The name Bahrain comes from Arabic Bahárayn, literally meaning 'two seas', which is thought to be an inaccurate folk etymology for the much older, non-Semitic term, Bahran; according to some scholars Bahran originates from Varahrdn, the later form of the old Avestan Verethragna - a Zoroastrian divinity that is the hypostasis of victory. In linguistics and ethnology, Semitic (from the Biblical Shem, Hebrew: שם, translated as name, Arabic: سام) was first used to refer to a language family of largely Middle Eastern origin, now called the Semitic languages. ... Vahrām or Bahrām (modern Persian, var: Behrām; middle Persian: Warahran) is the Zoroastrian concept of victory over resistance and, as the hypostasis of victory, is one of the principal figures in the Zoroastrian pantheon of yazatas. ... Avestan is an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the Zoroastrian Avesta. ... In linguistics, a hypostasis, from the Greek word ὑπόστασις [1] meaning foundation, base or that which stands behind is a relationship between a name and a known quantity, as a cultural personification (i. ...

[edit] The Dilmun era

Main article: Dilmun

The history of Bahrain goes back more than five thousand years to its role as the centre of the ancient civilisation of Dilmun, which dominated the trade routes between Sumer and the Indus Valley. For the history of Bahrain until the arrival of Islam in the 7th century, see Dilmun. Dilmun (sometimes transliterated Telmun) is associated with ancient sites on the islands of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. ... Dilmun (sometimes transliterated Telmun) is associated with ancient sites on the islands of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. ... Sumer (or Å umer) was the earliest known civilization of the ancient Near East, located in the southern part of Mesopotamia (southeastern Iran) from the time of the earliest records in the mid 4th millennium BC until the rise of Babylonia in the late 3rd millennium BC. The term Sumerian applies... The Indus (सिन्‍धु नदी) (known as Sindhu in ancient times) is the principal river of Pakistan. ... Islam (Arabic:  ) is a monotheistic religion based upon the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. ... The 7th century is the period from 601 - 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... Dilmun (sometimes transliterated Telmun) is associated with ancient sites on the islands of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. ...

In the first century AD, Bahrain was referred to by the Greeks as "Tylos", the centre of pearl trading, when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. The town of Muharraq was referred to as "Arados" (now there is "Arad" in Muharraq) (Larsen, p. 13). Nearchus (or Nearchos) was one of the officers in the army of Alexander the Great. ... Alexander the Great (Greek: ,[1] Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC–June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history. ... Categories: Middle East geography stubs | Bahrain ... Arad may refer to: the following places in the Transylvania Arad, Romania, the main city of Arad County. ...

While Bahrain was never incorporated into the Roman Empire it did become a centre for Christianity(Larsen, p107): : church records show that Bahrain was the seat of two of the five Nestorian bishoprics existing on the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf at the time of the arrival of Islam. It is uncertain when the two bishoprics were dissolved though they are known to have survived until 835. Nestorian Christianity left its traces in Muharraq, and Christian names, like the village of Dair (ie parish), Samahij (used to be the name of a bishop) remain until today. Muharraq was also the centre of the worship for the cult of Awal, and between the end of Tylos and the arrival of Islam, Bahrain was known by this term(Larsen, p108). Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. ... The term Nestorianism is eponymous, even though the person who lent his name to it always denied the associated belief. ... Note: This article contains special characters. ... A representation of Awal AWAL Absent Without Authorized Leave. ...

[edit] The arrival of Islam

Khamis Mosque, believed to have been built in the 7th century AD

From the time when Islam emerged in the seventh century till the early sixteenth century, the name Bahrain referred to the wider historical region of Bahrain stretching from Basrah to the Strait of Hormuz along the Persian Gulf coast. This was Iqlīm al-Baḥrayn, i.e. the Province of Bahrain, and the Arab inhabitants of the province were descendants of the Arab tribe Bani Abd al-Qais. This larger Bahrain comprised three regions: Hajar (present day Al-Hasa in Saudi Arabia), Al-Khatt (present day Al-Qatif in Saudi Arabia) and Awal (present day Bahrain). The name Awal remained in use, probably, for eight centuries. Awal was derived from the name of an idol that used to be worshipped before Islam by the inhabitants of the islands. The centre of the Awal cult was Muharraq. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Khamis Mosque, Bahrain The Khamis Mosque (Arabic: مسجد الخميس; transliterated: Masjid al-Khamys) is believed to be the first mosque in Bahrain, built during the era of the Umayyad caliph Umar II. The identical twin minarets of this ancient Islamic monument make it easily noticeable as one drives along the Shaikh Salman... Bahrain (Arabic: ‎ ) is a historical region in eastern Arabia that was known as the Province of Bahrain (Arabic: ‎ ) unitl the 16th century. ... Location of Basra Basra (also known as Başrah or Basara; historically sometimes called Busra, Busrah, and early on Bassorah; Arabic: البصرة, Al-Basrah) is the second largest city of Iraq with an estimated population of about 1,377,000 in 2003. ... Historical map of the area (1892) Map Of Strait of Hormuz Satellite image The Strait of Hormuz (Arabic: ‎, Persian: ‎) is a narrow, strategically important stretch of ocean between the Gulf of Oman in the southeast and the Persian Gulf in the southwest. ... Map of the Persian Gulf. ... Ash Sharqiyah, known as Eastern Province is the largest province of Saudi Arabia, located in the east of the country on the coasts of the Persian Gulf, and has borders with Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen. ... Qatif is a coastal oasis located on the western bank of the Persian Gulf and covering large area consisting of many villages and cities like Saihat, Safwa, Tarut Island and many other towns. ... A representation of Awal AWAL Absent Without Authorized Leave. ... Categories: Middle East geography stubs | Bahrain ...

