This article is concerned solely with chemical explosives. There are many other varieties of more exotic explosive material, and theoretical methods of causing explosions such as nuclear explosives and antimatter, and other methods of producing explosions, such as abrupt heating with a high-intensity laser or electric arc. A chemical compound is a chemical substance formed from two or more elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. ... A nuclear explosive is an explosive device that derives its energy from nuclear reactions. ... Antimatter is matter that is composed of the antiparticles of those that constitute normal matter. ... Laser (US Air Force) A laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a device which uses a quantum mechanical effect, stimulated emission, discovered by Einstein while researching on the photoelectric effect, to generate a coherent beam of light from a lasing medium of controlled purity, size, and shape. ... An electric arc can melt calcium oxide. ...

Any explosive material has the following characteristics:

• It is chemically or otherwise energetically unstable.
• The initiation produces a sudden expansion of the material accompanied by the production of heat and large changes in pressure (and typically also a flash or loud noise) which is called the explosion.

Chemistry (in Greek: χημεία) is the science of matter and its interactions with energy and itself (see physics, biology). ... A red-hot iron rod cooling after being worked by a blacksmith. ...

Chemical explosives

Explosives are classified as low or high explosives according to their rates of decomposition. Low explosives burn rapidly (or deflagrate). High explosives undergo detonation. There is no sharp line of demarcation between low and high explosives, due to the difficulties inherent in precisely observing and measuring rapid decomposition. The chemical decomposition of an explosive may take years, days, hours, or a fraction of a second. The slower forms of decomposition take place in storage and are of interest only from a stability standpoint. Of more interest are the two rapid forms of decomposition, burning and detonation. The term "detonation" is used to describe an explosive phenomenon whereby the decomposition is propagated by the explosive shockwave penetrating the explosive material. The shockwave front is capable of passing through the high explosive material at massive speeds. In a low explosive, the decomposition is propagated by a flame front which travels much slower through the explosive material. The properties of the explosive indicate the class into which it falls. In some cases explosives may be made to fall into either class by the conditions under which they are initiated. Almost all low explosives can undergo true detonation like high explosives in sufficiently massive quantities. For convenience, low and high explosives may be differentiated in the following manner. chemical decomposition is the gradual fragmentation of a chemical compound into smaller molecules. ... Rotting fruit Decomposition is the reduction of bodies and other formerly living organisms into simpler forms of matter and, most particularly, to the fate of the human body after death. ... A year is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. ... A day is any of several different units of time. ... The hour was originally defined in Egypt as 1/24 of a day, based on their duo-decimal numbering system (which counted finger joints on each hand). ... This article is about the unit of time. ... Combustion or burning is an exothermic reaction between a substance (the fuel) and a gas (the oxidizer) to release heat. ... A weapons cache is detonated at the East River Range on Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan Detonation is a process of supersonic combustion that involves a shock wave and a reaction zone behind it. ... A weapons cache is detonated at the East River Range on Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan Detonation is a process of supersonic combustion that involves a shock wave and a reaction zone behind it. ... A phenomenon (plural: phenomena) is an observable event, especially something special (literally something that can be seen from the Greek word phainomenon = observable). ... For the vector animation platform, see Macromedia Shockwave. ... Differentiation can mean the following: In biology: cellular differentiation; evolutionary differentiation; In mathematics: see: derivative In cosmogony: planetary differentiation Differentiation (geology); Differentiation (logic); Differentiation (marketing). ...

Low Explosives

These are normally employed as propellants. They undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a few centimeters per second to approximately 400 meters per second. Included in this group are smokeless powders, and pyrotechnics such as flares and illumination devices. A propellant is a material that is used to move an object by applying a motive force. ... Deflagration is a process of subsonic combustion that usually propagates through thermoconductivity (hot burning material heats next layer of cold material and ignites it). ... cm redirects here, alternate uses: cm (disambiguation) A centimetre (symbol cm; American spelling: centimeter) is an SI unit of length. ... metre or meter, see meter (disambiguation) The metre is the basic unit of length in the International System of Units. ...

High Explosives

These are normally employed in mining, demolitions and military warheads. They undergo detonation at rates of 1,000 to 8,500 meters per second. High explosives are conventionally subdivided into two classes and differentiated by sensitivity:

• Original or Primary. These are extremely sensitive to shock, friction, and heat. They will burn rapidly or detonate if ignited.
• Secondary or Base. These are relatively insensitive to shock, friction, and heat. They may burn when ignited in small, unconfined quantities; detonation occurs otherwise. These are sometimes added to a primary in a small amount in a blasting cap to increase the cap's power.

Some definitions add a third category:

• Tertiary, also called blasting agents. These are so insensitive to shock that they cannot be detonated by practical quantities of primary explosive, and instead require an intermediate explosive booster of secondary explosive. Some examples would be T.N.T.(trinitrotoluene), RDX, or HMX. These can usually fit into the Secondary group.

