Herbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. Herbalism is also known as botanical medicine, medicinal botany,^{[citation needed]} medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, and phytotherapy. Sometimes the scope of herbal medicine is extended to include fungi and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts. Chinese food therapy (Simplified Chinese: 食疗; Traditional Chinese: 食療; pinyin: Shí Liáo) is a practice of healing using natural foods instead of medications. ... A macrobiotic lifestyle (Gr. ... In alternative medicine, natural health is an eclectic self-care system of natural therapies concerned with building and restoring health and wellness via prevention and healthy lifestyles. ... Orthomolecular medicine and optimum nutrition are controversial medical and health approaches[1] that posit that many diseases and abnormalities result from various chemical imbalances or deficiencies and can be prevented, treated, or sometimes cured by achieving optimal levels of naturally occurring chemical substances, such as vitamins, dietary minerals, enzymes, antioxidants... Terms and concepts in alternative medicine provides a glossary of quick and to the point definitions of important terms and concepts unique to alternative medicine (CAM). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Alternative medicine. ... Alternative medicine has been described as any of various systems of healing or treating disease (as chiropractic, homeopathy, or faith healing) not included in the traditional medical curricula taught in the United States and Britain.[1] Alternative medicine practices are often based in belief systems not derived from modern science. ... Complementary medicine refers to a group of therapeutic and diagnostic disciplines that exist largely outside the institutions where conventional health care is taught and provided. ... This is a glossary for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM), an umbrella term for a large number of practices that fall outside the scope of conventional medicine. ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... A traditional healer in Côte dIvoire Folk medicine refers collectively to procedures traditionally used for treatment of illness and injury, aid to childbirth, and maintenance of wellness. ... u fuck in ua ... Herbs have been used for centuries in the treatment of many diseases and it has been demonstrated that some of them can have an incredible effect as a herbal treatment for arthritis. ... Dioscorides’ Materia Medica, c. ... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota The Fungi (singular: fungus) are a large group of organisms ranked as a kingdom within the Domain Eukaryota. ... For other uses, see Western honey bee and Bee (disambiguation). ... Various seashells Danielle A shell is the hard, rigid outer covering, or integument, allanimals. ...

Many plants synthesize substances that are useful to the maintenance of health in humans and other animals. These include aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives such as tannins. Many are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated — a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total. In many cases, these substances (particularly the alkaloids) serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds.^[1][2] In chemistry, an aromatic molecule is one in which electrons are free to cycle around circular arrangements of atoms, which are alternately singly and doubly bonded to one another. ... In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group (-O H) attached to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. ... Tannins are astringent, bitter-tasting plant polyphenols that bind and precipitate proteins. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into natural product. ... Chemical structure of ephedrine, a phenethylamine alkaloid An alkaloid is, strictly speaking, a naturally occurring amine produced by a plant,[1] but amines produced by animals and fungi are also called alkaloids. ... A deer and two fawns feeding on some foliage A herbivore is often defined as any organism that eats only plants[1]. By that definition, many fungi, some bacteria, many animals, about 1% of flowering plants and some protists can be considered herbivores. ... For other uses, see Herb (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Spice (disambiguation). ...

Anthropology of herbalism

Mint from Project Gutenberg EBook of Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses, by M. G. Kains

People on all continents have used hundreds to thousands of indigenous plants for treatment of ailments since prehistoric times.^[3] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Anthropologists theorize that animals evolved a tendency to seek out bitter plant parts in response to illness.^[4] This behavior arose because bitterness is an indicator of secondary metabolites. The risk benefit ratio favored animals and protohumans that were inclined to experiment in times of sickness. Over time, and with insight, instinct, and trial-and-error, a base of knowledge would have been acquired within early tribal communities.^[5] As this knowledge base expanded over the generations, the specialized role of the herbalist emerged. The process would likely have occurred in varying manners within a wide diversity of cultures. This is about the social science. ... See also Herbalism A Herbalist is: 1. ...

Basil from Project Gutenberg EBook of Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses, by M. G. Kains

Indigenous healers often claim to have learned by observing that sick animals change their food preferences to nibble at bitter herbs they would normally reject.^[6] Field biologists have provided corroborating evidence based on observation of diverse species, such as chimpanzees, chickens, sheep and butterflies. Lowland gorillas take 90% of their diet from the fruits of Aframomum melegueta, a relative of the ginger plant, that is a potent antimicrobial and apparently keeps shigellosis and similar infections at bay.^[7] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Type species Simia troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 distribution of Species Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Chimpanzee, often shortened to chimp, is the common name for the two extant species of apes in the genus Pan. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Species See text. ... Superfamilies and families Superfamily Hedyloidea: Hedylidae Superfamily Hesperioidea: Hesperiidae Superfamily Papilionoidea: Papilionidae Pieridae Nymphalidae Lycaenidae Riodinidae A butterfly is an insect of the order Lepidoptera. ... Type Species Troglodytes gorilla Savage, 1847 Species Gorilla gorilla Gorilla beringei The gorilla, the largest of the primates, is a ground-dwelling herbivore that inhabits the forests of Africa. ... Binomial name Aframomum melegueta K. Schum. ... For other uses, see Ginger (disambiguation). ...

