The History of British society demonstrates innumerable changes over many centuries. These major social changes have affected the British Isles both internally and in its relationship with other nations. British military history is a long and varied topic, extending from the prehistoric and ancient historic period, through the Roman invasions of Julius Caesar and Claudius and subsequent Roman occupation; warfare in the Mediaeval period, including the invasions of the Saxons and the Vikings in the Early Middle Ages, the... The British Isles in relation to mainland Europe The British Isles (French: , Irish: [1] or Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa,[2] Manx: Ellanyn Goaldagh, Scottish Gaelic: , Welsh: ), are a group of islands off the northwest coast of continental Europe comprising Great Britain, Ireland and a number of smaller islands. ...

Prehistoric society

The distant past does not offer us much information on the structures of society, but major changes in human behaviour make it likely that society must have changed dramatically. In common with much of Europe, the switch from the hunter-gatherer lifestyle to farming around 4000 BCE must have heralded an enormous shift in all aspects of human life. Nobody knows what changes may have occurred, and recent evidence of permanent buildings and habitation from 3,000 years ago means that these may still have been gradual shifts. One of the most obvious symbols of change in prehistoric society is Stonehenge. The building of such stone circles, burial mounds and monuments throughout the British Isles seems to have required a division of labour. Builders would have needed to dedicate themselves to the task of monument construction to acquire the required skills. Not having time to hunt and farm would make them rely on others to such an extent that specialised farmers would emerge who provided not only for themselves but also for the monument builders. World map showing the location of Europe. ... In anthropology, the hunter-gatherer way of life is that led by certain societies of the Neolithic Era based on the exploitation of wild plants and animals. ... Farming, ploughing rice paddy, in Indonesia Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other desired products by cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals (livestock). ... (5th millennium BC – 4th millennium BC – 3rd millennium BC - other millennia) Events City of Ur in Mesopotamia (40th century BC). ... For other uses, see Stonehenge (disambiguation). ... Swinside stone circle, in the Lake District, England. ... Alternate meanings of barrow: see Barrow_in_Furness for the town of Barrow in Cumbria, England; also Barrow, Alaska in the U.S.; also River Barrow in Ireland. ... The Taj Mahal, commissioned by the Muslim Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, as a mausoleum for his wife, Arjumand Banu Begum. ... The British Isles in relation to mainland Europe The British Isles (French: , Irish: [1] or Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa,[2] Manx: Ellanyn Goaldagh, Scottish Gaelic: , Welsh: ), are a group of islands off the northwest coast of continental Europe comprising Great Britain, Ireland and a number of smaller islands. ... Division of labour is the specialisation of cooperative labour in specific, circumscribed tasks and roles, intended to increase efficiency of output. ...

What we know of prehistoric times apart from their monuments is mostly derived from the remains of burials, and this shows another major change in society: the rise of an aristocracy. It is perhaps inevitable that a division of labour would give some people less work while others got more, and an increase of lavishly furnished graves seems to confirm this. Again, care should be taken not to infer too many complex ideas of social history from grave sites, but they do show that people had surplus time for the production of decorative items and they hint at early beliefs about death and religion. This aristocracy, whether it gained its position through martial strength or technological skill, made further social stratification highly likely. Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      The term aristocracy refers to a form of government where power is held by a small number of individuals from an elite or from noble families. ... Ancient unreadable gravestones mark the position of graves in the parish churchyard at Bourton-on-the-Water, Gloucestershire, England A grave is a place where the body of a dead animal, generally human, is buried, often after a funeral. ...

Two other changes which surely influenced social change were the beginning of the Iron Age and the building of hill forts. The first probably necessitated the second, but the growth in population, competition for resources and an unwillingness to simply move on and abandon settled lives or farms probably made the need for forts greater. Fortification and war raise one important unanswered question about British society: the role of invasion. Any incursion of other peoples into the British Isles is bound to have major social effects, but we do not really know whether these events were invasions, immigrations or simply adoptions of outside ideas; and the native populations may have been mostly killed, slowly supplanted, integrated with the new or just had the aristocracy replaced. These questions relate to many of the changes in culture seen in prehistoric and later times such as the Beaker people, the Celts, the Romans and the Anglo-Saxons. Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... A hill fort is a fortified refuge or defended settlement, located to exploit a rise in elevation for military advantage. ... The Beaker people (or `Beaker folk) were an archaeological culture present in prehistoric Europe, defined by a pottery style -- a beaker with a distinctive bell-shaped profile -- that many archeologists believe spread across the western part of the Continent during the 3rd millennium BC. The pottery is particularly prevalent in... This article is about the European people. ... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. ... The famous parade helmet found at Sutton Hoo, probably belonging Raedwald of East Anglia circa 625. ...