Bahrainis were amongst the first to embrace Islam. Mohammed ruled Bahrain through one of his representatives, Al-Ala'a Al-Hadhrami. Bahraini embraced Islam in 629 (the seventh year of hijra). Al Khamis Mosque, founded in 692, was one of the earliest mosques built in Bahrain, in the era of Umayyad caliph Umar II. Al-Alaa Al-Hadrami (Arabic: العلاء بن الحضرمي) was an envoy sent by Muhammad in the 7th century AD, to spread the message of Islam to the region that is now Bahrain and Qatar. ... Events Jerusalem reconquered by Byzantine Empire from the Persian Empire (September). ... Khamis Mosque, Bahrain The Khamis Mosque (Arabic: مسجد الخميس; transliterated: Masjid al-Khamys) is believed to be the first mosque in Bahrain, built during the era of the Umayyad caliph Umar II. The identical twin minarets of this ancient Islamic monument make it easily noticeable as one drives along the Shaikh Salman... The Masjid al-Haram in Mecca as it exists today A mosque is a place of worship for followers of the Islamic faith. ... The Courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, one of the grandest architectural legacies of the Umayyads. ... Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (c. ...

The expansion of Islam did not affect Bahrain's reliance on trade, and its prosperity continued to be dependent on markets in Mesopotamia. After Baghdad emerged as the seat of the caliph in 750 and the main centre of Islamic civilization, Bahrain greatly benefited from the city's increased demand for foreign goods especially from China and South Asia. Baghdad (Arabic: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... For main article see: Caliphate Khalif is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, or global Islamic nation. ...

Bahrain became a principal centre of knowledge for hundreds of years stretching from the early days of Islam in the sixth century to the eighteenth century. Philosophers of Bahrain were highly esteemed, such as the 13th Century mystic, Sheikh Maitham Al-Bahrani (died in 1299). (The mosque of Sheikh Maitham together with his tomb can be visited in the outskirts of the capital, Manama, near the district of Mahooz). Bahrain from space, June 1996 Manama (Arabic: المنامة Al-Manāmah) is the capital city of Bahrain and is the countrys largest city with a population of approximately 155,000, roughly a quarter of countrys entire population. ...

[edit] al-Qaramita

Main article: Qarmatians

In the end of the third Hijri century, Abu Sa'id al-Hasan al-Janaby led the Revolution of al-Qaramita, a rebellion by a messianic Ismaili sect originating in Baghdad. Al-Janaby took over the city of Hajr, Bahrain's capital in that time, in addition to al-Hasa, which he made the capital of his nation and sought to create a utopian society. The Qarmatians (from Arabic qaramita قرامطة, also spelled Carmathians, Qarmathians, Karmathians etc. ... The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar is the calendar used to date events in predominately Muslim countries, and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Muslim holy days. ... The Qarmatians (from Arabic qaramita قرامطة, also spelled Carmathians, Qarmathians, Karmathians etc. ... The MIAs logo. ... The Ismāʿīlī (Urdu: اسماعیلی Ismāʿīlī, Arabic: الإسماعيليون al-Ismāʿīliyyūn; Persian: اسماعیلیان Esmāʿīliyān) branch of Islam is the second largest part of the Shīa community, after the Twelvers (Ithnāʿashariyya). ... Ash Sharqiyah, known as Eastern Province is the largest province of Saudi Arabia, located in the east of the country on the coasts of the Persian Gulf, and has borders with Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen. ... See Utopia (disambiguation) for other meanings of this word Utopia, in its most common and general meaning, refers to a hypothetical perfect society. ...

The Qarmatians' goal in Bahrain was to build a society based on reason, tolerance and equality. All property within the community was distributed evenly among all intiates. The Qarmatians were organized as an esoteric society but not as a secret one. Their activities were public and openly propagated, but new member had to undergo an initiation ceremony involving seven stages, similar to the system of Mithraism. The Qarmatian world view was one where every phenomena repeated itself in cycles, where every incident was replayed over and over again. Etymology Esoteric is an adjective originating during Hellenic Greece under the domain of the Roman Empire; it comes from the Greek esôterikos, from esôtero, the comparative form of esô: within. It is a word meaning anything that is inner and occult, a latinate word meaning hidden (from which... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

From Bahrain, the Qarmatians raided Baghdad and sacked Mecca and Medina in 930. The sacking of Islam's holiest sites saw the Qarmatians desecrate the Well of Zamzam with corpses of Hajj pilgrims and take the Black Stone from Mecca to Bahrain. The sack of Mecca followed millenarian excitement among the Qarmatians (as well as in Persia) over the conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in 928. Bahrain became the seat of the Qarmatian Mahdi-Caliph from Isfahan who abolished Sharīa law. The new Mahdi also changed the qibla of prayer from Mecca to that of fire, a specifically Zoroastrian practice. The Well of Zamzam (or the Zamzam Well, or just Zamzam; Arabic: زمزم) is a well located within the Masjid al Haram in Mecca, near the Kaaba, the holiest place in Islam. ... The Black Stone, surrounded by its silver frame and the black cloth kiswa on the Kaaba in Mecca This article is about the Islamic holy relic. ... Millenarianism (sometimes spelled millenarism or millennarism) is the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a coming major transformation of society after which all things will be changed in a positive (or sometimes negative or ambiguous) direction. ... Sharia (Arabic: transliteration: ) is the body of Islamic law. ... Facing the Qibla at a prayer in Damascus The geometrical calculation of Qibla Qibla () is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays. ... Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra, Zartosht). ...

For much of the tenth century the Bahraini Ismailis were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf and Middle East, controlling the coast of Oman and collected tribute from the caliph in Baghdad as well as from a rival Ismaili Abbasid imam in Cairo, whom they did not recognize. They were eventually defeated in battle in 976 by the Abbasids, which precipitated the waning of Qarmatian power and by the twelfth century the Ismailis had virtually disappeared from the entire Persian Gulf. Abbasid Caliphate (Abbasid Khalifat) and contemporary states and empires in 820. ... Events January 10 - Basil II becomes Eastern Roman Emperor, see Byzantine Emperors. ... Abbasid provinces during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid Abbasid was the dynastic name generally given to the caliphs of Baghdad, the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of the Muslim empire. ...