Researchers from Ohio Wesleyan University found that some birds select nesting material rich in antimicrobial agents which protect their young from harmful bacteria.^[8] “OWU” redirects here. ...

Sick animals tend to forage plants rich in secondary metabolites, such as tannins and alkaloids.^[9] Since these phytochemicals often have antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and antihelminthic properties, a plausible case can be made for self-medication by animals in the wild.^[7] Secondary metabolites, also known as natural products, are those products (chemical compounds) of metabolism that are not essential for normal growth, development or reproduction of an organism. ... Tannins are astringent, bitter-tasting plant polyphenols that bind and precipitate proteins. ... An alkaloid is a nitrogenous organic molecule that has a pharmacological effect on humans and other animals. ... Phytochemicals are sometimes referred to as phytonutrients and these terms are often used interchangeably. ... Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used specifically for treating viral infections. ... An antiseptic is a substance that kills or prevents the growth of bacteria on the external surfaces of the body. ... Something antifungal kills or inhibits the growth of fungus. ... Anthelmintics (in the U.S., antihelminthics) are drugs that expel parasitic worms (helminthes) from the body or kill them. ...

Some animals have digestive systems especially adapted to cope with certain plant toxins. For example, the koala can live on the leaves and shoots of the eucalyptus, a plant that is dangerous to most animals.^[10]A plant that is harmless to a particular animal may not be safe for humans to ingest.^[11] A reasonable conjecture is that these discoveries were traditionally collected by the medicine people of indigenous tribes, who then passed on safety information and cautions. For other uses, see Koala (disambiguation). ... This article is about the plant genus. ... Medicine man is an English term used to describe Native American religious figures; such individuals are analogous to shamans. ...

The use of herbs and spices in cuisine developed in part as a response to the threat of food-born pathogens. Studies show that in tropical climes where pathogens are the most abundant recipes are the most highly spiced. Further, the spices with the most potent antimicrobial activity tend to be selected.^[12]In all cultures vegetables are spiced less than meat, presumably because they are more resistant to spoilage.^[13]

Herbs in history

Borage from Project Gutenberg EBook of Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses, by M. G. Kains

In the written record, the study of herbs dates back over 5,000 years to the Sumerians, who described well-established medicinal uses for such plants as laurel, caraway, and thyme. The first known Chinese herb book (or herbal), dating from about 2700 B.C., lists 365 medicinal plants and their uses - including ma-Huang, the shrub that introduced the drug ephedrine to modern medicine. The Egyptians of 1000 B.C. are known to have used garlic, opium, castor oil, coriander, mint, indigo, and other herbs for medicine and the Old Testament also mentions herb use and cultivation, including mandrake, vetch, caraway, wheat, barley, and rye. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Like their predecessors, the ancient Greeks and Romans made medicinal use of plants. Greek and Roman medicinal practices, as preserved in the writings of Hippocrates and - especially - Galen, provided the patterns for later western medicine. Hippocrates advocated the use of a few simple herbal drugs - along with fresh air, rest, and proper diet. Galen, on the other had, recommended large doses of more or less complicated drug mixtures - including plant, animal, and mineral ingredients. The Greek physician compiled the first European treatise on the properties and uses of medicinal plants, De Materia Medica. In the first century AD, Dioscorides wrote a compendium of more that 500 plants that remained an authoritative reference into the seventeenth century. Similarly important for herbalists and botanists of later centuries was the Greek book that founded the science of botany, Theophrastus’ Historia Plantarum, written in the fourth century B.C. For other uses, see Galen (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Hippocrates (disambiguation). ... Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. ... Theophrastus (Greek Θεόφραστος, 370 — about 285 BC), a native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. ...

Thyme from Project Gutenberg EBook of Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses, by M. G. Kains

The uses of plants for medicine and other purposes changed little during the Middle Ages. The early Christian church discouraged the formal practice of medicine, preferring faith healing; but many Greek and Roman writings on medicine, as on other subjects, were preserved by diligent hand copying of manuscripts in monasteries. The monasteries thus tended to become local centers of medical knowledge, and their herb gardens provided the raw materials for simple treatment of common disorders. At the same time, folk medicine in the home and village continues uninterrupted, supporting numerous wandering and settled herbalists. Among these were the “wise-women,” who prescribed herbal remedies often along with spells and enchantments. It was not until the later Middle Ages that women who were knowledgeable in herb lore became the targets of the witch hysteria. One of the most famous women in the herbal tradition was Hildegard of Bingen. A twelfth century Benedictine nun, she wrote a medical text called Causes and Cures. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Illumination from the Liber Scivias showing Hildegard receiving a vision and dictating to her scribe and secretary Hildegard of Bingen (German: Hildegard von Bingen; Latin: Hildegardis Bingensis; 1098 – 17 September 1179), also known as Blessed Hildegard and Saint Hildegard, was a German magistra who later founded convents (Rupertsberg in 1150...

