Indonesian island of Borneo. ... The Dayak IPA: (or Dyak) are the peoples indigenous to Borneo. ...

The Hakkas in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.

[edit] Singkawang

The hakkas in Singkawang and the surrounding regencies of Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang and Landak speaks a different standard of hakka dialect to the hakkas along the Kapuas River. Their place of origin in China is tai phu not Mei Xien. also Fuk Luk Hoi which means winds of the six seas. About 160 km north of Pontianak is the municipality of Singkawang, population estimated to be about 150,000 residents, of which 70% are Chinese descent. ... This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling. ... Bengkayang is a new county (kabupaten) in West Kalimantan province, Indonesia (on the island of Borneo). ...

[edit] Jakarta

Hakka can still be heard in some commercial districts in Jakarta. Their numbers increases with internal migrations from the three regions mentioned above.

[edit] Hakkas in East Timor

There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in 1975. According to the local Chinese Timorese association's estimation, the Hakka population in 1975 was estimated about 25,000 Hakkas (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicity from Macau). During the invasion many Hakka were slaughtered. According to a book source, it was estimated about 700 Hakkas were killed on the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakkas evacuated and escaped to Australia. Recent re-establishment of Hakka association registered approximately about 2,400 Hakkas remained (400 families, including half Timorese families) in East Timor. Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Now the Hakka diaspora can be found in Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne of Australia, Portugal, Macau and small numbers in other parts of the world. They often are highly-educated, and many continue their educations in Taiwan or China, with majority of younger generation study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, partially related to political situation of East Timor during that time. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, or grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time. Despite this condition, many Hakkas had became successful and established food chains, shops, supermarkets and importers in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2002, some Hakka families had returned and invest in businesses in the newborn nation. Port Darwin redirects here. ... For other uses, see Brisbane (disambiguation). ... This article is about the metropolitan area in Australia. ... This article is about the Australian city; the name may also refer to City of Melbourne or Melbourne city centre (also known as The CBD). ...

[edit] Hakkas in Malaysia

Hakkas form the 2nd largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of Malaysia. A well known Hakka man was Yap Ah Loy, a Kapitan in Kuala Lumpur from 1868 to 1885, where he brought significant economic contributions and also was an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese. There is a large and popular Hakka restaurant in Kuala Lumpur. Yap Ah Loy (Chinese: 葉亞來) was also known as Yap Tet Loy and Yap Mao Lan who was largely responsible for the development of Kuala Lumpur as a commercial and mining centre in the middle of the 1800’s. ... During the Portuguese and Dutch colonial rule in Malaysia, Kapitans were appointed chiefs or headmen of the various ethnic communities. ... Nickname: Motto: Maju dan makmur (English: Progress and Prosper) Location in Malaysia Coordinates: , Country State Establishment 1857 Granted city status 1974 Government  - Mayor (Datuk Bandar) Datuk Abdul Hakim Borhan From 14 December 2006 Area  - Total 243. ... Year 1868 (MDCCCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1885 (MDCCCLXXXV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

In East Malaysia, although they formed a significant part of the Bornean state of Sabah where most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent. Φ Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located at the centre of Maritime Southeast Asia. ... For other uses, see Sabah (disambiguation). ...

[edit] Hakkas in Jamaica

Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and they have a long history in Jamaica. Between 1845 and 1884, nearly 5000 Hakka arrived in Jamaica on 3 major voyages. Most came to Jamaica under contract as indentured servants. Under the terms of the contract, free return passage was available for any Hakka who wanted to return to China. Most of them did.^[7] In 1854, 205 Chinese workers who had been working on the Panama canal arrived in Jamaica. They had demanded re-settlement due to the threat of Yellow Fever in Panama. Many were ill upon arrival in Jamaica and were immediately hospitalized in Kingston. Less than 50 or these immigrants survived. The rest died of Yellow Fever. Chinese Jamaicans refer to the small but nonetheless influential group of Jamaicans with Chinese birth or descent. ...

