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High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) refers to a group of corn syrups which have undergone enzymatic processing in order to increase their fructose content and are then mixed with pure corn syrup (100% glucose) to reach their final form. The typical types of HFCS are: HFCS 90 (most commonly used in baked goods) which is approximately 90% fructose and 10% glucose; HFCS 55 (most commonly used in soft drinks) which is approximately 55% fructose and 45% glucose; and HFCS 42 (most commonly used in sports drinks) which is approximately 42% fructose and 58% glucose. Image File history File links Portal. ... Corn syrup, whose chemical formula is C6H12O6, is a syrup made from corn starch and composed mainly of glucose. ... Neuraminidase ribbon diagram An enzyme (in Greek en = in and zyme = blend) is a protein, or protein complex, that catalyzes a chemical reaction and also controls the 3D orientation of the catalyzed substrates. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is the most important carbohydrate in biology. ...

The process by which HFCS is produced was first developed by Richard O. Marshall and Earl R. Kooi in 1957^[1] and refined by Japanese researchers in the 1970s. HFCS was rapidly introduced in many processed foods and soft drinks in the US over the period of about 1975–1985. The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1970 to 1979. ... A soft drink is a drink that contains no alcohol. ... United States may refer to: Places: United States of America SS United States, the fastest ocean liner ever built. ...

In terms of sweetness, HFCS 55 is comparable to table sugar (sucrose).^[2] This makes it useful to manufacturers as a possible substitute for sucrose (table sugar) in soft drinks and other processed foods. According to the scientific definition of sugar, fructose and glucose are types of sugar, rather than substitutes for sugar, even though in common usage sugar usually refers specifically to sucrose. HFCS 90 is sweeter than sucrose as fructose is sweeter than glucose, while HFCS 42 is not as sweet as sucrose. For other uses, see Sweetness (disambiguation). ... Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... Magnification of grains of sugar, showing their monoclinic hemihedral crystalline structure. ...

Use as a replacement for sugar

Since its introduction, HFCS has begun to replace sugar in various processed foods in the USA.^[3] The main reasons for this switch are:^[4]

• HFCS is somewhat cheaper due to the relative abundance of corn, farm subsidies and sugar import tariffs in the United States.^[5]
• HFCS is easier to blend and transport because it is a liquid.^[6]
• HFCS usage leads to products with much longer shelf life.

Comparison to other sugars

Cane sugar

Cane sugar is relatively pure sucrose. Sucrose is a disaccharide, as opposed to glucose and fructose, which are monosaccharides. Each molecule of sucrose is composed of one unit each of fructose and glucose linked together with a relatively weak glycosidic bond. A molecule of sucrose (with a chemical formula of C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) can be broken down into a molecule of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) plus a molecule of fructose (also C₆H₁₂O₆ — an isomer of glucose) in a weakly acid environment. Sucrose is broken down during digestion into fructose and glucose through hydrolysis by the enzyme sucrase, by which the body regulates the rate of sucrose breakdown. Without this regulation mechanism, the body has less control over the rate of sugar absorption into the bloodstream. Species Saccharum arundinaceum Saccharum bengalense Saccharum edule Saccharum officinarum Saccharum procerum Saccharum ravennae Saccharum robustum Saccharum sinense Saccharum spontaneum Sugarcane or Sugar cane (Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation) of tall grasses (family Poaceae, tribe Andropogoneae), native to warm temperate to tropical regions... Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... Sucrose, a common disaccharide A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides. ... Monosaccharides are carbohydrates in the form of simple sugars. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is the most important carbohydrate in biology. ... In chemistry, isomers are molecules with the same chemical formula and often with the same kinds of chemical bonds between atoms, but in which the atoms are arranged differently (analogous to a chemical anagram). ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process in which a chemical compound reacts with water. ... Headline text Sucrase (EC 3. ...