Medical schools began to return in the eleventh century, teaching Galen’s system. At the time, the Arabic world was more advanced in science than Europe. As a trading culture, the Arabs had access to plant material from distant places such as China and India. Herbals, medical texts and translations of the classics of antiquity filtered in from east to west.^[14] Alongside the university system, folk medicine continued to thrive. Plants were burdened with a mass of both pagan and Christian superstition that often was more important than their actual properties. The continuing importance of herbs for the centuries following the Middle Ages is indicated by the hundreds of herbals published after the invention of printing in the fifteenth century. Theophrastus’ Historia Plantarum was one of the first books to be printed, and Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica was not far behind.

Marjoram from Project Gutenberg EBook of Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses, by M. G. Kains

The fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries were the great age of herbals, many of them available for the first time in English and other languages rather than Latin or Greek. The first herbal to be published in English was the anonymous Grete Herball of 1526. The two best-known herbals in English wereThe Herball or General History of Plants (1597) by John Gerard and The English Physician Enlarged (1653) by Nicholas Culpeper. Gerard’s text was basically a pirated translation of a book by the Belgian herbalist Dodoens and his illustrations came from a German botanical work. The original edition contained many errors due to faulty matching of the two parts. Culpeper’s blend of traditional medicine with astrology, magic, and folklore was ridiculed by the physicians of his day yet his book - like Gerard’s and other herbals - enjoyed phenomenal popularity. The Age of Exploration and the Columbian Exchange introduced new medicinal plants to Europe. The Badianus Manuscript was an illustrated Aztec herbal translated into Latin in the 16th century. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... John Gerard John Gerard (1545 in Nantwich – 1611/12 in London) was an English botanist famous for his herbal garden. ... Nicholas Culpeper - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... The so-called Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships were traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. ... Inca-era terraces on Taquile are used to grow traditional Andean staples, such as quinua and potatoes, alongside wheat, a European import. ... Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political and military dominance over large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the Late post-Classic...

The second millennium, however, also saw the beginning of a slow erosion of the pre-eminent position held by plants as sources of therapeutic effects. This began with the introduction of the physician, the introduction of active chemical drugs (like arsenic, copper sulfate, iron, mercury, and sulfur), followed by the rapid development of chemistry and the other physical sciences, led increasingly to the dominance of chemotherapy - chemical medicine - as the orthodox system of the twentieth century. On the Gregorian calendar, the 2nd millennium commenced on 1 January 1001, and ended at the end of 31 December 2000. ... For other uses, see Doctor. ... For other uses, see Drug (disambiguation). ... General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Standard atomic weight 74. ... Copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4) is the most common copper salt, made by the action of sulfuric acid on the base copper oxide. ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... This article is about the element. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ... Chemotherapy, in its most general sense, refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells, specifically those of micro-organisms or cancer. ... Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is a material with a definite chemical composition. ...

Role of herbal medicine in modern human society

A botánicas such as this one in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts cater to the Latino community and sell herbal cures and folk medicine alongside statues of saints, candles decorated with prayers, lucky bamboo, and other items.

The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among non-industrialized societies.^[15] A number of traditions came to dominate the practice of herbal medicine at the end of the twentieth century: A botánica (often written botanica and less commonly known as a hierberia or botica) is a retail store which sells folk medicine, religious candles and statuary, amulets, and other products regarded as magical or as alternative medicine. ... Soldiers Monument and First Church in Jamaica Plain Unitarian Universalist Jamaica Plain, commonly known as JP, is a historic neighborhood of 4. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... For the Brazilian pop singer, see Latino (singer). ... A traditional healer in Côte dIvoire Folk medicine refers collectively to procedures traditionally used for treatment of illness and injury, aid to childbirth, and maintenance of wellness. ... Saints redirects here. ... For other uses, see Candle (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Prayer (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Dracaena sanderiana Sander ex Mast. ... For other uses, see Herb (disambiguation). ... This article is about the medical term. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s The 20th century lasted from 1901 to 2000 in the Gregorian calendar (often from (1900 to 1999 in common usage). ...

