In the culture of the Indian subcontinent a hijra (also known by a number of different names and romanized spellings) is usually considered a member of "the third sex" — neither man nor woman. Most are physically male or intersex, but some are female. Hijras usually refer to themselves as female at the language level, and usually dress as women. Census data does not exist, but estimates range from 50,000 to 5,000,000 in India alone. Hijra may refer to: Hijra (Hegira/Hijrah/Hejira) is an Arabic term referring to the migration of the Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in 622. ... Map of South Asia (see note) This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia. ... Languages can be romanized in a variety of ways, as shown here with Mandarin Chinese In linguistics, romanization (or Latinization, also spelled romanisation or Latinisation) is the representation of a word or language with the Roman (Latin) alphabet, or a system for doing so, where the original word or language... Third gender was used from the late 19th century to describe people who did not fit into the then existing gender categories: female genitalia = female identity = female behavior = desire male partner male genitalia = male identity = male behavior = desires female partner Today this scheme is also known as binary gender system... This article is about the Male sex. ... An intersexual is a person (or individual of any unisexual species) who is born with genitalia and/or secondary sexual characteristics of indeterminate sex, or which combine features of both sexes. ... For other uses, see Female (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Female (disambiguation). ...

A young khusra (Urdu same meaning as hijra) from Pakistan - as shown on TV

Although they are usually referred to in English as "eunuchs", relatively few have any genital modifications.^[1] A third gender has existed in the subcontinent from the earliest records, and was clearly acknowledged in Vedic culture, throughout the history of Hinduism, as well as in the royal courts of Islamic rulers. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Urdu ( , , trans. ... European illustration of a Eunuch (1749) Chief Eunuch of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II at the Imperial Palace, 1912. ... The Vedic Civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas. ... Hinduism (known as in modern Indian languages[1]) is a religious tradition[2] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... Islam (Arabic: ; ( â–¶ (help· info)), the submission to God) is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions and the worlds second-largest religion. ...

Terminology

The Hindi word "hijra" (alternately romanised as hijira, hijda, hijada, hijara, hijrah) is written as हिजड़ा in devanagari. It has a pronunciation between those of "heejra" and "heejda"; the IPA notation is /hidʒɽa:/. An older name for hijras is kinnar, which is used by some hijra groups as a more respectable and formal term. An abusive slang for hijra in Hindi is chhakka. Hindi ( , Devanagari: or , IAST: , IPA: ), an Indo-European language spoken all over India in varying degrees and extensively in northern and central India, is one of the two central official languages of India, the other being English. ... Rigveda manuscript in Devanagari (early 19th century) DevanāgarÄ« (देवनागरी — in English pronounced ) (ISCII – IS13194:1991) [1] is an abugida alphabet used to write several Indian languages, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Bihari, Bhili, Konkani, Bhojpuri and Nepali from Nepal. ... Articles with similar titles include the NATO phonetic alphabet, which has also informally been called the “International Phonetic Alphabet”. For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words, see IPA chart for English. ... Hindi ( , Devanagari: or , IAST: , IPA: ), an Indo-European language spoken all over India in varying degrees and extensively in northern and central India, is one of the two central official languages of India, the other being English. ...

A number of terms across the culturally and linguistically diverse Indian subcontinent represent similar sex/gender categories. While these are rough synonyms, they may be better understood as separate identities due to regional cultural differences. In Tamil Nadu the equivalent term is aravanni, aravani, or aruvani. In Urdu, both in Pakistan and India, the term khusra is used. Other terms include jankha. Map of South Asia (see note) This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia. ... Synonyms (in ancient Greek, συν (syn) = plus and όνομα (onoma) = name) are different words with similar or identical meanings. ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... Urdu ( , , trans. ...

In South India, the goddess Yellamma is believed to have the power to change one's sex. Male devotees in female clothing are known as Jogappa. They perform similar roles to hijra, such as dancing and singing at birth ceremonies and weddings.^[2] now. ...

The word kothi (or koti) is common across India, although kothis are often distinguished from hijras. Kothis are regarded as feminine males or men/boys who take a feminine role in sex with men, but do not live in the kind of intentional communities that hijras usually live in. Local equivalents include durani (Kolkata), menaka (Cochin),^[3] meti (Nepal), and zenana (Pakistan). An intentional community is a planned residential community designed to promote a much higher degree of social interaction than other communities. ... , “Calcutta” redirects here. ... Cochin may refer to: Cochin China Kingdom of Kochi, a former princely state of India, merged with Travancore to form the State of Kerala Cochin city, the former name of the city of Kochi, in Kerala Hôpital Cochin, a famous hospital in Paris, France Cochin font, from the Adobe...