Because sucrose can be broken down into fructose and glucose, some people say that sucrose is composed "50% glucose and 50% fructose." This, strictly speaking, is incorrect, because the fructose and glucose in sucrose are linked together and thus it is a different molecule. On the other hand, because sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides - namely fructose and glucose - in weakly acidic environments by a process called inversion, it is not incorrect to describe its constituents as 50% glucose and 50% fructose. This same process occurs in the stomach and in the small intestine during the digestion of sucrose into fructose and glucose. According to two published reports (one supported by NIH and one supported by industry - American Beverage Institute and the Corn Refiners Association) sucrose is metabolized by the body like a mixture of 50% glucose and 50% fructose and no differently from HFCS [2] [3]. This finding, however, does not apply to all people. People with sucrase deficiency cannot digest (break down) sucrose, and thus exhibit sucrose intolerance. The American Beverage Institute is a restaurant industry trade group. ... Headline text Sucrase (EC 3. ... Sucrose intolerance, also called Congenital Sucrase-Isomaltase Deficiency (CSID) or Sucrase-isomaltase deficiency , is the condition in which sucrase, an enzyme needed for proper metabolization of sucrose, is not produced in the small intestine. ...

Both HFCS and sucrose have approximately 4 kcal per gram of solid.

Honey

Honey is a mixture of different types of sugars, water, and small amounts of other compounds. Honey typically has a fructose/glucose ratio similar to HFCS 55, as well as containing some sucrose and other sugars. Honey, HFCS and sucrose have the same number of calories having approximately 4 kcal per gram of solid. A jar of honey, shown with a wooden honey server and scones/biscuits. ...

Production

High-fructose corn syrup is produced by milling corn to produce corn starch then processing that corn starch to yield corn syrup that is almost entirely glucose, and then adding enzymes that change the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup (after enzyme conversion) contains approximately 90% fructose and is HFCS 90. To make the other common forms of HFCS (HFCS 55 and HFCS 42) the HFCS 90 is mixed with 100% glucose corn syrup in the appropriate ratios to form the desired HFCS. The enzyme process that changes the 100% glucose corn syrup into HFCS 90 is as follows: Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ...

1. Cornstarch is treated with alpha-amylase to produce shorter chains of sugars called oligosaccharides.
2. Glucoamylase breaks the sugar chains down even further to yield the simple sugar glucose.
3. Glucose isomerase converts glucose to a mixture of about 42% fructose and 50–52% glucose with some other sugars mixed in.

While inexpensive alpha-amylase and glucoamylase are added directly to the slurry and used only once, the more costly glucose-isomerase is packed into columns and the sugar mixture is then passed over it, allowing it to be used repeatedly until it loses its activity. This 42–43% fructose glucose mixture is then subjected to a liquid chromatography step where the fructose is enriched to approximately 90%. The 90% fructose is then back-blended with 42% fructose to achieve a 55% fructose final product. Most manufacturers use carbon absorption for impurity removal. Numerous filtration, ion-exchange and evaporation steps are also part of the overall process. Products treated with cornstarch Cornstarch, or cornflour, is the starch of the maize grain, commonly known as corn. ... Amylase is the name given to glycoside hydrolase enzymes that break down starch into glucose molecules. ... The term “oligosaccharide” refers to a short chain of sugar molecules (“oligo” means “few” and “saccharide” means “sugar. ... Amylase is the name given to glycoside hydrolase enzymes that break down starch into glucose molecules. ... Glucose Isomerase is an enzyme (EC 5. ... Pictured is a sophisticated gas chromatography system. ...

Measuring Concentration of HFCS

The units of measurement for sugars including HFCS are degrees Brix (symbol °Bx). Brix is a measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved sugars to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx solution has 25 grams of HFCS per 100 grams of liquid (25% w/w). Or, to put it another way, there are 25 grams of sugar and 75 grams of water in the 100 grams of solution. The Brix measurement was introduced by Antoine Brix. Brix Flight Brix Flight is a 14 year old who is wishing to become famous one day. ...

When an infrared Brix sensor is used, it measures the vibrational frequency of the High Fructose Corn Syrup molecules, giving a Brix degrees measurement. This will not be the same measurement as Brix degrees using a density or refractive index measurement because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When a refractometer is used, it is correct to report the result as "refractometric dried substance" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as being 20 °Bx RDS. This is a measure of percent by weight of total dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content since the majority of dried solids are in fact sucrose. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors have made measuring the amount of dissolved HFCS in products economical using a direct measurement. It also gives the possibility of a direct volume/volume measurement.

Recently [4]an isotopic method for quantifying sweeteners derived from corn and sugar cane was developed by Jahren et al. that permits measurement of corn syrup and cane sugar derived sweeteners in humans thus allowing dietary assessment of the intake of these substances relative to total intake.