Romans

The arrival of the Romans in 54 BC probably did not alter society greatly at first, as it was simply a replacement of the ruling class, but numerous, at first minor, ideas would later gain footholds. Certainly, it wouldn't have affected Ireland in the slightest. It is from the Romans, and particularly Tacitus, that we get the first important written records of Britain and its tribal society.^{[citation needed]} We get fascinating glimpses of society in Britain before the Romans, although only briefly and disparagingly mentioned, particularly the importance of powerful women such as Cartimandua and Boudica. City dwelling was not new to pre-Roman Britain, but it was a lifestyle that the Romans preferred even though available to only a select few Romanised Britons. Romanisation was an important part of the Roman conquest strategy, and British rulers who willingly adopted Roman ways were rewarded as client kings; a good example of this is Togidubnus and his ultramodern Roman-style house at Fishbourne. Roman invasion of Britain: Britain was the target of invasion by forces of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire several times during its history. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 59 BC 58 BC 57 BC 56 BC 55 BC 54 BC 53 BC 52 BC 51... Gaius Cornelius Tacitus Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (c. ... Cartimandua (or Cartismandua, ruled ca. ... Boudica and Her Daughters near Westminster Pier, London, commissioned by Prince Albert and executed by Thomas Thornycroft Boudica (also spelt Boudicca, formerly better known as Boadicea) (d. ... Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus (or Togidubnus) was king of the Regnenses, a southern British tribe. ... Fishbourne is a village in West Sussex, situated between Chichester and Bosham. ...

Although the Roman conquest was relatively swift, there was often rebellion, and war with the unconquered Caledonian tribes in the far north, and so the army became an important part of Roman British life. An army, probably larger than that of most medieval monarchs, gave a low-status Briton the chance of a steady job, the possibility of seeing the rest of the empire, and rewards for service if they survived. The army also brought people to Britain, not just from present day Italy but from all over the empire. To subdue and control the country, the Romans built a major road network which not only was an important civil engineering project but formed the basis of the country's communication links. The Romans brought many other innovations and ideas such as writing and plumbing, but how many of these things were the preserve of the rich or were even lost and re-appropriated at a later date is uncertain. The one other great social change the Romans brought to Britain was Christianity, whose effect on society was probably minimal at first but eventually far succeeded. Wikisource has an original article from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica about: Caledonia Caledonia is the Latin name given by the Roman Empire to a northern area of the island of Great Britain. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland. ... Christianity percentage by country, purple is highest, orange is lowest Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Wycliffe Tyndale · Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch...

Early mediaeval society

The collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD is thought to have brought general strife and anarchy to society, but the actual events are not well understood. Archaeology certainly shows a reduction in the expensive goods found before and the Roman cities began to be abandoned, but much of British society had never had such things. Certainly, numerous peoples took advantage of the absence of Roman power, but how they affected British society is far from clear. The hegemony of Roman rule gave way to a selection of splintered, often competing, societies, including later the heptarchy. Rather than think of themselves as a small part of a larger Roman empire, they reverted to smaller tribal allegiances. Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus The Western Roman Empire in 395. ... (4th century - 5th century - 6th century _ other centuries) Events Rome sacked by Visigoths in 410. ... Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek: αρχαίος, archaios, combining form in Latin archae-, ancient; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... A map showing the general locations of the Anglo-Saxon peoples around the year 600 Britain and Ireland around the year 802 Heptarchy (Greek: seven + realm) is a collective name applied to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of the south and east of Great Britain during late antiquity and the early...