Note that some explosive materials can fall into no specific category, according to how they are initiated. For example, nitrocellulose deflagrates if ignited, but detonates if initiated by a strong detonator. An explosive booster acts as a bridge between a low energy explosive and a low sensitivity (but typically high energy) explosive. ... Nitrocellulose (Cellulose nitrate, guncotton) is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose (e. ...

Composition of the material

Mixtures of an oxidizer and a fuel

• Gunpowder: potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur
• Flash powder: fine metal powder (usually aluminium or magnesium) and a strong oxidizer (eg. potassium nitrate or perchlorate).
• Ammonal: ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder.
• Sprengel explosives: a very general class incorporating any strong oxidizer and highly reactive fuel, although in practice the name most commonly was applied to mixtures of chlorates and nitroaromatics
  • ANFO: ammonium nitrate and fuel oil.
  • Cheddites: chlorates or perchlorates and oil
  • oxyliquits: mixtures of organic materials and liquid oxygen

Chemically pure compounds Gunpowder is a substance which burns very rapidly and is used as a propellant in firearms. ... The chemical compound potassium nitrate is a naturally occurring mineral source of nitrogen. ... Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents of animal and vegetable substances. ... General Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 3, p Appearance lemon yellow Atomic mass 32. ... Flash powder is a mixture of oxidizer and metallic fuel which burns extremely quickly and if confined will produce a loud report. ... General Name, Symbol, Number aluminium, Al, 13 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 13, 3, p Appearance silvery Atomic mass 26. ... General Name, Symbol, Number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, Period, Block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 24. ... The chemical compound potassium nitrate is a naturally occurring mineral source of nitrogen. ... Perchlorates are the salts of perchloric acid (HClO4). ... Ammonal is an explosive mixture of ammonium nitrate, aluminium dust and stearic acid. ... The chemical compound ammonium nitrate, the nitrate of ammonia with chemical formula NH4NO3, is commonly used in agriculture as a high-nitrogen fertilizer. ... General Name, Symbol, Number aluminium, Al, 13 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 13, 3, p Appearance silvery Atomic mass 26. ... Sprengel explosives are a highly generic class of explosives invented by Hermann Sprengel in the 1870s. ... ANFO stands for Ammonium Nitrate / Fuel Oil. ... Cheddites were a class of explosive materials originally manufactured in the town of Chedde in Savoy, France in the early twentieth century. ... An oxyliquit is an explosive material made of a mixture of liquid oxygen (LOX) with a suitable fuel, usually carbon (as lampblack) or some organic chemical (eg. ... Liquid oxygen (also LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace industry) is the liquid form of oxygen. ...

• Nitroglycerin: an unstable liquid known as dynamite when mixed into sawdust, powdered silica or most commonly diatomaceous earth, which act as stabilizers.
• Acetone peroxide: A very unstable white peroxide
• TNT: Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and molded without detonation.
• RDX, PETN: Very strong explosives which can be used pure or in plastic explosives.
  • C4: An RDX plastic explosive plasticised to be adhesive and malleable.

Nitroglycerin, also known as nitroglycerine, trinitroglycerin, and glyceryl trinitrate, is a chemical compound, a heavy, colorless, poisonous, oily, explosive liquid obtained by nitrating glycerol. ... Dynamite is an explosive based on the explosive potential of nitroglycerin using diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr) as an absorbent. ... Sawdust is composed of fine particles of wood. ... The chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is the oxide of silicon, chemical formula SiO2. ... Diatomaceous earth, also known as diatomite, kieselguhr, kieselgur, and Celite, is a naturally occurring, soft, chalk-like, sedimentary rock mineral that is easily crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. ... Acetone peroxide is a high explosive that can be made from common household items: drain cleaner (sulfuric acid), hydrogen peroxide, and acetone. ... Peroxide has three distinct meanings: Colloquial meaning In common usage, peroxide is an aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide (HOOH or H2O2) sold for use as a disinfectant or mild bleach. ... Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is a pale yellow crystalline aromatic hydrocarbon compound that melts at 354 K (178 °F, 81 °C). ... Cyclotrimethylene trinitramine, also known as RDX, cyclonite, or hexogen, is an nitroamine and explosive material widely used by the military. ... PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate, also known as Penthrite) is one of the strongest known high explosives, with a relative effectiveness factor (R.E. factor) of 1. ... C4 or Composition C4 is a common variety of military plastic explosive. ... Cyclotrimethylene trinitramine, also known as RDX, cyclonite, or hexogen, is an nitroamine and explosive material widely used by the military. ... Plastic explosive (or plastique) is a specialised form of explosive material. ...

Detonation

Also called an initiation sequence or a firing train, this is the sequence of events which cascade from relatively low levels of energy to cause a chain reaction to initiate the final explosive material or main charge. They can be either low or high explosive trains. Low explosive trains are something like a bullet - Primer and a propellant charge. High explosives trains can be more complex, either Two-Step (e.g. Detonator and Dynamite) or Three-Step (e.g. Detonator, Booster and ANFO). Detonators are often made from tetryl and Fulminates. A detonator is a device used to trigger bombs, shaped charges and other forms of explosive material and explosive devices. ... Dynamite is an explosive based on the explosive potential of nitroglycerin using diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr) as an absorbent. ... An explosive booster acts as a bridge between a low energy explosive and a low sensitivity (but typically high energy) explosive. ... ANFO stands for Ammonium Nitrate / Fuel Oil. ... Tetryl is a sensitive explosive compound used to make detonators. ... Fulminates are chemical compounds which includes the fulminate anion. ...