• The herbal medicine system, based on Greek and Roman sources
• The Ayurvedic medicine system from India
• Chinese herbal medicine (Chinese herbology)
• Unani-Tibb medicine
• Shamanic Herbalism

Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the world's population presently uses herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care.^[16]Herbal medicine is a major component in all traditional medicine systems, and a common element in Ayurvedic, homeopathic, naturopathic, traditional Chinese medicine, and Native American medicine. Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... Ayurveda (Devanagari: ) or Ayurvedic medicine is an ancient system of health care that is native to the Indian subcontinent. ... Traditional Chinese medicine shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong. ... Chinese materia medica (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; Pinyin: ), is the common name of Chinese materia medica subject. ... Unaani (in Arabic, Hindustani, Persian, Pashtu, Urdu etc) means Greek. ... The shaman is an intellectual and spiritual figure who is regarded as possessing power and influence on other peoples in the tribe and performs several functions, primarily that of a healer ( medicine man). The shaman provides medical care, and serves other community needs during crisis times, via supernatural means (means... Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmacon is drug, and logos is science) is the study of how chemical substances interfere with living systems. ... This article is about the drug. ... This article is about the drug. ... Species About 20 species, including: Digitalis cariensis Digitalis ciliata Digitalis davisiana Digitalis dubia Digitalis ferruginea Digitalis grandiflora Digitalis laevigata Digitalis lanata Digitalis leucophaea Digitalis lutea Digitalis obscura Digitalis parviflora Digitalis purpurea Digitalis thapsi Digitalis trojana Digitalis viridiflora Digitalis is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennials, shrubs, and... Quinine (IPA: ) is a natural white crystalline alkaloid having antipyretic (fever-reducing), anti-smallpox, analgesic (painkilling), and anti-inflammatory properties and a bitter taste. ... WHO redirects here. ... Ayurveda (आयुर्वेद Sanskrit: ayu—life; veda—knowledge of) or ayurvedic medicine is a more than 2,000 year old comprehensive system of medicine based on a holistic approach rooted in Vedic culture. ... Homeopathy (also spelled homœopathy or homoeopathy), from the Greek words homoios (similar) and pathos (suffering), is a controversial system of alternative medicine involving the use of remedies without chemically active ingredients. ... Naturopathic medicine is the practice of attempting to improve the health of patients through the application of natural remedies. ... Traditional Chinese medicine shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong. ... For other uses, see Native Americans (disambiguation). ...

The use of, and search for, drugs and dietary supplements derived from plants have accelerated in recent years. Pharmacologists, microbiologists, botanists, and natural-products chemists are combing the Earth for phytochemicals and leads that could be developed for treatment of various diseases. In fact, according to the World Health Organisation, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants.^[17] Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmakon (φάρμακον) meaning drug, and lego (λέγω) to tell (about)) is the study of how drugs interact with living organisms to produce a change in function. ... An agar plate streaked with microorganisms Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. ... Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort Example of a cross section of a stem [1] Botany is the scientific study of plant life. ... Phytochemicals are plant or fruit derived chemical compounds. ...

• Three quarters of plants that provide active ingredients for prescription drugs came to the attention of researchers because of their use in traditional medicine.^{[18][verification needed]}

• Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the higher plants and widely used in modern medicine today, 80 percent show a positive correlation between their modern therapeutic use and the traditional use of the plants from which they are derived.^[19]
• More than two thirds of the world's plant species - at least 35,000 of which are estimated to have medicinal value - come from the developing countries.^{[verification needed]}

• At least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants^[20]

Biological background

The anthocyanins in sweet violet produce deep red, violet and blue shades.

The carotenoids in primrose produce bright red, yellow and orange shades.

All plants produce chemical compounds as part of their normal metabolic activities. These include primary metabolites, such as sugars and fats, found in all plants, and secondary metabolites found in a smaller range of plants, some useful ones found only in a particular genus or species. Pigments harvest light, protect the organism from radiation and display colors to attract pollinators. Many common weeds have medicinal properties.^[21][22] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 583 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1150 × 1182 pixel, file size: 520 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 583 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1150 × 1182 pixel, file size: 520 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1500x1051, 577 KB) Other versions File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Primula User:Aka Wikipedia:Picture peer review User:Nauticashades/FPC Wikipedia:Picture peer review/Primula hortensis... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1500x1051, 577 KB) Other versions File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Primula User:Aka Wikipedia:Picture peer review User:Nauticashades/FPC Wikipedia:Picture peer review/Primula hortensis... Look up chemical compound in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... For other uses, see Genus (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Species (disambiguation). ... In biology, pigment is any material resulting in color in plant or animal cells which is the result of selective absorption. ...