The Anglo-Saxons' arrival is the most hotly disputed of events, and the extent to which they killed, displaced, or integrated with the existing society is still questioned. What is clear is that a separate Anglo-Saxon society, which would eventually become England with a more Germanic feel, was set up in the south east of the island. These new arrivals had not been conquered by the Romans but their society was perhaps similar to that of Britain. The main difference was their pagan religion, which the surviving northern areas of non-Saxon rule sought to convert to Christianity. During the 7th century AD these northern areas, particularly Northumbria, became important sites of learning, with monasteries acting like early universities and figures such as Bede at the forefront of European thought. In the 9th century Alfred the Great was extremely interested in creating a literate, educated people and did much to promote the English language, even writing books himself. Alfred and his successors unified and brought stability to the country, and he is also credited with reorganising the country into shires, the forerunners of current British counties. The famous parade helmet found at Sutton Hoo, probably belonging Raedwald of East Anglia circa 625. ... Motto (French) God and my right Anthem No official anthem - the United Kingdom anthem God Save the Queen is commonly used England() – on the European continent() – in the United Kingdom() Capital (and largest city) London (de facto) Official languages English (de facto)1 Unified  -  by Athelstan 927 AD  Area  -  Total... Look up pagan, heathen in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... (6th century - 7th century - 8th century _ other centuries) Events The religion of Islam starts in Arabia, the Quran is revealed, and Arabs spread Islam into Syria, Iraq, Persia, Egypt, North Africa and Central Asia. ... Section from Shepherds map of the British Isles about 802 AD showing the kingdom of Northumbria Northumbria is primarily the name of a petty kingdom of Angles which was formed in Great Britain at the beginning of the 7th century, from two smaller kingdoms of Bernicia and Diera, and... Buddhist monastery near Tibet A monastery is the habitation of monks. ... A university is an institution of higher education and of research, which grants academic degrees. ... Bede (IPA: ) (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin) Beda (IPA: )), (ca. ... World map showing the location of Europe. ... As a means of recording the passage of time the 9th century was the century that lasted from 801 to 900. ... Alfred (also Ælfred from the Old English: ÆlfrÄ“d //) (c. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... A shire is an administrative area of Great Britain and Australia. ... A county is generally a sub-unit of regional self-government within a sovereign jurisdiction. ...

Late mediaeval society

Feudalism, although always a very contentious idea, is often used to describe medieval society. Basically stated, a lord owns land or a fief which he allows vassals to work in return for their military service. The vast majority of the people were peasants who would work on the vassal's fiefs. This or a similar system was the basis of later medieval society. It probably existed in some form in Britain before the Norman conquest, but the Normans did much to institute it, either replacing existing lords or by becoming 'overlords' above now-demoted lords. A wealth of information on these social structures can be drawn from one of the best early surveys of its type, the Domesday Book. Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste. ... For other uses, see Lord (disambiguation). ... Under the system of feudalism, a fiefdom, fief, feud or fee, consisted of heritable lands or revenue-producing property granted by a liege lord in return for a vassal knights service (usually fealty, military service, and security). ... Look up vassal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Bayeux Tapestry depicting events leading to the Battle of Hastings The Norman Conquest of England was the conquest of the Kingdom of England by William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy), in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings and the subsequent Norman control of England. ... Norman conquests in red. ... A line drawing entitled Domesday Book from Andrew Williamss Historic Byways and Highways of Old England. ...

After the Norman conquest, society seemed fixed and unchanging for several centuries, but gradual and significant changes were still taking place, the exact nature of which would not be appreciated until much later. The Norman lords spoke Norman, and in order to work for them or gain advantage, the British had to use the Anglo-Norman language that developed in England. This became a necessary administrative and literary language (see Anglo-Norman literature), but despite this the English language was not supplanted, and after gaining much in grammar and vocabulary began in turn to replace the language of the rulers. At the same time the population more than doubled between Domesday and the end of the 13th century, and this growth was not checked by the almost continual foreign warfare, crusades and occasional civil anarchy. Norman is a Romance language and one of the Oïl languages. ... The Anglo-Norman language is the name given to the variety of Norman spoken by the Anglo-Normans, the descendants of the Normans who ruled England following the conquest by William of Normandy in 1066. ... A literary language is a register of a language that is used in writing, and which often differs in lexicon and syntax from the language used in speech. ... Anglo-Norman literature is literature composed in the Anglo-Norman language developed during the period 1066-1204 when the Duchy of Normandy and England were united in the Anglo-Norman realm. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... This article is about the medieval crusades. ...

The crusades are one measure of the ever increasing power of the church in medieval life, with some estimates suggesting that as many as 40,000 clergy were ordained during the 13th century. This is also shown by the spate of cathedral building, common throughout Europe, at the time. These great buildings would often take several generations to complete, spawning whole communities of artisans and craftsmen and offering them jobs for life. Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... An artisan, also called a craftsman,[1] is a skilled manual worker who uses tools and machinery in a particular craft. ... Craftsman is an artisan who practices a handicraft or trade; a style of architecture and furniture arising from the Arts and Crafts movement; a military rank within the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, equivalent to a private; and a brand of tools. ...