In the sixth hijri century, Genghis Khan, the Emperor of Mongol Empire took over Bahrain. It was taken over by Hulagu Khan around a hundred years later. When Hulagu died, Bahrain was liberated from the Mongol Empire. For other uses, see Genghis Khan (disambiguation). ... Expansion of the Mongol Empire Another picture of Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: Их Монгол Улс, literally meaning Greater Mongol Nation; 1206–1405) was the largest contiguous land empire in history, covering over 33 million km² [1] (12 million square miles) at its peak, with an estimated population of over 100 million... Hulagu Khan (also known as Hülegü, , Hulegu and Halaku) (1217 – 8 February 1265) was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. ...

[edit] Portuguese invasions and Persian influence

Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early sixteenth century following Vasco da Gama's voyages of exploration saw them battle the Ottomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. Reputedly, the first Portuguese traveller to visit Bahrain was Duarte Barbosa in 1485. Vasco da Gama Dom Vasco da Gama, 1st count da Vidigueira (IPA: (Sines or Vidigueira, Alentejo, Portugal, ca. ... The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power Imperial motto El Muzaffer Daima The Ever Victorious (as written in tugra) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital İstanbul ( Constantinople/Asitane/Konstantiniyye ) Sovereigns Sultans of the Osmanli Dynasty Population ca 40 million Area 12+ million km² Establishment 1299 Dissolution October 29... Map of the Persian Gulf. ... Duarte Barbosa was a Portuguese writer and trader. ...

The Arabian navigator, Ahmad Bin Majid, visited Bahrain in 1489 and gave a contemporary account of the country that the first Portuguese would have seen: "In Awal (Bahrain) there are 360 villages and sweet water can be found in a number of places. A most wonderful al-Qasasir, where a man can dive into the salt sea with a skin and can fill it with fresh water while he is submerged in the salt water. Around Bahrain are pearl fisheries and a number of islands all of which have pearl fisheries and connected with this trade are 1,000 ships". This article needs to be wikified. ...

In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commander Antonio Correia invaded Bahrain to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. The defeated King Muqrin was beheaded after Correia defeated his forces near present day Karbabad and took control of the fort "Qala'at Al-Bahrain". The bleeding head of King Muqrin was later depicted on the Coat of Arms of Antonio Correia. Qalat al–Bahrain (also known as the Bahrain Fort or Portugese fort) is an archaeological site and historic fort located in Bahrain. ...

The Portuguese ruled through brutal force against the inhabitants for eighty years, until they were driven out of the island in 1602, when an uprising was sparked by the governor's order of the execution of the island's richest traders. The uprising coincided with regional disputes between the Portuguese and rival European powers. The power vacuum that resulted was almost immediately filled by the Persian ruler, Shah Abbas I, whose general Allahverdi Khan invaded the island and subsumed it within the Safavid Empire. Shah Abbas I (شاه عباس اول) (January 27, 1571?-January 19, 1629?) was the most eminent ruler of the Safavid Dynasty. ... Allahverdi Khan (died June 3, 1613) was an Iranian general and statesman of Georgian origin who, although initially a private ghulām (slave) soldier, rose to high office in the Safavid state. ... The Safavids were a long-lasting Turkic-speaking Iranian dynasty that ruled from 1501 to 1736 and first established Shiite Islam as Persias official religion. ...

[edit] The Al Khalifa and the British treaties

In 1783, the Al Khalifa clan (of the Bani Utub tribe) invaded and captured Bahrain from their base in Zubara in neighbouring Qatar. The leader of the clan at the time was Ahmad ibn Mohammed Al Khalifa who is now referred to as Ahmed Al Fateh ("Ahmed the Conqueror"). In 1799 the Al Khalifa were evicted from Bahrain to be replaced first by the rule of the Sultanate of Oman and then the Wahhabis. The Al Khalifa regained control of the country in 1811 when they launched another attack from Zubara With Baluch's (Al Bloush). The Al-Khalifa dynasty is the ruling family of Bahrain. ... The Bani Utub (or Bani Utbah, or Utoob) is an Arab tribe originally from the region of Najd in central Arabia. ... An important trading port and town on Qatars west coast. ... Wahhabism (sometimes spelled Wahabbism or Wahabism) is a movement of Islam named after Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab (1703–1792). ...

In 1820 the Al Khalifa signed the General Treaty of Peace with the British, agreeing not to engage in piracy unless they were in a state of war. A binding treaty of protection, known as the Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship, was concluded in 1861, ushering in the period of colonialism in Bahrain, and was further revised in 1892 and 1951. This treaty was similar to those entered into by the British Government with the other Persian Gulf principalities. It specified that the ruler could not dispose of any of his territory except to the United Kingdom and could not enter into relationships with any foreign government without British consent. In return the British promised to protect Bahrain from all aggression by sea and to lend support in case of land attack. More importantly the treaty the British promised to support the rule of the Al Khalifa in Bahrain, securing its unstable position as rulers of the country. The Al-Khalifa dynasty is the ruling family of Bahrain. ... 1861 (MDCCCLXI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link with display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar) // January 1 - Benito Juárez captures Mexico City January 2 - Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia dies and is succeeded by... It has been suggested that Benign colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... 1892 (MDCCCXCII) was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1951 (MCMLI) was a common year starting on Monday; see its calendar. ... Map of the Persian Gulf. ... The Al-Khalifa dynasty is the ruling family of Bahrain. ...

Bahrain underwent a period of major social reform between 1926 and 1957, under the de facto rule of Charles Belgrave, the British advisor to Shaikh Hamad ibn Isa Al-Khalifa (1872-1942). The country's first modern school was established in 1919, with the opening of the Al-Hiddaya Boys School, while the Persian Gulf's first girls school opened in 1928. The American Mission Hospital, established by the Dutch Reform Church, began work in 1903. Other reforms include the abolition of slavery, while the pearl diving industry developed at a rapid pace. Charles Dalrymple Belgrave was a British citizen and adviser to the rulers of Bahrain from 1926 until 1957. ... Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa (1872-1942) was the ruler of Bahrain from 1932 until his death in 1942. ... The Dutch Reformed village church of St. ... Slave redirects here. ...