Explosions

Explosive force is released at 90 degree angles from the surface of an explosive. If the surface is cut or shaped the explosive forces can be focused directionally, and will produce a greater effect. This is known as a shaped charge. A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to focus the effect of the released energy. ...

Chemical explosive reaction

A chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or shock, decomposes or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much gas and heat. Many substances not ordinarily classed as explosives may do one, or even two, of these things. For example, a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen can be made to react with great rapidity and yield the gaseous product nitric oxide; yet the mixture is not an explosive since it does not evolve heat, but rather absorbs heat. Decomposition is the reduction of bodies and other formerly living organisms into simpler forms of matter; and most particularly to the fate of the body, after death. ... Gas (actually, as), the GNU assembler, is the default GCC back-end. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 14. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ... The chemical compound nitric oxide is a gas with chemical formula NO. It is an important signaling molecule in the body of mammals including humans, one of the few gaseous signaling molecules known. ...

N₂ + O₂ → 2NO - 43,200 calories (or 180 kJ) per mole of N₂

For a chemical to be an explosive, it must exhibit all of the following: A calorie refers to a unit of energy. ... The joule (symbol J, also called newton meter, watt second, or coulomb volt) is the SI unit of energy and work. ... The mole (symbol: mol) is one of the seven SI base units and is commonly used in chemistry. ...

• Exhibit Rapid Expansion (eg. rapid production of gasses or rapid heating of surroundings)
• Evolution of heat
• Rapidity of reaction
• Initiation of reaction

Formation of gases

Gases may be evolved from substances in a variety of ways. When wood or coal is burned in the atmosphere, the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel combine with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide and steam, together with flame and smoke. When the wood or coal is pulverized, so that the total surface in contact with the oxygen is increased, and burned in a furnace or forge where more air can be supplied, the burning can be made more rapid and the combustion more complete. When the wood or coal is immersed in liquid oxygen or suspended in air in the form of dust, the burning takes place with explosive violence. In each case, the same action occurs: a burning combustible forms a gas. A news/talk radio station on the frequency of 1300 AM in Grand Rapids, Michigan. ... Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground either by underground mining, open-pit mining or strip mining. ... Atmosphere may refer to: a celestial body atmosphere, e. ... General Name, Symbol, Number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Atomic mass 12. ... General Name, Symbol, Number Hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1 (IA), 1, s Density, Hardness 0. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... Liquid oxygen (also LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace industry) is the liquid form of oxygen. ...

Evolution of heat

The generation of heat in large quantities accompanies every explosive chemical reaction. It is this rapid liberation of heat that causes the gaseous products of reaction to expand and generate high pressures. This rapid generation of high pressures of the released gas constitutes the explosion. It should be noted that the liberation of heat with insufficient rapidity will not cause an explosion. For example, although a pound of coal yields five times as much heat as a pound of nitroglycerin, the coal cannot be used as an explosive because the rate at which it yields this heat is quite slow. Pressure is the application of force to a surface, and the concentration of that force in a given area. ... Pressure is the application of force to a surface, and the concentration of that force in a given area. ... Nitroglycerin, also known as nitroglycerine, trinitroglycerin, and glyceryl trinitrate, is a chemical compound, a heavy, colorless, poisonous, oily, explosive liquid obtained by nitrating glycerol. ...

Rapidity of reaction

Rapidity of reaction distinguishes the explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction by the great speed with which it takes place. Unless the reaction occurs rapidly, the thermally expanded gases will be dissipated in the medium, and there will be no explosion. Again, consider a wood or coal fire. As the fire burns, there is the evolution of heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to cause an explosion. For those of you who know something about electronics, this can be likened to the energy discharge of a battery, which is slow, to a flash capacitor, like that in a camera. The term discharge can have several meanings in different contexts: To discharge a weapon is to fire it. ... Four double-A (AA) batteries In science and technology, a battery is a device that stores energy and makes it available in an electrical form. ... Various types of capacitors A capacitor (occasionally referred to using the older term condenser) is a device that stores energy in the electric field created between a pair of conductors on which equal but opposite electric charges have been placed. ... A camera is a device used to take pictures (usually photographs), either singly or in sequence, with or without sound, such as with video cameras. ...

Initiation of reaction

A reaction must be capable of being initiated by the application of shock or heat to a small portion of the mass of the explosive material. A material in which the first three factors exist cannot be accepted as an explosive unless the reaction can be made to occur when desired.