The functions of secondary metabolites are varied. For example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation, and others are pheremones used to attract insects for pollination. Phytoalexins protect against bacterial and fungal attacks. Allelochemicals inhibit rival plants that are competing for soil and light. For other uses, see Toxin (disambiguation). ... Poison ivy produces urushiol to protect the plant from herbivores. ... Fanning honeybee exposes Nasonov gland (white-at tip of abdomen) releasing pheromone to entice swarm into an empty hive A pheromone is any chemical produced by a living organism that transmits a message to other members of the same species. ... Carpenter bee with pollen collected from Night-blooming cereus Pollination is an important step in the reproduction of seed plants: the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) to the plant carpel, the structure that contains the ovule (female gamete). ... Phytoalexins are antibiotics produced by plants that are under attack. ...

Plants upregulate and downregulate their biochemical paths in response to the local mix of herbivores, pollinators and microorganisms.^[23] The chemical profile of a single plant may vary over time as it reacts to changing conditions. It is the secondary metabolites and pigments that can have therapeutic actions in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs.

Plants synthesize a bewildering variety of phytochemicals but most are derivatives of a few biochemical motifs. Phytochemicals are plant or fruit derived chemical compounds. ...

• Alkaloids contain a ring with nitrogen. Many alkaloids have dramatic effects on the central nervous system. Caffeine is an alkaloid that provides a mild lift but the alkaloids in datura cause severe intoxication and even death.

• Phenolics contain phenol rings. The anthocyanins that give grapes their purple color, the isoflavones, the phytoestrogens from soy and the tannins that give tea its astringency are phenolics.

• Turpenoids are built up from terpene building blocks. Each terpene consists of two paired isoprenes. The names monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes and triterpenes are based on the number of isoprene units. The fragrance of rose and lavender is due to monoterpenes. The carotenoids produce the reds, yellows and oranges of pumpkin, corn and tomatoes.

• Glycosides consist of a glucose moiety attached to an aglycone. The aglycone is a molecule that is bioactive in its free form but inert until the glycoside bond is broken by water or enzymes. This mechanism allows the plant to defer the availability of the molecule to an appropriate time, similar to a safety lock on a gun. An example is the cyanoglycosides in cherry pits that release toxins only when bitten by a herbivore.

The word drug itself comes from the Swedish word "druug", which means 'dried plant'. Some examples are inulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the cinchona, morphine and codeine from the poppy, and digoxin from the foxglove. An alkaloid is a nitrogenous organic molecule that has a pharmacological effect on humans and other animals. ... Species See text below Datura is a genus of 12-15 species of vespertine flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. ... In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. ... Phenol, also known under an older name of carbolic acid, is a colourless crystalline solid with a typical sweet tarry odor. ... Anthocyanin is a pigment that reflects the red to blue range of the visible spectrum. ... A phytoestrogen that is thought of by many as useful in treating cancer. ... Phytoestrogens are chemicals produced by plants that act like estrogens in animal/+human cells and bodies. ... Binomial name Glycine max Soybeans (US) or soya beans (UK) (Glycine max) are a high-protein legume (Family Fabaceae) grown as food for both humans and livestock. ... Tannins are astringent, bitter-tasting plant polyphenols that bind and precipitate proteins. ... Many terpenes are derived from conifer resins, here a pine. ... Isoprene is a common synonym for the chemical compound 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene. ... Monoterpenes consist of two isoprene units and have the molecular formula C10H16. ... Isoprene Terpenes are a class of hydrocarbons, produced by many plants, particularly conifers. ... The diterpenes are a class of molecules with 20 carbon atoms arranged as 4 isoprene units. ... Terpenes are a class of hydrocarbons, produced by many plants, particularly conifers. ... For other uses, see Rose (disambiguation). ... Species About 25-30, including: Lavandula abrotanoides Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula canariensis Lavandula dentata Lavandula lanata Lavandula latifolia Lavandula multifida Lavandula pinnata Lavandula stoechas Lavandula viridis Lavandula x intermedia The Lavenders Lavandula are a genus of about 25-30 species of flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae, native from the... The orange ring surrounding Grand Prismatic Spring is due to carotenoid molecules, produced by huge mats of algae and bacteria. ... For other uses, see Pumpkin (disambiguation). ... Binomial name L. Corn (Zea mays L. ssp. ... Binomial name Solanumlycopersicum Linnaeus ref. ... A glycoside is a molecule where a sugar group is bonded through its anomeric carbon to a nonsugar group by either an oxygen or a nitrogen atom. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... In chemistry, glycosides are certain molecules in which a sugar part is bound to some other part. ... A deer and two fawns feeding on some foliage A herbivore is often defined as any organism that eats only plants[1]. By that definition, many fungi, some bacteria, many animals, about 1% of flowering plants and some protists can be considered herbivores. ... Note: This article title may be easily confused with insulin. ... Species 30 species, 20,000 cultivars Dahlia is a genus of bushy, summer- and autumn-flowering, tuberous perennial plants native to Mexico, where they are the national flower. ... Quinine (IPA: ) is a natural white crystalline alkaloid having antipyretic (fever-reducing), anti-smallpox, analgesic (painkilling), and anti-inflammatory properties and a bitter taste. ... Species See text Cinchona L., is the name of a genus in Rubiaceae family, large evergreens that can grow over 10 metres tall. ... This article is about the drug. ... Codeine (INN) or methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrheal properties. ... This article is about the plant. ... Digoxin (INN) (IPA: ) is a purified cardiac glycoside extracted from the foxglove plant, Digitalis lanata. ... Species About 20 species, including: Digitalis cariensis Digitalis ciliata Digitalis davisiana Digitalis dubia Digitalis ferruginea Digitalis grandiflora Digitalis laevigata Digitalis lanata Digitalis leucophaea Digitalis lutea Digitalis obscura Digitalis parviflora Digitalis purpurea Digitalis thapsi Digitalis trojana Digitalis viridiflora Digitalis is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennials, shrubs, and...