All of these names are now considered preferable to the English term "eunuch".

Gender and sexuality

These identities have no exact match in the modern Western taxonomy of gender and sexual orientation. Most are born apparently male, but some may be intersex (with ambiguous genitalia). They are often perceived as a third sex, and most see themselves as neither men nor women. However, some may see themselves (or be seen as) females,^[4] feminine males or androgynes. Some, especially those who speak English and are influenced by international discourses around sexual minorities may identify as transgender or transsexual women. Unlike Western transsexual women, hijras generally do not attempt to pass as women. Reportedly, few have genital modifications, although some certainly do, and some consider nirwaan ("castrated") hijras to be the "true" hijras. The gender taxonomy is a classification of the range of different levels at which humans vary in sexual characteristics. ... Sexual orientation refers to the direction of an individuals sexuality, normally conceived of as falling into several significant categories based around the sex or gender that the individual finds attractive. ... This article is about the Male sex. ... An intersexual is a person (or individual of any unisexual species) who is born with genitalia and/or secondary sexual characteristics of indeterminate sex, or which combine features of both sexes. ... Third gender was used from the late 19th century to describe people who did not fit into the then existing gender categories: female genitalia = female identity = female behavior = desire male partner male genitalia = male identity = male behavior = desires female partner Today this scheme is also known as binary gender system... For other uses, see Female (disambiguation). ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... For other uses, see Androgyny (disambiguation). ... A sexual minority is a group whose sexual identity, orientation or practices differ from the majority of the surrounding society. ... A transgender woman at New York Citys gay pride parade Transgender (IPA: , from trans (Latin) and gender (English)) is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies that diverge from the normative gender role (woman or man) commonly, but not always, assigned at... A transsexual (sometimes transexual) person establishes a permanent identity with the opposite gender to their assigned (usually at birth) sex. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

A male who takes a "receptive" or feminine role in sex with a man will often identify as a kothi (or the local equivalent term). While kothis are usually distinguished from hijras as a separate sexual identity, they often dress as women and act in a feminine manner in public spaces, even using feminine language to refer to themselves and each other. The usual partners of hijras and kothis are masculine men, whose sexual identity is as a "normal" male who is attracted to women.^[5] These male partners are often married, and any relationships or sex with kothis or hijras are usually kept secret from the community at large. Some hijras may form relationships with men and even marry,^[6] although their marriage is not usually recognized by law or religion. Hijras and kothis often have a name for these masculine sexual or romantic partners; for example, panthi in Bangladesh, giriya in Delhi or sridhar in Cochin.^[3] Hijras' and kothis' sexual identities may overlap with those of Western transsexuals, but are perhaps closer to the "queens" of pre-Stonewall Western culture with their feminine gender identity. In the context of human sexual behavior, especially anal sex among gay men, a bottom is a receptive partner (i. ... For other uses, see Delhi (disambiguation). ... Cochin may refer to: Cochin China Kingdom of Kochi, a former princely state of India, merged with Travancore to form the State of Kerala Cochin city, the former name of the city of Kochi, in Kerala Hôpital Cochin, a famous hospital in Paris, France Cochin font, from the Adobe... LGBT rights Around the world By country History · Groups · Activists Declaration of Montreal Same-sex relationships Marriage · Adoption Opposition · Discrimination Violence This box:      The Stonewall riots were a series of violent conflicts between New York City police officers and groups of gay and transgender people that began during the early...

Becoming a hijra

Becoming a hijra is a process of socialization into a "hijra family" through a relationship characterised as chela "student" to guru "teacher", leading to a gradual assumption of femininity. Stereotypically each guru lives with at least five chelas; her chelas assume her surname and are considered part of his lineage. Chelas are expected to give their income to their guru, who manages the household. Hijra families are close knit communities, which often have their own houses.