Chin Pa-kung (a.ka. Jackson Chin), opened a wholesale business in Kingston where the Desnoes and Geddes building now stands. Chang Si-Pah and Lyn Sam opened groceries nearby. These gentleman provided guidance for other Chinese immigrants to Jamaica.^[8]

[edit] Hakkas in Mauritius

The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid 1940's came from the Guangdong province, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region. Some of them have emigrated from Calcutta.

Today the language of most Mauritian Hakkas speak are Creole, French, English and Hakka, depending on how much their parents have tried to keep the Hakka language alive.

Many Mauritian Hakkas have also emigrated to Canada and Australia.

[edit] Hakkas in Taiwan

In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong: they form the third largest population group on the island. Many Hakka moved to lands high up in the hills or remote mountains to escape political persecution. Many of the Hakka people continue to live in these hilly locations of Taiwan.

Taiwan's Hakka are concentrated in Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, and around Chungli in Taoyuan County, and Meinong in Kaohsiung County, and in Pingtung County, with smaller presences in Hualian and Taitung County. In recent decades many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei, Taichung, and Kaohsiung. Hsinchu (新竹 pinyin Xīnzhú) is a large city in northern Taiwan. ... Hsinchu County (新竹縣, pinyin: Xīnzhú Xiàn) is a county in northwestern Taiwan. ... Miaoli County (Traditional Chinese: 苗栗縣; Hanyu Pinyin: Miáolì Xiàn; Tongyong Pinyin: Miáolì Siàn; Wade-Giles: Miaoli Hsien; POJ: Biâu-le̍k-kōan) is a county in western Taiwan. ... Jhongli, also spelled Chungli (中壢市; Hanyu Pinyin: Zhōnglì; Wade-Giles: Chung-li), is a city in Taoyuan County of Taiwan (ROC). ... Taoyuan is names of places in China which are following: Taoyuan (桃园市、桃園市，pinyin:táo yuán shì) is a city located in Taiwan, see Taoyuan City Taoyuan (桃园县、桃園縣，pinyin:táo yuán xiàn) is a county in Taiwan, see Taoyuan County (Taiwan) Taoyuan (桃源县、桃源縣，pinyin:táo yuán xiàn) is... Kaohsiung County (高雄縣, pinyin: Gāoxióng Xiàn) is a county in southern Taiwan administered as part of Taiwan Province of the Republic of China. ... Pingtung County (屏東縣, pinyin: Píngdōng Xiàn) is a county in Southern Taiwan. ... Hualien City (花蓮市) is the capital of Hualien County, Taiwan Province of the Republic of China. ... Taitung County (Traditional Chinese: 台東縣; Hanyu Pinyin: Táidōng Xiàn; Tongyong Pinyin: Táidong Siàn; Wade-Giles: T`ai-tung Hsien; POJ: Tâi-tang-kōan) is a county in eastern Taiwan. ... This article is about the city. ... This article is about the city. ... Nickname: Coordinates: , Country Region City seat Lingya District (苓雅區) Government  - Mayor Chen Chu (陳菊) Area  - Total 154 km² (59. ...

[edit] Prominent Hakkas

The Hakkas have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their small total numbers, on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary and political leaders. Languages various Religions Predominantly Taoism, Mahayana Buddhism, traditional Chinese religions, and atheism. ...

Hakkas were active during the Taiping Rebellion ^{[Jonathan D. Spence, "God's Chinese Son", 1997 - see references]}, led by the notorious and failed Qing scholar Hong Xiuquan, who claimed he was the younger brother of Jesus. Hong Xiuquan consistently failed entry into public office through his examinations. Influenced by Protestant missionaries, Hong Xiuquan's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following grew across the southern provinces and despite disavowal by missionaries, his movement, supported by various generals, formed the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (Taiping Tian Guo), which at one stage in the latter 19th century almost toppled the Qing Dynasty. It contributed to the Qing Dynasty's military failures in defending China against external invaders as the Qing Dynasty became preoccupied with internal issues. Combatants Qing Empire United Kingdom France (United Kingdom and France join the war later) Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Commanders Xianfeng Emperor Tongzhi Emperor Empress Dowager Cixi Charles George Gordon Frederick Townsend Ward Hong Xiuquan Yang Xiuqing Xiao Chaogui Feng Yunshan Wei Changhui Shi Dakai Li Xiucheng Strength 2,000,000-5... A statue of Hong Xiuquan Hóng Xiùquán (洪秀全, Wade-Giles: Hung Hsiu-chüan, born Hong Renkun 洪仁坤, Courtesy name Huoxiu 火秀; January 10, 1812-June 1, 1864) was a Hakka Chinese Christian who led the Taiping Rebellion and established the Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping, in which he was known... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ...