These reforms were often opposed vigorously by powerful groups within Bahrain including sections within the ruling family, tribal forces, the religious authorities and merchants. In order to counter conservatives, the British removed the Emir, Isa bin Ali Al Khalifa, replacing him with his son in 1923. Some Sunni tribes such as the al Dossari were forcibly removed from Bahrain and sent to mainland Arabia, while clerical opponents of social reforms were exiled to Saudi and Iran, and the heads of some merchant and notable families were likewise exiled. The Britain’s interest in pushing Bahrain’s development was motivated by concerns about Saudi-Wahabbi and Iranian ambitions. Shaikh Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa (1848 – 1932) was the ruler of Bahrain from 1869 until his death. ...

[edit] The discovery of oil and the Leftist movement

The discovery of oil in 1932 made Bahrain the first location in the Persian Gulf to have oil wells sunk. Oil production required thousands of workers, attracting peasants as well as enfranchised slaves who had become free men thanks to the end of slavery and debt bondage. As the first oil wells were being drilled, the pearl diving industry, hitherto the main source of income for the country, collapsed because of competition from cultured pearls produced in Japan. This provided a further pool of labour needed by the new oil industry. It was the bringing together of all these disperate groups that prompted the emergence of an indigenous working class and the Leftist politics they adopted was to have important repercussions for the development of Bahraini society over the next fifty years. First Oil Well, Bahrain As its name suggests, it is the first oil well in the Gulf and is located in Bahrain. ... Map of the Persian Gulf. ... A cultured pearl is a pearl created by a pearl farmer under controlled conditions. ... The term working class is used to denote a social class. ... In politics, left-wing, political left, leftism, or simply the left, are terms which refer (with no particular precision) to the segment of the political spectrum typically associated with any of several strains of socialism, social democracy, or liberalism (especially in the American sense of the word), or with opposition...

During the Second World War, Bahrain fought on the side of the Allies, declaring war on Germany on September 10, 1939. It was a key base for the allies to safeguard oil supplies in the Persian Gulf and was the subject of Italian air raids on its oil refineries on October 20, 1940 from bases in East Africa. Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ...

The National Union Committee (NUC), a Leftist Nationalist movement associated with the labor unions, was formed in 1954 calling for the end of British interference and political reforms. Work sites were plagued with frequent strikes and occasional riots (including several fatalities) during this period. Following riots in support of Egypt defending itself against the tripartite invasion during 1956 Suez Crisis, the British decided to put an end to the NUC challenge to their presence in Bahrain. The NUC and its offshoots were declared illegal. Its leaders were arrested, tried and imprisoned. Some fled the country while others were forcibly deported. Combatants Israel United Kingdom France Egypt Commanders Moshe Dayan Charles Keightley Pierre Barjot Gamal Abdel Nasser Abdel Hakim Amer Strength 175,000 Israeli 45,000 British 34,000 French 70,000 Casualties 197 Israeli KIA 56 British KIA 91 British WIA 10 French KIA 43 French WIA 650 KIA 2...

Strikes and riots continued during the 1960s, now under the leadership of underground cells of the NUC, namely the Communist National Liberation Front and the Bahraini section of the Arab Nationalist Movement. This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... National Liberation Front - Bahrain, is a communist party in Bahrain. ... The Arab Nationalist Movement (Harakat al-Qawmiyyin al-Arab), also known as the Movement of Arab Nationalists and the Harakiyyin, was a pan-Arab nationalist organization influential in much of the Arab world, most famously so within the Palestinian movement. ...

[edit] Independence and the constitutional experiment

After World War II, Bahrain became the centre for British administration of the lower Persian Gulf. In 1968, when the British Government announced its decision to end the treaty relationships with the Persian Gulf sheikdoms, Bahrain joined with Qatar and the seven Trucial States (which now form the United Arab Emirates) under British protection in an effort to form a union of Arab emirates. By mid-1971, however, the nine sheikhdoms still had not agreed on the terms of union. Accordingly, Bahrain sought independence as a separate entity and became fully independent on August 15, 1971, as the State of Bahrain. Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Year 1968 (MCMLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar) of the 1968 Gregorian calendar. ... UAE redirects here; for other uses of that term, see UAE (disambiguation) The United Arab Emirates is an oil-rich country situated in the south-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Southwest Asia, comprising seven emirates: Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al-Quwain. ...

The emirate emerged just as the price of oil sky rocketted after the 1973 Arab-Israeli war; while Bahrain's own reserves were being depleted the high oil price meant there was massive capitalisation in the Kingdom's neighbours. The Kingdom was able to exploit this new to attract massive inward investment thanks to another war in the Levant in 1975: the Lebanese civil war. Beirut had long been the financial centre of the Arab world, but the outbreak of hostilities in the country had an immediate impact on the banking industry. Bahrain offered a new location at the centre of the booming Persian Gulf with a large educated indigenous workforce and sound fiscal regulations. Exploiting this opportunity saw a massive growth in the industry in the country, and bolstered the development of the middle class, and thus giving Bahrain a very different class structure to its tribal dominated neighbours. The Yom Kippur War (Hebrew: Milchemet Yom HaKipurim (מלחמת יום הכיפורים), also known as the October War, the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, and the Ramadan War), was fought from October 6 (the day of Yom Kippur) to... Combatants Lebanese Front Syria LNM PLO Commanders Bachir Gemayel Dany Chamoun Kamal Jumblatt Yasser Arafat The multi-sided Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) had its origin in the conflicts and political compromises after the end of Lebanons administration by the Ottoman Empire and was exacerbated by the nations... For other uses, see Beirut (disambiguation). ...

Although there had long been an large Indian presence in Bahrain, it was at this time that mass migration to the Kingdom began to take off with massive subsequent consequences for the Kingdom's demographics, as large numbers of third world immigrants from countries such as the Philippines, Pakistan, Egypt and Iran were attracted by better salaries than at home.