Military explosives

To determine the suitability of an explosive substance for military use, its physical properties must first be investigated. The usefulness of a military explosive can only be appreciated when these properties and the factors affecting them are fully understood. Many explosives have been studied in past years to determine their suitability for military use and most have been found wanting. Several of those found acceptable have displayed certain characteristics that are considered undesirable and, therefore, limit their usefulness in military applications. The requirements of a military explosive are stringent, and very few explosives display all of the characteristics necessary to make them acceptable for military standardization. Some of the more important characteristics are discussed below: Antonym of psychical. ... In information processing, properties are transmitted by objects and received by observers. ... The word characteristic has several meanings: In mathematics, see characteristic (algebra) characteristic function characteristic subgroup Euler characteristic method of characteristics In genetics, see characteristic (genetics). ... Standardization, in the context related to technologies and industries, is the process of establishing a technical standard among competing entities in a market, where this will bring benefits without hurting competition. ...

Availability and cost

In view of the enormous quantity demands of modern warfare, explosives must be produced from cheap raw materials that are nonstrategic and available in great quantity. In addition, manufacturing operations must be reasonably simple, cheap, and safe.

Sensitivity

Regarding an explosive, this refers to the ease with which it can be ignited or detonated—i.e., the amount and intensity of shock, friction, or heat that is required. When the term sensitivity is used, care must be taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion. The relative sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from is sensitivity to friction or heat. Some of the test methods used to determine sensitivity are as follows: In medicine, shock is a life-threatening medical emergency characterized by inability of the body to supply enough oxygen to meet tissue requirements. ... Disregard literal sense, merge static friction with this article. ... A red-hot iron rod cooling after being worked by a blacksmith. ... See: Sensitivity (electronics) Sensitivity (human) Sensitivity (tests) For sensitivity in finance, see beta coefficient This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

• Impact. Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the distance through which a standard weight must be dropped to cause the material to explode.
• Friction. Sensitivity is expressed in terms of what occurs when a weighted pendulum scrapes across the material (snaps, crackles, ignites, and/or explodes).
• Heat. Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the temperature at which flashing or explosion of the material occurs.

Sensitivity is an important consideration in selecting an explosive for a particular purpose. The explosive in an armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of impact would cause it to detonate before it penetrated to the point desired. Impact - the (possibly destructive) effect of transfer of energy from one object striking another resulting in a near-instant change of relative velocity. ... Disregard literal sense, merge static friction with this article. ... A red-hot iron rod cooling after being worked by a blacksmith. ...

Stability

Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration. The following factors affect the stability of an explosive:

• Chemical constitution. The very fact that some common chemical compounds can undergo explosion when heated indicates that there is something unstable in their structures. While no precise explanation has been developed for this, it is generally recognized that certain groups, nitro dioxide (NO₂), nitrate (NO₃), and azide (N₃), are intrinsically in a condition of internal strain. Increased strain through heating can cause a sudden disruption of the molecule and consequent explosion. In some cases, this condition of molecular instability is so great that decomposition takes place at ordinary temperatures.
• Temperature of storage. The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher temperatures. All of the standard military explosives may be considered to be of a high order of stability at temperatures of -10 to +35 °C, but each has a high temperature at which the rate of decomposition becomes rapidly accelerated and stability is reduced. As a rule of thumb, most explosives become dangerously unstable at temperatures exceeding 70 °C.
• Exposure to sun. If exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun, many explosive compounds that contain nitrogen groups will rapidly decompose, affecting their stability.

In science, a molecule is the smallest particle of a pure chemical substance that still retains its chemical composition and properties. ... Temperature is the physical property of a system which underlies the common notions of hot and cold; the material with the higher temperature is said to be hotter. ... Rotting fruit Decomposition is the reduction of bodies and other formerly living organisms into simpler forms of matter and, most particularly, to the fate of the human body after death. ... Exposure can be: A condition of poor health or death resulting from prolonged exposure to weather radiation poisoning Exposure of the skin to sunshine, etc. ... A sun is the star at the center of a planetary system. ... Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength shorter than that of the visible region, but longer than that of soft X-rays. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 14. ...

Power

The term power (or more properly, performance) as it is applied to an explosive refers to its ability to do work. In practice it is defined as its ability to accomplish what is intended in the way of energy delivery (i.e., fragments, air blast, high-velocity jets, underwater bubble energy, etc.). Explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored series of tests to assess the material for its intended use. Of the test listed below, cylinder expansion and air-blast tests are common to most testing programs, and the others support specific uses. The concept of power occurs in multiple areas. ... A street musician with accordion in Bremen A performance comprises an event in which generally one group of people (the performer or performers) behave in a particular way for the benefit of another group of people (the viewer or viewers, or audience). ...