The active ingredient in willow bark, once prescribed by Hippocrates, is salicin, or salicylic acid. The discovery of salicylic acid, also known as "acetylsalicylic acid", would eventually lead to the development of "aspirin" when it was isolated from a plant known as meadowsweet. The word aspirin comes from an abbreviation of meadowsweet's Latin genus Spiraea, with an additional "A" at the beginning to acknowledge acetylation, and "in" was added at the end for easier pronunciation.^[24] "Aspirin" was originally a brand name, and is still a protected trademark in some countries. This medication was patented by Bayer AG. Species About 350, including: Salix acutifolia - Violet Willow Salix alaxensis - Alaska Willow Salix alba - White Willow Salix alpina - Alpine Willow Salix amygdaloides - Peachleaf Willow Salix arbuscula - Mountain Willow Salix arbusculoides - Littletree Willow Salix arctica - Arctic Willow Salix atrocinerea Salix aurita - Eared Willow Salix babylonica - Peking Willow Salix bakko Salix barrattiana... For other uses, see Hippocrates (disambiguation). ... Salicylic acid (from the Latin word for the willow tree, Salix, from whose bark it can be obtained) is a beta hydroxy acid (BHA) with the formula C6H4(OH)CO2H, where the OH group is adjacent to the carboxyl group. ... A very old bottle of Aspirin Aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid is a drug in the family of salicylates, often used as an analgesic (against minor pains and aches), antipyretic (against fever), and anti-inflammatory. ... This article is about the drug. ... This article is about the Eurasian plant, introduced in some parts of America. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Bayers logo: the Bayer cross Bayer AG (German pronunciation BYE-er, in US usually pronounced BAY-er) (TYO: 4863) is a German chemical and pharmaceutical company founded in 1863. ...

Herbal philosophy

Rosemary

Since herbalism is such a diverse field few generalizations apply universally. Nevertheless a rough consensus can be inferred.

Most herbalists concede that pharmaceuticals are more effective in emergency situations where time is of the essence. An example would be where a patient had elevated blood pressure that posed imminent danger. However they claim that over the long term herbs can help the patient resist disease and in addition provide nutritional and immunological support that pharmaceuticals lack. They view their goal as prevention as well as cure.

Herbalists tend to use extracts from parts of plants, such as the roots or leaves but not isolate particular phytochemicals.^[25] Pharmaceutical medicine prefers single ingredients on the grounds that dosage can be more easily quantified. Herbalists reject the notion of a single active ingredient. They argue that the different phytochemicals present in many herbs will interact to enhance the therapeutic effects of the herb and dilute toxicity.^[26]Furthermore, they argue that a single ingredient may contribute to multiple effects. Herbalists deny that herbal synergism can be duplicated with synthetic chemicals. They argue that phytochemical interactions and trace components may alter the drug response in ways that cannot currently be replicated with a combination of a few putative active ingredients.^[27][28] Pharmaceutical researchers recognize the concept of Drug synergism but note that clinical trials may be used to investigate the efficacy of a particular herbal preparation, provided the formulation of that herb is consistent.^[29] Synergy (from the Greek synergos, συνεργός meaning working together, circa 1660) refers to the phenomenon in which two or more discrete influences or agents acting together create an effect greater than that predicted by knowing only the separate effects of the individual agents. ...