Based on its new constitution, Bahraini men elected its first National Assembly in 1973 (although Article 43 of the 1973 Constitution states that the Assembly is to be elected by "universal suffrage", the conditional clause "in accordance with the provisions of the electoral law" allowed the regime to prevent women from participating). Although the Assembly and the then emir Isa ibn Salman al-Khalifa quarreled over a number of issues: foreign policy; the U.S. naval presence, and the budget, the biggest clash came over the State Security Law (SSL). The Assembly refused to ratify the government-sponsored law, which allowed, among other things, the arrest and detention of people for up to three years, (renewable) without a trial. The legislative stalemate over this act created a public crisis, and on August 25, 1975, the emir dissolved the Assembly. The emir then ratified the State Security Law by decree, and suspended those articles in the constitution dealing with the legislative powers of the Assembly. In that same year, the emir established the State Security Court, whose judgments were not subject to appeal. The National Assembly is the name of both chambers of the Bahraini parliament when sitting in joint session, as laid out in the Constitution of 2002. ... Year 1973 (MCMLXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar) of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. ... Elections Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      Universal suffrage (also general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to all adults, without distinction as to race, sex, belief, intelligence, or economic or social status. ... Isa ibn Salman Al-Khalifa (June 3, 1933 - March 6, 1999) was emir of Bahrain from 1960 until his death. ... The 5th Fleet of the United States Navy is the commander of the naval force in the Persian Gulf area. ... The State Security Law of 1974 was a law in force in Bahrain from 1974 until 2001, which was used by the government to crush the political unrest in the country during that period. ...

[edit] The Iranian Revolution and social and political change

The tide of political Islam that swept the Middle East in the 1970s culminating in the Iranian Revolution in 1979 was to have profound implications for Bahrain's social and political development. Islamism is a political ideology derived from the conservative religious views of Muslim fundamentalism. ... After Islamic Conquest  Modern SSR = Soviet Socialist Republic Afghanistan  Azerbaijan  Bahrain  Iran  Iraq  Tajikistan  Uzbekistan  This box:      The Iranian Revolution (also known as the Islamic Revolution,[1][2][3][4][5][6] Persian: انقلاب اسلامی, Enghelābe Eslāmi) was the revolution that transformed Iran from a monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza...

There were a number of factors that had caused Bahrain to be more liberal than its neighbours, but all of these were challenged by the zeitgeist of religious fundamentalism. Bahrain's pluralist traditions were to a large extent a result of the complex confessional and demographic make up of the state, which required Shias, Sunnis, Persianized Arabs, Persians and a plethora of minority faiths to live and work together; this tolerance had been buttressed by the prominence of Arab nationalism and Marxism as the main modes of dissent, both of which were socially progressive and downplayed religious affiliations; while the country's traditional dependence on trade further encouraged openness. Shiʻa Islam (Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite) makes up the second largest sect of believers in Islam, constituting about 30%–35% of all Muslim. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... The Huwala (also spelled howala, howila, huwalah) are the descendants of the Sunnis who migrated from the Persian littoral to Bahrain and other regions on the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf coast in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. ... Arab nationalism refers to a common nationalist ideology in wider Arab world. ... Marxism takes its name from the praxis (the synthesis of philosophy and political action) of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. ...

Even before Iran's Revolution in 1979, there was a noticeable conservative trend growing, with the traditional abaya being donned by women in preference to the then popular mini-skirt. But it was the political earthquake represented by the Shah's fall that changed the dynamics of Bahrain's politics. Ayatollah Khomeini's Iran immediately saw their co-religionists in Bahrain, who had grown more conscious of their own religious identity during this period, as prime agents to export the revolution. The failure of the Left to offer a political or philosophical challenge to the Islamists allowed them quickly to dominate the avenues of dissent. A shop selling abayasin Bahrain The abaya is an overgarment worn by some women in Muslim-majority countries. ... The miniskirt is a skirt whose hemline is a ways above the knees (generally from ten to twenty centimetres above knee-level). ... Shah or Shahzad is a Persian term for a monarch (ruler) that has been adopted in many other languages. ... Ayatollah Khomeini founded the first modern Islamic republic Ayatollah Seyyed Ruhollah Khomeini (آیت‌الله روح‌الله خمینی in Persian) (May 17, 1900 – June 3, 1989) was an Iranian Shia cleric and the political... Islamism is a political ideology derived from the conservative religious views of Muslim fundamentalism. ...

In 1981, an Iranian front organisation, the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain attempted a coup d'etat with the plan involving the assassination of Bahrain's leadership and an Islamist uprsing. The aim was to install a clerical leadership with Iraqi cleric Hādī al-Mudarrisī as supreme leader, but the coup was detected after a tip off from a friendly intelligence source. The Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain was an Iranian based Shia terror group that advocated Islamic revolution in Bahrain against the Sunni ruling Al Khalifa family in the 1970s and 1980s. ... After Ayatollah Khomeini came to power in Iran in 1979, Tehran made clear its intention to spread its Islamic Revolution throughout the Middle East. ... Ayatollah Sayed Hadi Almodarresi or al-Modarresi (Arabic: هادي المدرسي; transliterated: HādÄ« al-MudarrisÄ«) Born to a scholarly family in Karbala, Iraq,that dominated the Hawza (Islamic seminaries) of Karbala for many years which includes supreme religious jurists (Marja’a) such as Grand Ayatollah Mahdi Al Shirazi (grandfather), Grand Ayatollah Mohammad...

The failed coup along with the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War led to the formation of the Gulf Cooperation Council which Bahrain joined with Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The sense of regional uncertainty was further heightened when Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait followed by the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Combatants  Iran Iraq Commanders Ruhollah Khomeini, Abolhassan Banisadr, Ali Shamkhani, Mostafa Chamran† Saddam Hussein, Ali Hassan al-Majid Strength - 305,000 soldiers, - 500,000 Passdaran and Basij militia, - 900 tanks, - 1,000 armored vehicles, - 3,000 artillery pieces, - 65 aircraft, - 750 helicopters[1] - 190,000 soldiers, - 5,000 tanks, - 4... ... Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was the fifth President of Iraq and Chairman of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council from 1979 until his overthrow by US forces in 2003. ... See also: 2003 invasion of Iraq and Gulf War (disambiguation) C Company, 1st Battalion, The Staffordshire Regiment, 1st UK Armoured Division The Persian Gulf War was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of 34 nations led by the United States. ...