Sweetener consumption patterns

In the United States

US sweetener consumption, 1966-2004. It is apparent from this graph that overall sweetener consumption, and in particular glucose-fructose mixtures, has increased since the introduction of HFCS. Thus, the proportion of fructose as a component of overall sweetener intake in the United States has increased since the early 1980s. This would be true whether the added sweetener was HFCS, table sugar, or any other glucose-fructose mixture.

Because of a system of price supports and sugar quotas imposed since May 1982, importing sugar into the United States is prohibitively expensive. High fructose corn syrup, derived from corn, is more economical since the American price of sugar is artificially far higher than the global price of sugar^[7] and the price of #2 corn is artificially low due to both government subsidies and dumping on the market as farmers produce more corn annually.^[8][9] The food industry turned to HFCS as a substitute, with both Coca-Cola and Pepsi switching to HFCS in 1984.^[10] Image File history File links Usda_sweeteners. ... Image File history File links Usda_sweeteners. ... The wave shape (known as the dynamic ribbon device) present on all Coca-Cola cans throughout the world derives from the contour of the original Coca-Cola bottles. ... Pepsi Cola, is a cola soft drink produced and manufactured by PepsiCo. ...

The average American consumed approximately 19.2 kg of HFCS in 2004, versus 20 kg of sugar.^{[citation needed]} In countries where HFCS is not used or rarely used, the sugar consumption per person can be higher than the USA; for example (2002):^[11] shelby was here 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ...

• USA: 32.4 kg
• EU: 40.1 kg
• Brazil: 59.7 kg
• Australia: 56.2 kg

International markets

In the European Union, the sugar price is close to the market price, and the greater availability of cane sugar over maize would make HFCS production there uneconomical. In Japan, HFCS consumption accounts for one quarter of total sweetener consumption.^[12] Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... “Corn” redirects here. ...

Controversy

Some controversy has come up over the use of HFCS as a food additive as manufacturers begin to utilize HFCS in an increasing variety of foods, such as breads, cereals, soft drinks, and condiments.

American farm lobby

Main article: Agricultural policy

The preference for high fructose corn syrup over cane sugar amongst the vast majority of American food and beverage manufacturers is largely due to U.S. import quotas and tariffs of sugar. Large corporations such as Archer Daniels Midland lobby for the continuation of these subsidies.^[13] Since local and federal laws often put a limit on how much money one particular lobbyist can contribute,^[14] ADM's contributions are often given by numerous smaller entities under the authority of ADM. This is commonly called bundling political contributions. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Species Saccharum arundinaceum Saccharum bengalense Saccharum edule Saccharum officinarum Saccharum procerum Saccharum ravennae Saccharum robustum Saccharum sinense Saccharum spontaneum Sugarcane or Sugar cane (Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation) of tall grasses (family Poaceae, tribe Andropogoneae), native to warm temperate to tropical regions... The Archer Daniels Midland Company (NYSE: ADM), based in Decatur, Illinois, operates more than 270 plants worldwide, where cereal grains and oilseeds are processed into numerous products used in food, beverage, nutraceutical, industrial and animal feed markets worldwide. ... Lobbying is a concerted effort designed to achieve some result, typically from government authorities and elected officials. ... Lobbying is the practice of private advocacy with the goal of influencing a governing body, in order to ensure that an individuals or organizations point of view is represented in the government. ... Bundling can mean more than one thing. ...

Health effects

One study concluded that pure fructose "produced significantly higher fasting plasma triacylglycerol values than did the glucose diet in men" and "if plasma triacylglycerols are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, then diets high in fructose may be undesirable".^[15] Bantle, et al. "noted the same effects in a study of 14 healthy volunteers who sequentially ate a high-fructose diet and one almost devoid of the sugar."^[16] It should be noted, however that these studies were on the effects of pure fructose intakes in various solutions not of HFCS. According to research provided by Melanson et al, effects of HFCS to date mimic those of sucrose and not of pure fructose in certain individuals. Example of an unsaturated fat triglyceride. ... Cardiovascular disease refers to the class of diseases that involve the heart and/or blood vessels (arteries and veins). ...

A study in mice suggests that fructose increases obesity.^[17] However, this study looked at the effects of fructose alone. High fructose corn syrup comes in different ratios of fructose and glucose, which are roughly the same products produced by the breakdown of sucrose (cane/table sugar) in the body. Large quantities of fructose stimulates the liver to produce triglycerides, promotes glycation of proteins and induces insulin resistance^[18]. Triglyceride (blue: fatty acid; red: glycerol backbone) Triglycerides are glycerides in which the glycerol is esterified with three fatty acids. ... Glycation is the result of a sugar-reducing molecule, such as fructose or glucose, bonding to a protein or lipid molecule without the controlling action of an enzyme. ... Insulin resistance is the condition in which normal amounts of insulin are inadequate to produce a normal insulin response from fat, muscle and liver cells. ...