This process may culminate in a religious ritual that includes emasculation (total removal of the penis, testes and scrotum in men). Not all hijras undergo emasculation, and the percentage of hijras that are eunuchs is unknown. The operation—referred to by hijras as a nirvan ("rebirth") and carried out by a dai (traditional midwife)—involves removing the penis and scrotum with a knife without anesthesia. In modern times, some hijras may undergo a vaginoplasty, allowing them sexual fulfillment through vaginal intercourse, but such cases are rare. The American transsexual activist Anne Ogborne became an initiated Hijra a few years ago. She is the first westerner to be a member of the Hijra community. // Midwifery is the term traditionally used to describe the art of assisting a woman through childbirth. ... The penis (plural penises, penes) is an external male sexual organ. ... In some male mammals, the scrotum is a protuberance of skin and muscle containing the testicles. ... Anesthesia or anaesthesia (see spelling differences) has traditionally meant the condition of having the perception of pain and other sensations blocked. ... A vaginoplasty is any surgical operation with the aim of correcting structural defects in the vagina or even to construct or reconstruct it. ...

Social status and making a living

Most hijras live at the margins of society with very low status; the very word "hijra" is sometimes used in a derogatory manner. Few employment opportunities are available to hijras. Many get their income from performing at ceremonies, begging, or prostitution — an occupation of eunuchs also recorded in premodern times. Violence against hijras, especially hijra sex workers, is often brutal, and occurs in public spaces, police stations, prisons, and their homes.^[7] As with transgender people in most of the world, they face extreme discrimination in health, housing, education, employment, immigration, law, and any bureaucracy that is unable to place them into male or female gender categories. One hijra reports waiting in the emergency room of a hospital for hours while medical staff debated whether to admit her to the men's or women's ward. Whore redirects here. ... A transgender woman at New York Citys gay pride parade Transgender (IPA: , from trans (Latin) and gender (English)) is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies that diverge from the normative gender role (woman or man) commonly, but not always, assigned at...

Hijras have earned an income from the Indian government for collecting taxes from the villages and cities, the most effective method ever employed by the India government in collecting taxes still used in some cities.^{[citation needed]}

Hijras are often encountered on streets, trains, and other public places demanding money from young men. If refused, the hijra may attempt to embarrass the man into giving money, using obscene gestures, profane language, and even sexual advances. Hijras also perform religious ceremonies at weddings and at the birth of male babies, involving music, singing, and sexually suggestive dancing. These are intended to bring good luck and fertility. Although the hijra are most often uninvited, the host usually pays the hijras a fee. Many fear the hijras' curse if they are not appeased, bringing bad luck or infertility, but for the fee they receive, they can bless goodwill and fortune on to the newly born. Hijras are said to be able to do this because, since they do not engage in sexual activities, they accumulate their sexual energy which they can use to either bestow a boon or a bane. Look up Profanity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Nuptial is the adjective of wedding. It is used for example in zoology to denote plumage, coloration, behavior, etc related to or occurring in the mating season. ... Fertility is the natural capability of giving life. ...

Politics and activism

Many modern hijras, faced with health concerns and discrimination, have become politically active. For example, the All-India Eunuchs’ Welfare Association was formed in 1993-94, as well as HIV/AIDS awareness groups to combat health problems within their communities. One such group is the Dai Welfare Society, a mutual aid society formed in 1999 in Mumbai by and for hijras. The group estimate that half of hijras living in Mumbai have HIV.^[8] Another group is the Hijra Kalyan Sabha. Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ... For other uses, see AIDS (disambiguation). ... A benefit society or mutual aid society is an organization or voluntary association formed to provide mutual aid, benefit or insurance for relief from sundried difficulties. ...

Other hijras have been elected to high political positions; Shabnam Mausi became India's first hijra MLA in 1999 (as an independent), only 5 years since hijras have been able to vote.^[9] Another hijra, Kamla Jaan, was elected as mayor of Katni, while another, Meenabai, became the president of the Sehora town municipality, the oldest civic body in the state of Madhya Pradesh.^[10] In 2005, 24-year-old hijra Sonia Ajmeri ran for state assembly on an independent ticket to represent the estimated 40,000 eunuchs in Gujarat. The wave of hijras entering politics has not been without controversy. In November of 2000, Asha Devi was elected mayor of Gorakhpur, a post reserved for a woman. The city had a population of approximately 500,000 as of 1991. She was unseated when a court decreed that she was a man,^[11] but was later reinstated. Shabnam Mausi () is the first Indian Transgendered or Hijra (South Asia) to be elected to the Lok Sabha - Indias Legislative Assembly. ... , Katni (also known as Murwara or Mudwara) is a town in the banks of the Katni River in Madhya Pradesh state of central India. ... , Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP)   (HindÄ«: मध्य प्रदेश, English: , IPA: ), often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. ... This article is for the Indian state. ... Gorakhpur (Hindi: गोरखपुर, Urdu: Ú¯Û‹Ú™Ú©Ú¾ پور) is a city in the eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh in India. ...