• Cylinder expansion test. A standard amount of explosive is loaded in a cylinder usually manufactured of copper. Data is collected concerning the rate of radial expansion of the cylinder and maximum cylinder wall velocity. This also establishes the Gurney constant or 2E.
• Cylinder fragmentation test. A standard steel cylinder is charged with explosive and fired in a sawdust pit. The fragments are collected and the size distribution analyzed.
• Detonation pressure (Chapman-Jouget). Detonation pressure data derived from measurements of shock waves transmitted into water by the detonation of cylindrical explosive charges of a standard size.
• Determination of critical diameter. This test establishes the minimum physical size a charge of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave. The procedure involves the detonation of a series of charges of different diameters until difficulty in detonation wave propagation is observed.
• Infinity diameter detonation velocity. Detonation velocity is dependent on landing density (c), charge diameter, and grain size. The hydrodynamic theory of detonation used in predicting explosive phenomena does not include diameter of the charge, and therefore a detonation velocity, for an imaginary charge of infinite diameter. This procedure requires a series of charges of the same density and physical structure, but different diameters, to be fired and the resulting detonation velocities interpolated to predict the detonation velocity of a charge of infinite diameter.
• Pressure versus scaled distance. A charge of specific size is detonated and its pressure effects measured at a standard distance. The values obtained are compared with that for TNT.
• Impulse versus scaled distance. A charge of specific size is detonated and its impulse (the area under the pressure-time curve) measured versus distance. The results are tabulated and expressed in TNT equivalent.
• Relative bubble energy (RBE). A 5 to 50 kg charge is detonated in water and piezoelectric gauges are used to measure peak pressure, time constant, impulse, and energy.

The RBE may be defined as The word cylinder has several meanings. ... Fragmentation is a term that occurs in several fields and describes a process of something breaking or being divided into pieces (fragments). ... A weapons cache is detonated at the East River Range on Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan Detonation is a process of supersonic combustion that involves a shock wave and a reaction zone behind it. ... Pressure is the application of force to a surface, and the concentration of that force in a given area. ... Infinity is a word carrying a number of different meanings in mathematics, philosophy, theology and everyday life. ...

K_x 3

RBE = K_s

where K = bubble expansion period for experimental (x) or standard (s) charge.

Brisance

In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which is their shattering effect or brisance (from the French meaning to "break"), which is distinguished from their total work capacity. This characteristic is of practical importance in determining the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, grenades, and the like. The rapidity with which an explosive reaches its peak pressure is a measure of its brisance. Brisance values are primarily employed in France and Russia. The word grenade can mean:- The well-known hand grenade commonly used by soldiers. ...

Density

Density of loading refers to the unit weight of an explosive per unit volume. Several methods of loading are available, and the one used is determined by the characteristics of the explosive. The methods available include pellet loading, cast loading, or press loading. Dependent upon the method employed, an average density of the loaded charge can be obtained that is within 80-95% of the theoretical maximum density of the explosive. High load density can reduce sensitivity by making the mass more resistant to internal friction. If density is increased to the extent that individual crystals are crushed, the explosive will become more sensitive. Increased load density also permits the use of more explosive, thereby increasing the strength of the warhead. Density (symbol: ρ - Greek: rho) is a measure of mass per unit of volume. ... See: Sensitivity (electronics) Sensitivity (human) Sensitivity (tests) For sensitivity in finance, see beta coefficient This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Mass is a property of physical objects that, roughly speaking, measures the amount of matter they contain. ... ... Disregard literal sense, merge static friction with this article. ... Crystal (disambiguation) Insulin crystals A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. ... A warhead is an explosive device used in military conflicts, used to destroy enemy vehicles or buildings. ...

Volatility

Volatility, or the readiness with which a substance vaporizes, is an undesirable characteristic in military explosives. Explosives must be no more than slightly volatile at the temperature at which they are loaded or at their highest storage temperature. Excessive volatility often results in the development of pressure within rounds of ammunition and separation of mixtures into their constituents. Stability, as mentioned before, is the ability of an explosive to stand up under storage conditions without deteriorating. Volatility affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that a marked reduction in stability may occur, which results in an increase in the danger of handling. Maximum allowable volatility is 2 ml of gas evolved in 48 hours. Volatility is the standard deviation of the change in value of a financial instrument with a specific time horizon. ... Evaporation is the process whereby atoms or molecules in a liquid state (or solid state if the substance sublimes) gain sufficient energy to enter the gaseous state. ...

Hygroscopicity

The introduction of moisture into an explosive is highly undesirable since it reduces the sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation of the explosive. Hygroscopicity is used as a measure of a material's moisture-absorbing tendencies. Moisture affects explosives adversely by acting as an inert material that absorbs heat when vaporized, and by acting as a solvent medium that can cause undesired chemical reactions. Sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation are reduced by inert materials that reduce the continuity of the explosive mass. When the moisture content evaporates during detonation, cooling occurs, which reduces the temperature of reaction. Stability is also affected by the presence of moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive and, in addition, causes corrosion of the explosive's metal container. For all of these reasons, hygroscopicity must be negligible in military explosives. Moisture generally refers to the presence of water in trace amounts. ...

Toxicity

Due to their chemical structure, most explosives are toxic to some extent. Since the effect of toxicity may vary from a mild headache to serious damage of internal organs, care must be taken to limit toxicity in military explosives to a minimum. Any explosive of high toxicity is unacceptable for military use.

Measurement of chemical explosive reaction

The development of new and improved types of ammunition requires a continuous program of research and development. Adoption of an explosive for a particular use is based upon both proving ground and service tests. Before these tests, however, preliminary estimates of the characteristics of the explosive are made. The principles of thermochemistry are applied for this process. Thermochemistry is the application of thermodynamics to chemistry. ...