Years of political stasis combined with the collapse of the price of oil, saw growing frustration at the lack of democracy explode into an uprising in 1994. While previous advocacy of reforms had been secular in character, the uprising was specifically Islamist beginning with the stoning of female competitors in a marathon race for wearing 'inappropriate' clothing. Until 1998, Bahrain was hit by riots and bomb attacks, while the police responded with heavy handed tactics. In all over forty people were killed. (For more details see Adel Darwish in the Middle East Review of International Affairs). Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA) is a non-profit publication owned and edited by Professor Barry Rubin in conjunction with the Global Research in International Affairs Center (GLORIA) of the Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) in Herzliya, Israel. ...

[edit] The State Security Law era and the 1990s uprising

Main article: 1990s Uprising in Bahrain

The prelude and aftermath of the Iranian Revolution in 1979 encouraged Shia Islamist dissent across the Middle East. Ayatollah Khomeini's Iran immediately saw their co-religionists in Bahrain, who had grown more conscious of their own religious identity during this period, as prime agents to export the revolution. The failure of the Left to offer a political or philosophical challenge to the Islamists allowed them quickly to dominate the avenues of dissent. The 1990s Uprising in Bahrain or 1990s Intifada was a popular uprising that took place in Bahrain between 1994 and 2000. ... After Islamic Conquest  Modern SSR = Soviet Socialist Republic Afghanistan  Azerbaijan  Bahrain  Iran  Iraq  Tajikistan  Uzbekistan  This box:      The Iranian Revolution (also known as the Islamic Revolution,[1][2][3][4][5][6] Persian: انقلاب اسلامی, Enghelābe Eslāmi) was the revolution that transformed Iran from a monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza... Ayatollah Khomeini founded the first modern Islamic republic Ayatollah Seyyed Ruhollah Khomeini (آیت‌الله روح‌الله خمینی in Persian) (May 17, 1900 – June 3, 1989) was an Iranian Shia cleric and the political... Islamism is a political ideology derived from the conservative religious views of Muslim fundamentalism. ...

In 1981, an Iranian front organisation, the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain attempted a coup d'etat with the plan involving the assassination of Bahrain's leadership and an Islamist uprsing. The aim was to install a clerical leadership with Iraqi cleric Hādī al-Mudarrisī as supreme leader, but the coup was detected after a tip off from a friendly intelligence source. The Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain was an Iranian based Shia terror group that advocated Islamic revolution in Bahrain against the Sunni ruling Al Khalifa family in the 1970s and 1980s. ... After Ayatollah Khomeini came to power in Iran in 1979, Tehran made clear its intention to spread its Islamic Revolution throughout the Middle East. ... Ayatollah Sayed Hadi Almodarresi or al-Modarresi (Arabic: هادي المدرسي; transliterated: HādÄ« al-MudarrisÄ«) Born to a scholarly family in Karbala, Iraq,that dominated the Hawza (Islamic seminaries) of Karbala for many years which includes supreme religious jurists (Marja’a) such as Grand Ayatollah Mahdi Al Shirazi (grandfather), Grand Ayatollah Mohammad...

The Islamic Front was later to carry out a series of bomb attacks in the Kingdom during the 1990s as part of an Islamist uprising against the government. The Front bombed the Diplomat Hotel on 1 November 1996, with the group telling the Associated Press "We put a bomb in the Diplomat hotel 20 minutes ago...after the feast...tell the government that we will destroy everyplace."[1]

However, it would be a mistake to consider the Islamist violence to be purely foreign instigated: due to perceived discrimination against the majority Shia population of Bahrain by the Al Khalifa rulers, there was a strong sense of grievance. The extent to which this discrimination occurred is open to debate, considering that many of the richest families in the Kingdom were Shia. Shiʻa Islam (Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite) makes up the second largest sect of believers in Islam, constituting about 30%–35% of all Muslim. ... The Al-Khalifa dynasty is the ruling family of Bahrain. ...

In the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, and encouraged by electoral and parliamentary developments in Kuwait, Bahraini opponents of the govenrment sensed an opportunity to raise again the issue of elections and their own parliament. In 1992, following informal discussions, a group consisting mainly of clerics and businessmen led by Islamist leader Abdul Amir Al Jamri, drew up a petition that was then signed by more than 300 prominent individuals, known as the "elite petition". The signatories were fairly evenly split between Shia and Sunni, and between Islamists and secular nationalists. It asked for restoration of the National Assembly and the constitution of 1975, and participation by the population in decision making. After listening to their demands, the emir responded that the government planned to establish a consultative council (appointed directly by the emir), which would be the appropriate institution to serve the population, and that there could be no further discussion on the subject. See also: 2003 invasion of Iraq and Gulf War (disambiguation) C Company, 1st Battalion, The Staffordshire Regiment, 1st UK Armoured Division The Persian Gulf War was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of 34 nations led by the United States. ... The rise of Gorbachev Although reform stalled between 1964–1982, the generational shift gave new momentum for reform. ... Sheikh Abdul Amir al-Jamri (Arabic: عبدالأمير الجمري) (b. ... Shiʻa Islam (Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite) makes up the second largest sect of believers in Islam, constituting about 30%–35% of all Muslim. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Islamism is a political ideology derived from the conservative religious views of Muslim fundamentalism. ... Nationalism is an ideology that creates and sustains a nation as a concept of a common identity for groups of humans. ... The National Assembly is the name of both chambers of the Bahraini parliament when sitting in joint session, as laid out in the Constitution of 2002. ...