Commonly Hijra-rights groups also support gay rights issues in the Indian subcontinent, but this is a newly-emerging situation. The gay rights movement is a collection of loosely aligned civil rights groups, human rights groups, support groups and political activists seeking acceptance, tolerance and equality for non-heterosexual, (homosexual, bisexual), and transgender people - despite the fact that it is typically referred to as the gay rights movement, members also...

History

The ancient Kama Sutra mentions the performance of fellatio by masculine and feminine people of a third sex (tritiya prakriti).^[12] This passage has been variously interpreted as referring to men who desired other men, so-called eunuchs ("those disguised as males, and those that are disguised as females"^[13]), male and female transvestites ("the male takes on the appearance of a female and the female takes on the appearance of the male"),^[14] or two kinds of biological males, one dressed as a woman, the other as a man.^[15] For other uses, see Kama Sutra (disambiguation). ... Fellatio is oral sex performed upon the male human penis. ...

In Islamic societies, they were associated with the ruling class and hired as court eunuchs. This practice became uncommon as late as the 1950s. European illustration of a Eunuch (1749) Chief Eunuch of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II at the Imperial Palace, 1912. ... The 1950s decade refers to the years 1950 to 1959 inclusive. ...

During the era of the British raj, authorities attempted to eradicate hijras, which they saw as "a breach of public decency".^[16] Anti-hijra laws were repealed; but a law outlawing castration, a central part of the hijra community, was left intact, though rarely enforced. Anthem God Save The King The British Indian Empire, 1909 Capital Calcutta (until 1912), New Delhi (after 1912) Language(s) Hindustani, English and many others Government Monarchy Emperor of India  - 1858-1901 Victoria¹  - 1901-1910 Edward VII  - 1910-1936 George V  - 1936 Edward VIII  - 1936-1947 George VI Viceroy²  - 1858...

Hijras and religion

In Hindu contexts, hijras belong to a special caste. They are usually devotees of the mother goddess Bahuchara Mata, and/or Shiva. Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social restriction and social stratification, enforced by law or common practice, based on endogamy, occupation, economic status, race, ethnicity, // 1555, a race of men, from L. casto chaste, from castus pure, cut off, separated, pp. ... Bahuchara Mata is a Hindu goddess, patroness of—and worshipped by—the hijra community in India. ... For other uses, see Siva (disambiguation). ...

In Tamil Nadu each year in April/May, hijras — or aravanis, as they are called there — celebrate an 18-day religious festival. The aravani temple is located in the village Koovagam in the Ulundurpet taluk in Villupuram district, and is devoted to the deity Koothandavar. During the festival, the aravanis reenact a story of the religious epic Mahabharata: the mythical wedding of Lord Krishna (who had assumed the form of a woman) and Lord Aravaan, son of Arjuna, followed by Aravaan's subsequent sacrifice. They then mourn Aravaan's death through ritualistic dances and by breaking their bangles. An annual beauty pageant is also held, as well as various health and HIV/AIDS seminars. Hijras from all over the country travel to this festival. A personal subjective experience of the hijras in this festival is shown in the documentary India's Ladyboys, by BBC Three. Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... Koovagam is a village in the Ulundurpet taluk in Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu. ... A Tehsil is an administrative subdivision or tier of local government in some South Asian countries. ... Villupuram is an administrative district in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. ... For the film by Peter Brook, see The Mahabharata (1989 film). ... This article is about the Hindu deity. ... For other uses, please see Arjun. ... Bangles in Laad Bazaar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. ... BBC Three, the successor to the similar BBC Choice, is a British television channel from the BBC broadcasting only on digital cable, terrestrial and satellite. ...