Thai chili peppers contain capsaicin

In specific cases the claims of synergy^[30] and multifunctionality^[31] have been supported by science. The open question is how widely both can be generalized. Herbalists would argue that cases of synergy can be widely generalized, on the basis of their interpretation of evolutionary history, not necessarily shared by the pharmaceutical community. Plants are subject to similar selection pressures as humans and therefore they must develop resistance to threats such as radiation, ROS and microbial attack in order to survive.^[32] Optimal chemical defenses have been selected for and have thus developed over millions of years.^[33]Human diseases are multifactorial and may be treated by consuming the chemical defences that they believe to be present in herbs. Bacteria, inflammation, nutrition and ROS (reactive oxygen species) may all play a role in arterial disease.^[34] Herbalists claim a single herb may simultaneously address several of these factors. Likewise a factor such as ROS may underly more than one condition.^[35] In short herbalists view their field as the study of a web of relationships rather than a quest for single cause and a single cure for a single condition. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2000x3008, 3388 KB) Author: P. Miller I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2000x3008, 3388 KB) Author: P. Miller I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) is the active component of chilli peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus Capsicum. ... ROS may refer to: Reparti i Operacioneve Speciale - a special forces unit in Albania Revenue On-Line Service - a tax returns system used in Ireland Review of Systems - a series of medical questions asked to patients regarding the satus of different organ systems Run-of-Schedule (in Television) Run-of...

In selecting herbal treatments herbalists may use forms of information that are not applicable to pharmacists. Because herbs can moonlight as vegetables, teas or spices they have a huge consumer base and large-scale epidemiological studies become feasible. Ethnobotanical studies are another source of information. ^[36] For example, when indigenous peoples from geographically dispersed areas use closely related herbs for the same purpose that is taken as supporting evidence for its efficacy.^{[citation needed]} Herbalists contend that historical medical records and herbals are underutilized resources.^[37] They favor the use of convergent information in assessing the medical value of plants. An example would be when in-vitro activity is consistent with traditional use.

Certain strains of herbalism rely on sources that would be widely considered unreliable and would not be accepted in a scientifically oriented herbal journal. These include astrology, the Bible, intuition, dreams, “plant spirits”, etc.

Popularity

A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicines (CAM), what was used, and why it was used. The survey was limited to adults, aged 18 years and over during 2002, living in the United States. The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine or NCCAM, a division of the National Institutes of Health within the Department of Health and Human Services of the United States federal government, was established in October, 1991, as the Office of Alternative Medicine, which was re-established as the NCCAM... Alternative medicine has been described as any of various systems of healing or treating disease (as chiropractic, homeopathy, or faith healing) not included in the traditional medical curricula taught in the United States and Britain.[1] Alternative medicine practices are often based in belief systems not derived from modern science. ...

According to this survey, herbal therapy, or use of natural products other than vitamins and minerals, was the most commonly used CAM therapy (18.9%) when all use of prayer was excluded.^[38][39] Retinol (one vitamer of Vitamin A) A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. ... For other uses, see Prayer (disambiguation). ...

Herbal remedies are very common in Europe. In Germany, herbal medications are dispensed by apothecaries (e.g., Apotheke). Prescription drugs are sold alongside essential oils, herbal extracts, or herbal teas. Herbal remedies are seen by some as a treatment to be preferred to chemical medications which have been industrially produced.^[40] For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

In the United Kingdom, the training of medical herbalists is done by state funded Universities. For example, Bachelor of Science degrees in herbal medicine are offered at Universities such as University of East London, Middlesex University, University of Central Lancashire, University of Westminster, University of Lincoln and Napier University in Edinburgh at the present. B.S. redirects here. ... The term Herbalism refers to folk and traditional medicinal practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. ... University of East London Docklands Campus The University of East London (UEL) is a university in East London. ... Middlesex University is a university in north London, England, located in the historic county boundaries of Middlesex (from which it takes its name). ... The University of Central Lancashire (or UCLan) is a university based in Preston, UK, which until January 2007 had additional campuses in Carlisle and Penrith. ... The University of Westminster is a university in London, England, formed in 1992 as a result of the Further and Higher Education Act, 1992, which allowed the London Polytechnic (Polytechnic of Central London or PCL ) to rename itself as a university. ... This page is about the British university. ... Napier University is a university in Edinburgh, Scotland. ...

Types of herbal medicine systems

Dioscorides’ Materia Medica, c. 1334 copy in Arabic, describes medicinal features of cumin and dill.

Use of medicinal plants can be as informal as, for example, culinary use or consumption of an herbal tea or supplement, although the sale of some herbs considered dangerous is often restricted to the public. Sometimes such herbs are provided to professional herbalists by specialist companies. Many herbalists, both professional and amateur, often grow or "wildcraft" their own herbs. File links The following pages link to this file: Herbalism Gallery of illuminated manuscript images Categories: Public domain art | Illuminated manuscript images ... File links The following pages link to this file: Herbalism Gallery of illuminated manuscript images Categories: Public domain art | Illuminated manuscript images ... Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. ... Geerah redirects here. ... For other uses, see Dill (disambiguation). ... Wildcrafting is the practice of harvesting plants from their natural, or wild habitat, for food, medicinal, or other purposes. ...