Studies that have compared HFCS to sucrose (as opposed to pure fructose) find that they have essentially identical physiological effects. For instance, Melanson et al (2006), studied the effects of HFCS and sucrose sweetened drinks on blood glucose, insulin, leptin, and ghrelin levels. They found no significant differences in any of these parameters.^[19]

Perrigue et al (2006) compared the effects of isocaloric servings of colas sweetened HFCS 45, HFCS 55, sucrose, and aspartame on satiety and subsequent energy intake. They found that all of the drinks with caloric sweeteners produced similar satiety responses, and had the same effects on subsequent energy intake. Taken together with Melanson et al (2006), this study shows that there is little or no evidence for the hypothesis that HFCS is different from sucrose in its effects on appetite or on metabolic processes involved in fat storage. Interestingly, both the Perrigue et al study and the Melanson et al study were funded by "the American Beverage Institute and the Corn Refiners Association."^[20][21] The American Beverage Institute is a restaurant industry trade group. ...

One much-publicized recent study found an association between obesity and high HFCS consumption, especially from soft drinks.^[22] However, this study did not provide any evidence that this association is causal. And in fact, one of the study coauthors, Dr. Barry M. Popkin, is quoted in the New York Times (July 2, 2006, A Sweetener With a Bad Rap) warning that “I don't think there should be a perception that high-fructose corn syrup has caused obesity until we know more.” In the same article, Walter Willets, chair of the nutrition department of the Harvard School of Public Health Nutrition Department Chairman, is quoted as saying that “There's no substantial evidence to support the idea that high-fructose corn syrup is somehow responsible for obesity, [and that] If there was no high-fructose corn syrup, I don't think we would see a change in anything important.” In essence he is saying high fructose corn syrup is just as bad as other sugars. Walter Willets also recommends drinking water over soft drinks containing sugars or high fructose corn syrup.^[23]

Although these studies have shown a weak correlation or no correlation between HFCS and adverse health effects, there are many people who believe such a strong correlation exists, and is likely causation. By citing various studies of different sugars on rats and anecdotal evidence from practitioners in the medical profession, a community of individuals has sought to explain an increased incidence of type II diabetes and obesity in terms of increased HFCS consumption. [5] Often, though, it can be difficult to find direct support for these claims in peer-reviewed journals.

Labeling as "natural"

In May 2006, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) threatened to file a lawsuit against Cadbury Schweppes for labeling 7 Up as "All Natural", despite containing high fructose corn syrup. While the FDA has no definition of "natural", CSPI claims that HFCS is not a “natural” ingredient due to the high level of processing and the use of at least one genetically modifed (GMO) enzyme required to produce it.^[24] On January 12, 2007, Cadbury Schweppes agreed to stop calling 7 Up "All Natural".^[25] The references in this article would be clearer with a different and/or consistent style of citation, footnoting or external linking. ... Cadbury Schweppes plc (Cadbury Trebor Bassett), (NYSE: CSG) is a confectionery and beverage company with its headquarters in London. ... This article is about a soft drink. ... A genetically modified organism is an organism whose genetic material has been deliberately altered. ... Cadbury Schweppes plc (Cadbury Trebor Bassett), (NYSE: CSG) is a confectionery and beverage company with its headquarters in London. ... This article is about a soft drink. ...

Snapple (another Cadbury-Schweppes brand) is well-known for being "all-natural," but most varieties contain HFCS. Snapple is a popular company based in Rye Brook, New York that produces a variety of beverages which are sold in glass bottles, soda-style cans, and plastic bottles. ...

Newman's Own Lemonade and Limeade is labeled as "all-natural" but also contains HFCS. Newmans Own is a food company founded by actor Paul Newman in 1982. ...

Taste

Some beverage manufacturers have returned to cane sugar as a sweetener, maintaining that there is a noticeable difference in taste.