The failure of this petition led to the second petition, the so-called general or popular petition of 1994. This mass petition was reportedly signed by some 22,000 people. To pre-empt the delivery of the petition to the emir, the regime arrested several of the leading Shia clerics who were organising the petition, including Ali Salman, after they were accused of inciting their stoning of women competitors in a marathon race. Ali Salman is the president of the Al-Wefaq political society in Bahrain. ...

The uprising was specifically Islamist in character, beginning with the stoning of the leading team in the Bahrain Marathon Relay race after they ran along a road alongside a conservative village. Women's participation in the race had been cited as immoral by conservative clerics in the run up to the race, and a large group were amassed on one of the race hand over stages demonstrating, when one of the SAAD Track Club team passed the demonstrators, the runner was attacked and knocked to the ground. The uprising was characterised by riots, stonings and bomb attacks, which targeted the government, the middle classes, third world immigrants and liberals.

The uprising was led by London based Islamist group, the Bahrain Freedom Movement. According to Egyptian liberal journalist Adel Darwish: "Interviews with BFM leaders leave little doubt about the totalitarian nature of their type of Islamic fundamentalist ideology. Their final aim is to declare an Iranian-style Islamic republic."[2]

The political impasse continued over the next few years during which time the regime dealt with its opponents using severe repression. Bomb attacks and police brutality marked this period in which over forty people were killed in violence between the two sides. Although the violence was never entirely stopped by the security measures it was contained and continued as low level intermitten disturbances.

[edit] King Hamad and his reforms

In 1999 Shaykh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa became Amir after the death of his father, Shaykh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, and carried out wide ranging social and political reforms, described by Amnesty International as representing an 'historic period for human rights'. King Hamad ended the political repression that had defined the 1990s by scrapping security laws, releasing all political prisoners, instituting elections, giving women the vote and promising a return to constitutional rule. The move brought an end to political violence, but did not initially bring about a reconciliation between the government and most of the opposition groups. Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifah (born January 28, 1950) is the current King of Bahrain (from 2002), having previously been its Emir (since 1999). ... Isa ibn Salman Al-Khalifa (June 3, 1933 - March 6, 1999) was emir of Bahrain from 1960 until his death. ... Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a pressure group that promotes human rights. ...

The invitation to Bahrain's former exiles to return home revitalised the Kingdom's politics. Exiled leaders included a number of London based Islamists including Dr Majid Al Alawi who became Minister of Labour, Dr Mansur Al Jamri who became editor of the new opposition daily, Al Wasat, and Sheikh Ali Salman who became head of the newly established Shia Islamist Al Wefaq, Bahrain's largest political group. Former Leftist dissidents formed the National Democratic Action, the Communist Democratic Bloc, and the Bahrain Human Rights Society. Leftists were also involved in the new trade union movement, although they faced competition from Islamists for control of several unions. Ali Salman is the president of the Al-Wefaq political society in Bahrain. ... Al Wefaq National Islamic Society is Bahrains most largest political society. ... The National Democratic Action is Bahrains largest Leftist political party, comprised of an alliance between former Maoists, socialists and Arab nationalists. ... Formerly the Communist Party of Bahrain, the Democratic Bloc has three MPs in parliament and at least one appointed member of the upper chamber. ... The Bahrain Human Rights Society was set up in 2002 following wide ranging political reforms by the Bahraini government to allow the functioning of independent human rights groups. ...

Following the political liberalisation Bahrain negotiated a Free Trade Agreement with the United States in 2004. The country participated in military action against the Taliban in 2001 with its ships patrolling the Arabian Sea searching for vessels, but opposed the invasion of Iraq. Relations improved with neighbouring Qatar after the border dispute over the Hawar Islands was resolved by the International Court of Justice in The Hague in 2001. The two are now building the Qatar-Bahrain Friendship Bridge to link the countries across the Persian Gulf, which will be the longest fixed link bridge in the world when completed. Free trade is an economic concept referring to the selling of products between countries without tariffs or other trade barriers. ... Combatants Taliban al-Qaeda Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Hezbi Islami Afghanistan Northern Alliance United Nations: ISAF NATO, including: United States United Kingdom Canada Netherlands and others Commanders Mohammed Omar Obaidullah Akhund Dadullah â˜  Jalaluddin Haqqani Osama bin Laden Ayman al-Zawahiri Juma Namangani â˜  Gulbuddin Hekmatyar Bismillah Khan Mohammed Fahim Ton van... The Taliban (Pashto: , students or seekers of knowledge) are a fundamentalist Sunni Muslim and ethnic Pashtun movement that ruled most of Afghanistan from 1996 until 2001, when their leaders were removed from power by American aerial bombardment and Northern Alliance ground forces. ... For other uses of the term, see Iraq war (disambiguation) The 2003 invasion of Iraq (also called the 2nd or 3rd Persian Gulf War) began on March 20, 2003, when forces belonging primarily to the United States and the United Kingdom invaded Iraq without the explicit backing of the United... The Hawar Islands (Arabic: جزر حوار; transliterated: Juzur Howar) are a group of islands situated off the west coast of Qatar in the Gulf of Bahrain of the Persian Gulf. ... The International Court of Justice (known colloquially as the World Court or ICJ; French: ) is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. ... Coordinates: Country Netherlands Province South Holland Area (2006)  - Municipality 98. ... The Qatar-Bahrain Friendship Bridge, currently in planning in 2005, will link Bahrain to Qatar as the longest fixed link in the world. ... Map of the Persian Gulf. ...

In 2001 Hamad put forward the National Action Charter which would return the country to constitutional rule. However the opposition was opposed to the Charter's call for an amendment to the 1973 Constitution, changing the legislature from unicameral to bicameral. The Charter stated that "the legislature will consist of two chambers, namely one that is constituted through free, direct elections whose mandate will be to enact laws, and a second one that would have people with experience and expertise who would give advice as necessary." The opposition groups deemed this statement to be too ambiguous, and remained opposed to the Charter. The National Action Charter of Bahrain is a document put forward by King Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifah of Bahrain in 2001 in order to end the popular 1990s Uprising and return the country to constitutional rule. ... Unicameralism is the practice of having only one legislative or parliamentary chamber. ... In government, bicameralism is the practice of having two legislative or parliamentary chambers. ...