Thermochemistry is concerned with the changes in internal energy, principally as heat, in chemical reactions. An explosion consists of a series of reactions, highly exothermic, involving decomposition of the ingredients and recombination to form the products of explosion. Energy changes in explosive reactions are calculated either from known chemical laws or by analysis of the products.

For most common reactions, tables based on previous investigations permit rapid calculation of energy changes. Products of an explosive remaining in a closed calorimetric bomb (a constant-volume explosion) after cooling the bomb back to room temperature and pressure are rarely those present at the instant of maximum temperature and pressure. Since only the final products may be analyzed conveniently, indirect or theoretical methods are often used to determine the maximum temperature and pressure values.

Some of the important characteristics of an explosive that can be determined by such theoretical computations are:

• Oxygen balance
• Heat of explosion or reaction
• Volume of products of explosion
• Potential of the explosive

Oxygen balance (OB%)

Oxygen balance is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized. If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to convert all of its carbon to carbon dioxide, all of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no excess, the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance. The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed. The sensitivity, strength, and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maximums as oxygen balance approaches zero.

The oxygen balance (OB) is calculated from the empirical formula of a compound in percentage of oxygen required for complete conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide, hydrogen to water, and metal to metal oxide.

The procedure for calculating oxygen balance in terms of 100 grams of the explosive material is to determine the number of moles of oxygen that are excess or deficient for 100 grams of a compound.

where

X = number of atoms of carbon, Y = number of atoms of hydrogen, Z = number of atoms of oxygen, and M = number of atoms of metal (metallic oxide produced).

In the case of TNT (C₆H₂(NO₂)₃CH₃),

Molecular weight = 227.1

X = 7 (number of carbon atoms)

Y = 5 (number of hydrogen atoms)

Z = 6 (number of oxygen atoms)

Therefore

OB% = -74% for TNT

Because sensitivity, brisance, and strength are properties resulting from a complex explosive chemical reaction, a simple relationship such as oxygen balance cannot be depended upon to yield universally consistent results. When using oxygen balance to predict properties of one explosive relative to another, it is to be expected that one with an oxygen balance closer to zero will be the more brisant, powerful, and sensitive; however, many exceptions to this rule do exist. More complicated predictive calculations, such as those discussed in the next section, result in more accurate predictions.

One area in which oxygen balance can be applied is in the processing of mixtures of explosives. The family of explosives called amatols are mixtures of ammonium nitrate and TNT. Ammonium nitrate has an oxygen balance of +20% and TNT has an oxygen balance of −74%, so it would appear that the mixture yielding an oxygen balance of zero would also result in the best explosive properties. In actual practice a mixture of 80% ammonium nitrate and 20% TNT by weight yields an oxygen balance of +1%, the best properties of all mixtures, and an increase in strength of 30% over TNT.

Heat of explosion

When a chemical compound is formed from its constituents, the reaction may either absorb or give off heat. The quantity of heat absorbed or given off during transformation is called the heat of formation. The heats of formations for solids and gases found in explosive reactions have been determined for a temperature of 15 °C and atmospheric pressure, and are normally tabulated in units of kilocalories per gram molecule. (See table 12-1). Where a negative value is given, it indicates that heat is absorbed during the formation of the compound from its elements. Such a reaction is called an endothermic reaction. The convention usually employed in simple thermochemical calculations is arbitrarily to take heat contents of all elements as zero in their standard states at all temperatures (standard state being defined as the state at which the elements are found under natural or ambient conditions). Since the heat of formation of a compound is the net difference between the heat content of the compound and that of its elements, and since the latter are taken as zero by convention, it follows that the heat content of a compound is equal to its heat of formation in such nonrigorous calculations. This leads us to the principle of initial and final state, which may be expressed as follows: "The net quantity of heat liberated or absorbed in any chemical modification of a system depends solely upon the initial and final states of the system, provided the transformation takes place at constant volume or at constant pressure. It is completely independent of the intermediate transformations and of the time required for the reactions." In chemistry, the standard state of a material is its state at 1 bar (100. ...

From this it follows that the heat liberated in any transformation accomplished through successive reactions is the algebraic sum of the heats liberated or absorbed in the different reactions. Consider the formation of the original explosive from its elements as an intermediate reaction in the formation of the products of explosion. The net amount of heat liberated during an explosion is the sum of the heats of formation of the products of explosion, minus the heat of formation of the original explosive.

The net heat difference between heats of formations of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction is termed the heat of reaction. For oxidation this heat of reaction may be termed heat of combustion. The Heat of combustion (ΔcH0) is the energy released as heat when a compound undergoes complete combustion with oxygen. ...

In explosive technology only materials that are exothermic — that is, have a heat of reaction that causes net liberation of heat — are of interest. Hence, in this text, heats of reaction are virtually all positive. Since reactions may occur either under conditions of constant pressure or constant volume, the heat of reaction can be expressed at constant pressure or at constant volume. It is this heat of reaction that may be properly expressed as "heat of the explosion."