Documentaries

• Jareena, Portrait of a Hijda (1990) [1]
• The Hijras: India's Third Gender (2001) [2]
• India's Ladyboys (2003) [3]
• Between the Lines: India's Third Gender (2005) [4]
• Middle sexes HBO documentary includes segment on modern Hijda (2005) [5]
• The Hijras of India BBC radio documentary [6]

Hijras in Indian films

Hijras have been on screen in Indian cinema since its inception, historically as comic relief. A notable turning point occurred in 1974 when real Hijras appeared in a song and dance sequence in Kunwaara Baap ("Virgin Father"). There are also Hijras in the Hindi movie Amar Akbar Anthony (1977). They accompany one of the heroes, Akbar (Rishi Kapoor), in a song entitled "Tayyab Ali Pyar Ka Dushman" ("Tayyab Ali, the Enemy of Love"). One of the first sympathetic portrayals was in Mani Ratnam's Bombay (1995). 1997's Tamanna starred male actor Paresh Rawal in a central role as Tiku, a hijra who raises a young orphan. Pooja Bhatt produced and also starred in the movie, with her father Mahesh Bhatt co-writing and directing. Hijras are also seen in the 2005 Deepa Mehta film Water, about another group of outcasts, the widows of Varanasi. There is a brief appearance in the 2004 Gurinder Chadha film Bride & Prejudice, with hijras singing to a bride-to-be in the marketplace. There's also a loose reference in Deepha Mehta's "Bollywood/Hollywood" in the guise of Rocky/Rokini. The Indian film industry is the largest in the world in terms of the ticket sales and the number of films produced annually (877 feature films and 1177 short films were released in the year 2003 alone). ... Comic relief is the inclusion of a humorous character or scene or witty dialogue in an otherwise serious work, often to relieve tension. ... Kunwara Baap is a 1974 Hindi movie produced by Amarlal Chabria and directed by Mehmood. ... Amar Akbar Anthony is an Indian movie about three brothers separated in childhood who grow up under three different religions. ... Mani Ratnam (Tamil: ) (born June 2, 1956) is a critically acclaimed Tamil Indian film director, writer and producer. ... This article is about the film. ... Paresh Rawal (b. ... Pooja Bhatt Pooja Bhatt (born February 24, 1972) is an Indian film actress, producer and director. ... Mahesh Bhatt (was born on September 20, 1949 in Bombay, India) is a prominent Indian film director, producer and writer, and is the father of film actress Pooja Bhatt. ... Deepa Mehta ( दीपा मेहता ),(born 1950 in Amritsar Punjab, India) is a controversial Indian-Canadian film director and screenwriter who is based in Toronto and Delhi. ... Water is an Academy Award-nominated Canadian 2005 film directed and written by Deepa Mehta. ... , Vārāasī ( , Hindi: , IPA: ), also known as Benares, Banaras, or Benaras ( , Hindi: , , IPA: ), or Kashi or Kasi ( , Hindi: , ), is a famous Hindu holy city situated on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Image:Gurinder Chadha. ... Movie poster for Bride and Prejudice Bride and Prejudice is a 2004 movie directed by Gurinder Chadha. ...

In 2005, a fiction feature film titled 'Shabnam Mausi' was made on the life of an eunuch politician of the same name (see Shabnam Mausi). It was directed by Yogesh Bharadwaj, and the title role was played by Ashutosh Rana. Shabnam Mausi () is the first Indian Transgendered or Hijra (South Asia) to be elected to the Lok Sabha - Indias Legislative Assembly. ... Ashutosh Rana is an Indian actor working in the Bollywood film industry. ...

See also

• Evening people
• List of transgender-related topics
• Two-Spirit

The evening people of India are males who choose to live a life in which they dress and otherwise comport themselves in a way intermediate between the ways that typical men and women dress and act. ... Transgender is a very complex topic, where consensual and precise definitions have not yet been reached. ... Berdache (from French, from Arabic bardajo meaning kept boy) is a generic term used by some for a third gender (woman-living-man) among many, if not most, Native American tribes. ...

References

1. Neither Man Nor Woman: The Hijras of India by Serena Nanda. Wadsworth Publishing, 1998. (ISBN 0-534-50903-7)
2. Lovemaps, p. 106, by John Money. Irvington Publishers, Inc., 1988. (ISBN 0-87975-456-7)
3. Myself Mona Ahmed. by Dayanita Singh (Photographer) and Mona Ahmed. Scalo Publishers (September 15, 2001). ISBN 3-908247-46-2
4. The Third sex and Human Rights, by Rajesh Talwar. Gyan Publishing House, 1999. ISBN 81-212-0266-3
5. Gendered Bodies: The Case of the ‘Third Gender’ in India, by Anuja Agrawal, in 'Contributions to Indian Sociology', n.s., 31 (1997): 273–97
6. Hijras: Who We Are, by Meena Balaji and other Eunuchs as told to Ruth Lor Malloy. Toronto, Think Asia Publisher. 1997.