The increase in population led not only to larger cities and towns, but also to the building of many more towns. This did not change Britain significantly from being a mainly rural society, and many agricultural changes, such as crop rotation, kept the countryside profitable. It has been suggested that the 13th century experienced a mini-industrial revolution, with the increased use of wind power and changes in the wool industry. Wool, always important to the British economy, was traditionally exported to be processed, but it was now more frequently processed in Britain, creating a variety of extra jobs. Many people were finding different roles and responsibilities within society, with the growth of English common law giving people greater access to the law and the "commons" starting to have a place in Parliament during Edward I's time. Satellite image of circular crop fields in Haskell County, Kansas in late June 2001. ... Long and short hair wool at the South Central Family Farm Research Center in Boonesville, Arizona Wool is the fiber derived from the fur of animals and people of the Caprinae family, principally sheep, but the hair of certain species of other mammals such as goats and rabbits and oxes... This article concerns the common-law legal system, as contrasted with the civil law legal system; for other meanings of the term, within the field of law, see common law (disambiguation). ... The English parliament in front of the King, c. ... Edward I (17 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), popularly known as Longshanks[1], also as Edward the Lawgiver because of his legal reforms, and as Hammer of the Scots,[2] achieved fame as the monarch who conquered Wales and who tried to do the same to Scotland. ...

The Black Death re-shaped society

After many years of growth and gradual change, there was one seismic event which changed British society dramatically. The Black Death in the middle of the 14th century, according to some estimates, almost halved the population. Whole villages were wiped out by the plague, but rather than destroying society it managed to reinvigorate it. Before the plague there was a large, perhaps excessive, workforce with overpopulation and people competing for scarce resources. The drop in population meant that labourers were in short supply, and peasants who had once been confined to a landowner's estate now had great incentive to travel to areas without workers. This social mobility was combined with the fact that peasants could charge much more for their services, and this began a switch from indentured labourer to wage earner which signalled the decline of the feudal system. Image File history File links From the Dance of Death by Hans Holbein the Younger (1491). ... Image File history File links From the Dance of Death by Hans Holbein the Younger (1491). ... It has been suggested that Plague doctor be merged into this article or section. ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ...

The peasants' new-found freedoms were very worrying to the authorities, who passed laws specifying the maximum that a peasant should be paid, but this had little effect on wages. The first of several sumptuary laws were also made, dictating exactly how people at every level of society should dress and what they could own, in an effort to enforce social distinctions. These new laws, plus a newly levied poll tax which had been calculated on pre-plague population figures, led directly to the Peasants' Revolt. Although quickly put down, the revolt was an early popular reform movement -- a precursor to later, more successful uprisings. Sumptuary laws (from Latin sumptuariae leges) were laws that regulated and reinforced social hierarchies and morals through restrictions on clothing, food, and luxury expenditures. ... A poll tax, head tax, or capitation is a tax of a uniform, fixed amount per individual (as opposed to a percentage of income). ... The end of the revolt: Wat Tyler killed by Walworth while Richard II watches, and a second image of Richard addressing the crowd The Peasants Revolt, Tyler’s Rebellion, or the Great Rising of 1381 was one of a number of popular revolts in late medieval Europe and is a...

Geofrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales give an illuminating picture of many of the different people who made up medieval society, although these portraits are limited mainly to the middle classes. The Wife of Bath is one particularly vibrant character within the Tales and a few years later a real-world equivalent, Margery Kempe, showed in her autobiography that women had an important part in medieval society. Chaucer: Illustration from Cassells History of England, circa 1902 Chanticleer the rooster from an outdoor production of Chanticleer and the Fox at Ashby-de-la-Zouch castle Geoffrey Chaucer (ca. ... Canterbury Tales Woodcut 1484 The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the rest in verse). ... The Wife of Baths Tale is a tale from Geoffrey Chaucers The Canterbury Tales. ... Margery Kempe (ca. ...