Balancing chemical explosion equations

In order to assist in balancing chemical equations, an order of priorities is presented in table 12-2. Explosives containing C, H, O, and N and/or a metal will form the products of reaction in the priority sequence shown. Some observation you might want to make as you balance an equation:

• The progression is from top to bottom; you may skip steps that are not applicable, but you never back up.
• At each separate step there are never more than two compositions and two products.
• At the conclusion of the balancing, elemental forms, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, are always found in diatomic form.

Example, TNT:

C₆H₂(NO₂)₃CH₃; constituents: 7C + 5H + 3N + 6O

Using the order of priorities in table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products:

7C + 6O → 6CO with one mol of carbon remaining

Next, since all the oxygen has been combined with the carbon to form CO, priority 7 results in:

3N → 1.5N₂

Finally, priority 9 results in: 5H → 2.5H₂

The balanced equation, showing the products of reaction resulting from the detonation of TNT is:

C₆H₂(NO₂)₃CH₃ → 6CO + 2.5H₂ + 1.5N₂ + C

Notice that partial moles are permitted in these calculations. The number of moles of gas formed is 10. The product, carbon, is a solid.

Volume of products of explosion

The law of Avogadro states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. From this law, it follows that the molar volume of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas. The molar volume of any gas at 0 °C and under normal atmospheric pressure is very nearly 22.4 liters or 22.4 cubic decimeters. Thus, considering the nitroglycerin reaction. In 1811 Amedeo Avogadro stated the hypothesis which we now call Avogadros law: (See: this site for an English translation of his 1811 paper). ... In chemistry, the molar volume of a substance is the ratio of the volume of a sample of that substance to the amount of substance (usually in mole) in the sample. ...

C₃H₅(NO₃)₃ → 3CO₂ + 2.5H₂O + 1.5N₂ + 0.25O₂

the explosion of one mole of nitroglycerin produces in the gaseous state: 3 moles of CO₂; 2.5 moles of O₂. Since a molar volume is the volume of one mole of gas, one mole of nitroglycerin produces 3 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 0.25 = 7.25 molar volumes of gas; and these molar volumes at 0 °C and atmospheric pressure form an actual volume of 7.25 × 22.4 = 162.4 liters of gas. (Note that the products H₂O and CO₂ are in their gaseous form.)

Based upon this simple beginning, it can be seen that the volume of the products of explosion can be predicted for any quantity of the explosive. Further, by employing Charles' Law for perfect gases, the volume of the products of explosion may also be calculated for any given temperature. This law states that at a constant pressure a perfect gas expands 1/273.15 of its volume at 0 °C, for each degree Celsius of rise in temperature. Charless law (sometimes called the Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac) is one of the gas laws; it relates the volume and temperature of an ideal gas held at a constant pressure. ...

Therefore, at 15 °C the molar volume of an ideal gas is,

V₁₅ = 22.414 (288.15/273273.15) = 23.64 liters per mole

Thus, at 15 °C the volume of gas produced by the explosive decomposition of one mole of nitroglycerin becomes

V = (23.64 l/mol)(7.25 mol) = 171.4 l

Explosive strength

The potential of an explosive is the total work that can be performed by the gas resulting from its explosion, when expanded adiabatically from its original volume, until its pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure and its temperature to 15 °C. The potential is therefore the total quantity of heat given off at constant volume when expressed in equivalent work units and is a measure of the strength of the explosive.

An explosion may occur under two general conditions: the first, unconfined, as in the open air where the pressure (atmospheric) is constant; the second, confined, as in a closed chamber where the volume is constant. The same amount of heat energy is liberated in each case, but in the unconfined explosion, a certain amount is used as work energy in pushing back the surrounding air, and therefore is lost as heat. In a confined explosion, where the explosive volume is small (such as occurs in the powder chamber of a firearm), practically all the heat of explosion is conserved as useful energy. If the quantity of heat liberated at constant volume under adiabatic conditions is calculated and converted from heat units to equivalent work units, the potential or capacity for work results.

Therefore, if

Q_mp represents the total quantity of heat given off by a mole of explosive of 15 °C and constant pressure (atmospheric);

Q_mv represents the total heat given off by a mole of explosive at 15 °C and constant volume; and

W represents the work energy expended in pushing back the surrounding air in an unconfined explosion and thus is not available as net theoretical heat;

Then, because of the conversion of energy to work in the constant pressure case,

Q_mv = Q_mp + W

from which the value of Q_mv may be determined. Subsequently, the potential of a mole of an explosive may be calculated. Using this value, the potential for any other weight of explosive may be determined by simple proportion.