Jones Soda announced that the company will launch its 12 ounce canned soda (January 2007) sweetened with pure cane sugar instead of high fructose corn syrup. The brand will be called Jones Pure Cane Soda and will be sold as a 12 ounce can package. As of March 2007, a 12 ounce bottle of Jones Pure Cane Soda Root Beer lists in its ingredients "inverted cane sugar", which seems to mean the same thing as inverted sugar syrup, which, like HFCS, is a mixture of fructose and glucose. Jones Green Apple Soda Jones Soda Co. ... Inverted sugar syrup is sucrose-based syrup treated with the glycoside hydrolase enzyme invertase, and/or an acid, which splits each sucrose molecule into one glucose and one fructose molecule. ...

Goose Island sodas also use pure sugar and they market this to have a more pure flavor. Their market slogan is "Made with 100% real sugar for better taste." Goose Island Brewery is a brewery located in Chicago, Illinois, opened in 1988 by brewer John Hall. ...

Steaz sodas and energy drinks use only organic cane sugar produced using a "single-crystallization process preserves the original flavor... without the use of additives, preservatives, or animal by-products."

Jolt Cola was originally sweetened with sugar, and marketed with the slogan "All the sugar and twice the caffeine." A later reformulation, though, replaced sugar with HFCS. Jolt Cola logo Jolt Cola is a carbonated soft drink produced by Wet Planet Beverages. ...

Vernors was originally sweetened with stevia from 1866 to 1991 and had a "deliciously different" taste. Stevia was replaced with HFCS when the FDA banned it in 1991 in a controversial decision. Detroits Vernors ginger ale is Americas oldest soft drink, invented in 1866 by James Vernor, a Detroit pharmacist. ... Species About 150 species, including: Stevia eupatoria Stevia ovata Stevia plummerae Stevia rebaudiana Stevia salicifolia Stevia serrata Stevia (also called sweetleaf, sweet leaf or sugarleaf) is a genus of about 150 species of herbs and shrubs in the sunflower family (Asteraceae), native to subtropical and tropical South America and Central...

Some Coca-Cola products have started to use sucrose as indicated by the ingredient list clearly marked on the outside of the box. This is not widespread and is dependent on individual processing plants. Coca-Cola does not have an official statement at this time on whether they are or are not using sucrose.

One independent Dr Pepper bottler in Dublin, Texas never switched, giving "Dublin Dr Pepper" a unique taste. Other bottlers have since followed suit, sometimes offering both HFCS and cane sugar sweetened versions in the same market. Dr Pepper is a caramel-colored, carbonated soft drink marketed in North America by Cadbury Schweppes Americas Beverages (CSAB), a unit of Cadbury Schweppes. ... Dublin is a city in Erath County, Texas, United States. ... Dublin Dr Pepper is the name of Dr Pepper that uses cane sugar for a sweetener as opposed to corn syrup. ...

References

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Grist Magazine, Environmental News & Commentary (est. ... The Cato Institute is a non-profit public policy research foundation (think tank) with strong libertarian leanings, headquartered in Washington, D.C. It is named after Catos Letters, a series of early 18th century British essays expounding the libertarian principles of John Locke. ... The National Conference of State Legislatures is a bipartisan organization that serves the legislators and staffs of the nations 50 states, its commonwealths and territories. ... The references in this article would be clearer with a different and/or consistent style of citation, footnoting or external linking. ...

External links

• "Is high-fructose corn syrup making us fat? It's a sticky subject" (Article by Karen Gaudette, Seattle Times)
• "Is fructose to blame for obesity?" (Article by Barbara Quinn, McClatchy-Tribune)
• "Does This Goo Make You Groan?" or "A Sweetener With a Bad Rap" (Article by Melanie Warner, New York Times) complete text available
• HFCS Facts (Industry site)
• The Nutrition Reporter "Fructose: Maybe Not So Natural...and Not So Safe"
• "Scientists Stonewall on Spurious Soda Scare"
• Foods which DO NOT contain High Fructose Corn Syrup
• Foods containing High Fructose Corn Syrup
• Cargill Foods (Largest provider of HFCS to the food & beverage industry)
• "Audio broadcast linking HFCS Industry to Diabetes/Obesity Epidemic"
• "The Double Danger of High Fructose Corn Syrup"
• "Consumption of soft drinks and high-fructose corn syrup linked to obesity and diabetes"
• "The Murky World of High-Fructose Corn Syrup"
• "We're drowning in high fructose corn syrup. Do the risks go beyond our waistline?" (San Francisco Chronicle)
• "The obesity epidemic. Audio broadcast talking about physiology linking Fructose and Obesity (audio and transcript)" (The Health Report)