Tudor society

The Tudor dynasty period was seen as a very stable time compared to the previous years of almost constant warfare. The Reformation caused not only internal and external conflict, but also had some surprising effects on society. Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries these institutions had been one of the important parts of social welfare, giving alms and looking after the destitute, and their disappearance meant that the state would have to adopt this role, which culminated in the Poor law of 1601. The monasteries also had been the major educational establishments in the country; after they had gone, many new grammar schools were founded and these, along with the earlier introduction of the printing press, helped to improve literacy. At the same time, though, language suffered when the Laws in Wales Act 1535, which combined England and Wales into one state, outlawed the use of Welsh language for public offices. The Tudor dynasty or House of Tudor (Welsh: ) was a series of five monarchs who ruled England and Ireland from 1485 until 1603. ... The Protestant Reformation was a movement which began in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church, but ended in division and the establishment of new institutions, most importantly Lutheranism, Reformed churches, and Anabaptists. ... dissolution see Dissolution. ... Alms Bag taken from some Tapestry in Orleans, Fifteenth Century. ... Former workhouse at Nantwich, dating from 1780 The Poor Law was the system for the provision of social security in operation in England and the rest of the United Kingdom from the 16th century until the establishment of the Welfare State in the 20th century. ... Events February 8 - Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, rebels against Elizabeth I of England - revolt is quickly crushed February 25 - Robert Devereux beheaded Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrives in China Bad harvest in Russia due to rainy summer Dutch troops drive Portuguese from Málaga Battle of Kinsale, Ireland Births... The printing press is a mechanical device for printing many copies of a text on rectangular sheets of paper. ... The Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 were a series of parliamentary measures by which the legal system of Wales was annexed to England and the norms of English administration introduced in order to create a single state and a single legal jurisdiction, which is frequently referred to as England... Motto (French) God and my right Anthem No official anthem - the United Kingdom anthem God Save the Queen is commonly used England() – on the European continent() – in the United Kingdom() Capital (and largest city) London (de facto) Official languages English (de facto)1 Unified  -  by Athelstan 927 AD  Area  -  Total... This article is about the country. ... Welsh redirects here, and this article describes the Welsh language. ...

The agricultural reforms which had begun in the 13th century accelerated in the 16th century, with inclosure altering the open field system and denying many of the poor access to land. Large areas of land which had once been common, and whose usage had been shared between many people, were now being enclosed by the wealthy mainly for extremely profitable sheep farming. This change in farming practices probably contributed to the growth of cities, as the unlanded and unemployed moved to look for work; at the same time, there was a marked growth in the suburb. These features were described by an 'explorer' of Britain, John Leland, as not a place for the excluded poor, who were traditionally kept on the outskirts of the city, but a place for the middle classes to escape the crowded centre. (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Inclosure (also commonly enclosure), refers to the process of subdivision of common lands for individual ownership. ... For other uses, see Open-field (disambiguation) The open field system was the prevalent agricultural system in Europe from the Middle Ages to as recently as the 20th century in places. ... Housing subdivision near Union, Kentucky, a suburb of Cincinnati, Ohio. ... John Leland (September 13, 1502–April 18, 1552) was an English antiquary. ...

Many new opportunities presented themselves for people to alter their places in society. There were the refinements of both the blast furnace and gunpowder which made the arms trade lucrative, and science, art, trade and exploration were all on the increase. William Shakespeare is a very good example of the burgeoning society, showing not only that a lowly son of a glovemaker could go on, apparently without a university education, to become an actor, playwright and theatre owner - not highly socially regarded professions - but also that people increasingly had the money and time to attend the theatre. Blast furnace in Sestao, Spain. ... Smokeless powder Gunpowder is an explosive mixture that burns rapidly, producing volumes of hot gas which can be used as a propellant in firearms. ... Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ... The Bath, a painting by Mary Cassatt (1844–1926). ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Exploration is the act of searching or traveling for the purpose of discovery, e. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

Stuart society

Oliver Cromwell, the man with most influence on British society?

If Shakespeare and his contemporaries symbolised the start of true social mobility, then Oliver Cromwell reached the high point of social movement, unequalled even in the 20th century. The son of a farmer, he went on to become a king in all but name, and the effect of that short-lived republicanism would permanently alter British society. Image File history File links Oliver_CromwellUT.jpg‎ From the English Wikipedia History 23:00, 29 July 2004 Raul654 (51708 bytes) (Reverted to earlier revision) 06:56, 26 April 2003 . ... Image File history File links Oliver_CromwellUT.jpg‎ From the English Wikipedia History 23:00, 29 July 2004 Raul654 (51708 bytes) (Reverted to earlier revision) 06:56, 26 April 2003 . ... Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader best known for his involvement in making England, Scotland and Ireland into a republican Commonwealth and for the brutal war exercised in his conquest of Ireland. ... // Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, with an emphasis on liberty, rule by the people, and the civic virtue practiced by citizens. ...