This continues to be true in modern Chinese history, in which some of the most prominent Chinese leaders have been Hakkas. In the 1980s-90s, the three majority-Chinese political parties in the world were led simultaneously by three leaders of Hakka origin: the People's Republic of China's paramount leader Deng Xiaoping, the Republic of China's President Lee Teng-hui and Singapore's Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew. Deng & Lee Kuan Yew were among four Chinese named as "the 20th Century's 20 Most Influential Asians" by Time magazine. Deng Xiaoping   (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Teng Hsiao-ping; August 22, 1904 â€“ February 19, 1997) was a prominent Chinese politician, pragmatist and reformer, as well as the late leader of the Communist Party of China (CPC). ... For the Chinese civilization, see China. ... Lee Teng-hui (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; Pinyin: ) born January 15, 1923) is a politician of Taiwan. ... This is a Chinese name; the family name is 李 (Li) Lee Kuan Yew, GCMG, CH (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; born September 16, 1923; also spelled Lee Kwan-Yew) is a Singaporean of Chinese immigrant background. ... This article is about the concept of time. ...

[edit] Revolutionaries and politicians

• China
  • Hong Xiuquan (1812-1864; Hua County, Guangdong), Heavenly King
  • Feng Yunshan, South King
  • Yang Xiuqing, East King
  • Shi Dakai (Guiping, Guangxi), Wing King
  • Li Xiucheng (Teng County, Guangxi), Loyal King
  • Chen Yucheng, Ying King
  • Hong Rengan, Premier and Shield King
  • Sun Yatsen, (Zhongshan County, Guangdong), Father of modern China
  • Chen Jiongming, (1878-1933; Haifeng, Guandong)
  • Soong Family
    • Charlie Soong (1863-1918; Wenchang, Hainan)
    • Soong Ai-ling (1890-1973; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Shanghai), wife of H. H. Kung
    • Soong Ching-ling (1893-1981; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Kunshan, Jiangsu), wife of Sun Yat-sen
    • Soong May-ling (1898-2003; Wenchang, Hainan), wife of Chiang Kai-shek
    • T. V. Soong (1894-1971; Shanghai), former premier of the Republic of China
  • Chin Pau Yin (1909-1945; Bao'an, Guangdong), high-ranking official in the Bao'an region in the early 20th century
  • Ye Jianying (1897-1986; Meixian, Guangdong), famous People's Republic of China leader and general
  • Deng Xiaoping, (1904–1997; Guang'an, Sichuan), Influential Leader of the Communist Party of China
  • Zeng Qinghong (1939-, Ji'an, Jiangxi), present Vice-President, People's Republic of China
  • Ye Xuanping (Meixian, Guangdong), former governor, Guangdong Province, China
  • Xie Fei, former governor, Guangdong Province, China
  • Huang Huahua, present governor, Guangdong Province, China
• Overseas
  • Lee Teng-hui (1923-), Former KMT President of Taiwan
  • Wu Po-hsiung, Chairman, Kuomintang
  • Yeh Chu-lan (1949-; born in Taiwan), former acting mayor of Kaohsiung, Taiwan
  • Hsu Hsin-liang (1941-), a leading opposition politician in Taiwan and a co-founder and former chairman of the Democratic Progressive Party
  • Low Lan Pak (1738-1778, Meixian, Guangdong), founded the Hakka republic of Lanfang (present Western Kalimantan, now part of Indonesia), 1777-1884
  • Yap Ah Loy (1837-1885, Huiyang, Guangdong), founder of Kuala Lumpur (capital of Malaysia)
  • Arthur Raymond Chung (1916-), first President of the Republic of Guyana, 1970-80
  • Lee Kuan Yew (1923-; Dapu, Guangdong; born in Singapore), founding father of modern Singapore
  • Lee