Some researchers trained in both western and traditional Chinese medicine have attempted to deconstruct ancient medical texts in the light of modern science. One idea is that the yin-yang balance, at least with regard to herbs, corresponds to the pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant balance. This interpretation is supported by several investigations of the {ORAC ratings of various yin and yang herbs.^[41][42] Traditional Chinese medicine shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong. ... Orac Orac is a fictional character from the British science fiction television series Blakes 7. ...

Eclectic medicine came out of the vitalist tradition, similar to physiomedicalism and bridged the European and Native American traditions^{[citation needed]}. Cherokee medicine tends to divide herbs into foods, medicines and toxins and to use seven plants in the treatment of disease, which is defined with both spiritual and physiological aspects, according to Cherokee herbalist David Winston.^[43] The term eclectic applies to a branch of medicine which makes use of herbal remedies. ... Vitalism, as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary, [1] is a doctrine that the functions of a living organism are due to a vital principle distinct from physicochemical forces a doctrine that the processes of life are not explicable by the laws of physics and chemistry alone and that life... For other uses, see Native Americans (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Cherokee (disambiguation). ... David Winston is an herbalist and ethnobotanist who, for the last 26 years has practiced herbal medicine in United States. ...

In India, Ayurvedic medicine has quite complex formulas with 30 or more ingredients, including a sizable number of ingredients that have undergone "alchemical processing", chosen to balance "Vata", "Pitta" or "Kapha."^[44] For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ... Pitta may stand for: Pitta is a genus of tropical birds Pitta is one of the three dosas in ajurvedic medicine Pitta bread -- see pita (alternate spelling) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Ayurveda (आयुर्वेद Sanskrit: ayu—life; veda—knowledge of) or ayurvedic medicine is a more than 2,000 year old comprehensive system of medicine based on a holistic approach rooted in Vedic culture. ...

In addition there are more modern theories of herbal combination like William LeSassier's triune formula which combined Pythagorean imagery with Chinese medicine ideas and resulted in 9 herb formulas which supplemented, drained or neutrally nourished the main organ systems affected and three associated systems^{[citation needed]}. His system has been taught to thousands of influential American herbalists through his own apprenticeship programs during his lifetime, the William LeSassier Archive^[45] and the David Winston Center for Herbal Studies^[46] William LeSassier was an influential herbalist and acupuncturist who lived from 1948 to 2003. ... Bust of Pythagoras Pythagoreanism is a term used for the esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans, who were much influenced by mathematics and probably a main inspirational source for Plato and platonism. ...

Many traditional African remedies have performed well in initial laboratory tests to ensure they are not toxic and in tests on animals. Gawo, a herb used in traditional treatments, has been tested in rats by researchers from Nigeria's University of Jos and the National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development. According to research in the African Journal of Biotechnology, Gawo passed tests for toxicity and reduced induced fevers, diarrhoea and inflammation [1] website </ref>

Routes of administration

See also: Drying of herbs and spices

There are many forms in which herbs can be administered, these include:

• Tinctures (alcoholic extracts of herb, such as echinacea extract)
• Tisanes (hot-water extracts of herb, such as chamomile)
• Decoctions (long-term boiled extract of usually roots or bark)
• Macerates (cold infusion of plants with high mucilage-content as sage, thyme, ...) Plants are chopped and added to cold water. They are then left to stand for 10 hours.
• Vinegars (prepared at the same way as tinctures)
• Topicals:
  • Essential oils- application of essential oil extracts, usually diluted in a carrier oil (many essential oils can burn the skin or are simply too high dose used straight- diluting in olive oil or another food grade oil can allow these to be used safely as a topical).^[47]
  • Salves, oils, creams and lotions- Most topical applications are oil extractions of herbs. Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for anywhere from weeks to months allows certain phytochemicals to be extracted into the oil. This oil can then be made into salves, creams, lotions, or simply used as an oil for topical application. Many massage oils, antibacterial salves and wound healing compounds are made this way.
  • Poultices and compresses- One can also make a poultice or compress using whole herb (or the appropriate part of the plant) usually crushed or dried and re hydrated with a small amount of water and then applied directly in a bandage, cloth or just as is.
• Whole-herb consumption (eather dried or fresh)- Eating vegetables also easily fits in this category (besides medicinal herbs), all of the vitamins, minerals and antioxidants are phytochemicals that we are accessing through our diet. There are clearly some whole herbs that we consume that are more powerful than others. Shiitake mushrooms boost the immune system and taste great so they are fabulous in soups or other food preparations for the cold and flu season. Garlic lowers cholesterol, improves blood flow, fights bacteria, viruses and yeast.
• Inhalation as in