Using the principle of the initial and final state, and heat of formation table (resulting from experimental data), the heat released at constant pressure may be readily calculated.

m n

Q_mp = v_iQ_fi - v_kQ_fk

1 1

where:

Q_fi = heat of formation of product i at constant pressure

Q_fk = heat of formation of reactant k at constant pressure

v = number of moles of each product/reactants (m is the number of products and n the number of reactants)

The work energy expended by the gaseous products of detonation is expressed by:

W = P dv

With pressure constant and negligible initial volume, this expression reduces to:

W = P·V₂

Since heats of formation are calculated for standard atmospheric pressure (101 325 Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m²) and 15 °C, V₂ is the volume occupied by the product gases under these conditions. At this point

W/mol = (101 325 N/m²)(23.63 L/mol)(1 m³/1000 L) = 2394 N·m/mol = 2394 J/mol

and by applying the appropriate conversion factors, work can be converted to units of kilocalories.

W/mol = 0.572 kcal/mol

Once the chemical reaction has been balanced, one can calculate the volume of gas produced and the work of expansion. With this completed, the calculations necessary to determine potential may be accomplished.

For TNT:

C₆H₂(NO₂)₃CH₃ → 6CO + 2.5H₂ + 1.5N₂ + C

for 10 mol

Then:

Q_mp = 6(26.43) - 16.5 = 142.08 kcal/mol

Note: Elements in their natural state (H₂, O₂, N₂, C, etc.) are used as the basis for heat of formation tables and are assigned a value of zero. See table 12-2.

Q_mv = 142.08 + 0.572(10) = 147.8 kcal/mol

As previously stated, Q_mv converted to equivalent work units is the potential of the explosive. (MW = Molecular Weight of Explosive)

Potential = Q_mv kcal/mol × 4185 J/kcal × 10³ g/kg × 1 mol/(mol·g)

Potential = Q_mv (4.185 × 10⁶) J/(mol·kg)

For TNT,

Potential = 147.8 (4.185 × 10⁶)/227.1 = 2.72 × 10⁶ J/kg

Rather than tabulate such large numbers, in the field of explosives, TNT is taken as the standard explosive, and others are assigned strengths relative to that of TNT. The potential of TNT has been calculated above to be 2.72 × 10⁶ J/kg. Relative strength (RS) may be expressed as

R.S. = Potential of Explosive/(2.72 × 10⁶)

Example of thermochemical calculations

The PETN reaction will be examined as an example of thermo-chemical calculations.

PETN: C(CH₂ONO₂)₄

Molecular weight = 316.15 g/mol

Heat of formation = 119.4 kcal/mol

(1) Balance the chemical reaction equation. Using table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products:

5C + 12O → 5CO + 7O

Next, the hydrogen combines with remaining oxygen:

8H + 7O → 4H₂O + 3O

Then the remaining oxygen will combine with the CO to form CO and CO₂.

5CO + 3O → 2CO + 3CO₂

Finally the remaining nitrogen forms in its natural state (N₂).

4N → 2N₂

The balanced reaction equation is:

C(CH₂ONO₂)₄ → 2CO + 4H₂O + 3CO₂ + 2N₂

(2) Determine the number of molar volumes of gas per mole. Since the molar volume of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas, and since all the products of the PETN reaction are gaseous, the resulting number of molar volumes of gas (N_m) is:

N_m = 2 + 4 + 3 + 2 = 11 V_molar/mol

(3) Determine the potential (capacity for doing work). If the total heat liberated by an explosive under constant volume conditions (Q_m) is converted to the equivalent work units, the result is the potential of that explosive.

The heat liberated at constant volume (Q_mv) is equivalent to the liberated at constant pressure (Q_mp) plus that heat converted to work in expanding the surrounding medium. Hence, Q_mv = Q_mp + work (converted).

a. Q_mp = Q_fi (products) - Q_fk (reactants)

where: Q_f = heat of formation (see table 12-2)

For the PETN reaction:

Q_mp = 2(26.43) + 4(57.81) + 3(94.39) - (119.4) = 447.87 kcal/mol

(If the compound produced a metallic oxide, that heat of formation would be included in Q_mp.

b. Work = 0.572N_m = 0.572(11) = 6.292 kcal/mol

As previously stated, Q_mv converted to equivalent work units is taken as the potential of the explosive.

c. Potential J = Q_mv (4.185 × 10⁶ kg)(MW) = 454.16 (4.185 × 10⁶) 316.15 = 6.01 × 10⁶ J kg

This product may then be used to find the relative strength (RS) of PETN, which is

d. RS = Pot (PETN) = 6.01 × 10⁶ = 2.21 Pot (TNT) 2.72 × 10⁶

See also

• blasting cap
• nuclear weapon
• shaped charge
• weapon
• The Manual of Crime: Explosives

A blasting cap is a small explosive device generally used to detonate a larger, more powerful explosive such as dynamite. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to focus the effect of the released energy. ... The bayonet, still used in war as both knife and spearpoint. ...

External links

• Military Explosives
• UN hazard classification code

References

• Army Research Office. Elements of Armament Engineering (Part One). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Material Command, 1964.
• Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. Safety and Performance Tests for Qualification of Explosives. NAVORD OD 44811. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1972.
• Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. Weapons Systems Fundamentals. NAVORD OP 3000, vol. 2, 1st rev. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1971.
• Departments of the Army and Air Force. Military Explosives. Washington, D.C.: 1967.