Hamad responded by holding a highly publicized meeting with the spiritual leaders of the Shia Islamist opposition. He signed a document clarifying that the only the elected lower house of the parliament would have legislative power, while the appointed upper house would have a strictly advisory role. Upon this assurance, the main opposition groups accepted the Charter and called for a 'Yes' vote in the national referendum. The Charter was accepted in the 2001 referendum with 98.4% voting 'Yes' for it.

However, in 2002 Hamad promulgated the 2002 Constitution in which both the elected and the royally-appointed chambers of parliament were given equal legislative powers, going back on his public promise of 2001. As a result, the parliamentary elections due to be held later that year were boycotted by a group of four political societies:

• Al Wefaq, a Shia Islamist group, thought to be the most popular political society in the country
• National Democratic Action, the largest Leftist political society
• Islamic Action Society, a marginal Shia Islamist society
• Nationalist Democratic Rally Society, a marginal Arab Nationalist society

Between 2002 and 2006, the four boycotting societies continued their demand for discussions on constitutional reforms. By 2006 these four party opposition indicated that it would participate in the parliamentary elections, but retain their demand for constitutional reform at the top of their agenda. Al Wefaq National Islamic Society is Bahrains most largest political society. ... The National Democratic Action is Bahrains largest Leftist political party, comprised of an alliance between former Maoists, socialists and Arab nationalists. ... The Islamic Action Society (Arabic جمعية العمل الإسلامي Jamʿiyyat al-ʿAmal al-Islāmī) is one of the main Islamist political parties in Bahrain, and mainly appeals to Shīˤa followers of the Najaf-based Āyatu l-Lāh, Hādī al-Mudarrisī, who are known as the Shirāzī faction. The... Nationalist Democratic Rally Society (in Arabic: Jamiat al-Tajammu al-Qawmi al-Dimuqrati), a political group attached to the Iraqi-based Baath Party in Bahrain. ...

[edit] See also

• Dilmun
• Bahrain (historical region)
• History of the Jews in Bahrain
• List of rulers of Bahrain
• List of famous people connected with Bahrain (see historical)
• History of the Middle East
• Rahmah bin Jabir al-Jalahimah
• Bahrain National Museum
• Bandargate scandal

Dilmun (sometimes transliterated Telmun) is associated with ancient sites on the islands of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. ... Bahrain (Arabic: ‎ ) is a historical region in eastern Arabia that was known as the Province of Bahrain (Arabic: ‎ ) unitl the 16th century. ... Bahraini Jews constitute another one of the worlds oldest, and todays smallest, Jewish communities. ... The Al Khalifa (Arabic: آل خليفة) dynasty is the ruling family of Bahrain. ... Prof. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Rahmah bin Jabir Aljalahma رحمة بن جابر بن عتبة الجلهمي أو الجلاهمة was an Arab ruler and pirate in the Arabian Gulf (1760? 1826). ... Since 1988 a rich collection of Bahrains ancient archaeological artifacts have been on display at the purpose-built Bahrain National Museum. ... The Bandargate scandal refers to an alleged political conspiracy by the certain government officials in Bahrain to foment sectarian strife and marginalize the majority Shia community in the country. ...

[edit] References

• Kechichian, J. A. (2002). "Bahrain". Encyclopaedia Iranica. New York: Mazda Pub. 
• This article contains material from the CIA World Factbook which, as a U.S. government publication, is in the public domain.

• This article contains material from the US Department of State's Background Notes which, as a US government publication, is in the public domain.

• Generational change and elite-driven reforms in the Kingdom of Bahrain. (Sir William Luce Fellowship Paper No. 7) Dr. Steven Wright (2006) Middle East and Islamic Studies, University of Durham, (PDF Format)
• Voice of Bahrain (London-based Islamist group website)
• Khalaf, Abdulhadi (1998). Contentious politics in Bahrain: From ethnic to national and vice versa.
• Mahdi Abdalla Al-Tajir (1987). Bahrain, 1920-1945: Britain, the Shaikh, and the Administration. ISBN 0-7099-5122-1
• Talal Toufic Farah (1986). Protection and Politics in Bahrain, 1869-1915 ISBN 0-8156-6074-X
• Emile A Nakhleh (1976). Bahrain: Political development in a modernizing society. ISBN 0-669-00454-5
• Andrew Wheatcroft (1995). The Life and Times of Shaikh Salman Bin Hamad Al-Khalifa : Ruler of Bahrain 1942-1961. ISBN 0-7103-0495-1
• Fuad Ishaq Khuri (1980). Tribe and state in Bahrain: The transformation of social and political authority in an Arab state. ISBN 0-226-43473-7
• Fred H. Lawson (1989). Bahrain: The Modernization of Autocracy. ISBN 0-8133-0123-8
• Mohammed Ghanim Al-Rumaihi (1975). Bahrain: A study on social and political changes since the First World War. University of Kuwait.
• Fakhro, Munira A. 1997. “The Uprising in Bahrain: An Assessment.” In The Persian Gulf at the Millennium: Essays in Politics, Economy, Security, and Religion, eds. Gary G. Sick and Lawrence G. Potter: 167-88. New York: St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-17567-1
• Abdulla, Khalid M. 1999. “The State in Oil Rentier Economies: The Case of Bahrain.” In Change and Development in the Gulf, ed. Abbas Abdelkarim: 51-78. New York: St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-21658-0
• Curtis E. Larsen. 1984. Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226469069

The World Factbook 2007 (government edtion) cover. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ... The Background Notes series is a collection of works by the United States Department of State. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ... Durham University is a university in England. ...

[edit] External links

• Timeline: Bahrain, BBC
• Bahrain: The last 100 years Life before and after the discovery of oil
• History of Bahrain on an Islamist opposition website
• Rahmah of the Gulf, Jon Mandaville, Saudi Aramco World, May 1975
• Qarmatians in Bahrain, Ismaili Net