Footnotes

1. ^ According Mumbai health organisation The Humsafar Trust, only 8% of hijras visiting their clinic are nirwaan (castrated).
2. ^ Bradford, Nicholas J. 1983. "Transgenderism and the Cult of Yellamma: Heat, Sex, and Sickness in South Indian Ritual." Journal of Anthropological Research 39 (3): 307-22.
3. ^ ^{a b} Naz Foundation International, Briefing Paper 3: Developing community-based sexual health services for males who have sex with males in South Asia. August 1999. Paper online (Microsoft Word file).
4. ^ "Don't call us eunuchs or Hijras or by other 'names'. We like ourselves to be called as females....Yes we are transgendered females," says Aasha Bharathi, president of Tamil Nadu Aravanigal Association. Reported in Aravanis get a raw deal, by M. Bhaskar Sai, The News Today, November 27, 2005.
5. ^ See, for example, In Their Own Words: The Formulation of Sexual and Reproductive Health Behaviour Among Young Men in Bangladesh, Shivananda Khan, Sharful Islam Khan and Paula E. Hollerbach, for the Catalyst Consortium.
6. ^ See, for example, various reports of Sonia Ajmeri's marriage. e.g. 'Our relationship is sacred', despardes.com
7. ^ Ravaging the Vulnerable: Abuses Against Persons at High Risk of HIV Infection in Bangladesh, Human Rights Watch, August 2003. Report online.
   See also: Peoples Union of Civil Liberties (Karnataka) Report on Human Rights Violations Against the Transgender Community, released in September 2003. Reported in Being a Eunuch, By Siddarth Narrain, for Frontline, 14 October, 2003.
8. ^ The Dying of The Evening Stars VI, by Sonia Faleiro. Published in Tehelka, October 28, 2005.
9. ^ Shabnam Mausi. The Body (December 2001). Retrieved on June 5, 2006.
10. ^ Shabnam Mausi. Malika's Indian Transgender Palace. Retrieved on June 5, 2006.
11. ^ http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/may/13up.htm
12. ^ Kama Sutra, Chapter IX, Of the Auparishtaka or Mouth Congress. Text online (Richard Burton translation).
13. ^ Richard Burton's 1883 translation
14. ^ Artola, George (1975). The Transvestite in Sanskrit Story and Drama. Annals of Oriental Research 25: 56-68.
15. ^ Sweet, Michael J and Zwilling, Leonard (1993) The First Medicalization: The Taxonomy and Etiology of Queerness in Classical Indian Medicine. Journal of the History of Sexuality 3. p. 600
16. ^ Preston, Laurence W. 1987. A Right to Exist: Eunuchs and the State in Nineteenth-Century India. Modern Asian Studies 21 (2): 371-87

Castration (also referred as: gelding, neutering, orchiectomy, orchidectomy, and oophorectomy) is any action, surgical, chemical, or otherwise, by which a male loses the functions of the testes or a female loses the functions of the ovaries. ... Microsoft Word is Microsofts flagship word processing software. ... The News Today is an English evening daily newspaper in Chennai, India. ... Human Rights Watch Banner Human Rights Watch is a United States-based international non-government organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. ... Tehelka is an Indian weekly newspaper under the editorship of Tarun Tejpal. ... is the 156th day of the year (157th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 156th day of the year (157th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Kama Sutra (disambiguation). ...

External links

• Human Rights Violations against the Transgender Community, summary of a 2003 report by the Peoples’ Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka

• Aamr C. Bakshi of The Washington Post on Pakistan Drag Queen talk show host Begum Nawazish Ali

Collected BBC articles on Hijras

• India's eunuchs demand rights, BBC News, 4 September 2003
• Hijras on glbtq.com
• Collected Information About the Eunuchs of India Known as the Hijra
• The Works on Hijra in Indian Sub-Continent - Photographs (Link to most recent archived version at Archive.org.)
• In From the Outside, Timeasia.com, 18 September 2000.
• The Hijras of India Research Guide
• Why are Indian eunuchs warned about unsafe sex?
• World Press: Pakistan's Hijras
• Columbia University: Magical Stories of the Hijras
• Islamic Hijras
• Sangama - Leading Hijra Human Rights Organisation in India
• Neelam and Laxmi - Portraits of hijras living in Mumbai (2005), by journalist and author Sonia Faleiro
• Eunuch MP takes seat - BBC world news- News on Shabnam Mausi, Hijra MP