Cromwell's rise to power was in part the outcome of religious conflict and dissent present since the Lollards of the 14th century. However, these religious radicals and even the Protestant Reformation did not seem to affect society greatly, and in the case of the Reformation it was in Britain a relatively calm transformation compared to other parts of Europe. There was burning of heretics on both sides as the two factions vied for power, but the vast majority of laypeople seemed unmoved or even uncertain as to which faith they belonged to. It was only in Stuart times, when the population felt itself to be strongly Church of England, that fear of the re-adoption of the Catholic religion began to cause problems. Lollardy or Lollardry was the political and religious movement of the Lollards in late 14th century and early 15th century England. ... Look up Heresy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Stuart Osborne may be:. a male Mary Sue. ... The Church of England logo since 1998 The Church of England is the officially established Christian church[1] in England, and acts as the mother and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion, as well as a founding member of the Porvoo Communion. ...

The English civil war was far from just a conflict between two religious faiths, and indeed it had much more to do with divisions within the one Protestant religion. The austere, fundamentalist Puritanism on the one side was opposed to what it saw as the crypto-Catholic decadence of the Anglican church on the other. Divisions also formed along the lines of the common people and the gentry, and between the country and city dwellers. It was a conflict that was bound to disturb all parts of society, and a frequent slogan of the time was "the world turned upside down". The English Civil War consisted of a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between Parliamentarians (known as Roundheads) and Royalists (known as Cavaliers) between 1642 and 1651. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... The Puritans were members of a group of radical Protestants which developed in England after the Reformation. ... The Anglican Communion is a world-wide organisation of Anglican Churches. ...

In 1648 the Grandees on the winning Parliamentary side of the Civil War, faced with the perceived duplicity and uncompromising stand of King Charles I, gradually came around to the idea which more radical elements on the Parliamentary side had been advocating for some time: that the death of the King was necessary to restore peace. In January 1649 King Charles was tried and executed as a traitor. During the Interregnum there were two major types of government: the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. Both these governments were based on the rule of the same class of gentry and wealthy merchants who had formed the majority of the electorate to Parliament before the Civil War. After the capture of King Charles I, and during the first few years of the Interregnum, the old ruling class faced challenges to their position by other sections of society. The most important of these groups were the Levellers, who wished to level society, removing class distinctions to make all men equal. They also wished to see universal suffrage for all adult male householders, regular elections and the abolition of all tithes - which would break the power of the established church. The Levellers' power base was in the New Model Army, but the Grandees managed to contain and then destroy dissent within the Army, and with this loss of influence the levellers were no longer able to mount a credible challenge to the established order. There were more radical groups than the Levellers - for example the Diggers, the Fifth Monarchy Men, and the Ranters - but these more radical groups did not attract many supporters. Spanish nobles are classified either as Grandees (also called Peers) or as Titled Nobles. ... Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England, King of Scotland and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. ... // Events January 30 - King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland is beheaded. ... The English Interregnum was the period of republican rule after the English Civil War between the regicide of Charles I in 1649 and the restoration of Charles II in 1660. ... Motto: PAX QUÆRITUR BELLO (English: Peace is sought through war) Anthem: Multiple unofficial anthems Capital London Language(s) English Government Republic Lord Protector  - 1649-1658 Oliver Cromwell Legislature Rump Parliament Barebones Parliament History  - Declaration of Commonwealth May 19, 1649  - Declaration of Breda April 4, 1660 Area 130,395... Motto PAX QUÆRITUR BELLO (English: Peace is sought through war) Anthem Multiple unofficial anthems Capital London Language(s) English; Irish; Scots Gaelic; Welsh Government Republic Lord Protector  - 1653-1658 Oliver Cromwell  - 1658-1659 Richard Cromwell Legislature Parliament (1st, 2nd, 3rd) History  - Instrument of Government December 16, 1653  - Resignation of... Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader best known for his involvement in making England, Scotland and Ireland into a republican Commonwealth and for the brutal war exercised in his conquest of Ireland. ... The Levellers were a mid 17th century English political movement, who came to prominence during the English Civil Wars. ... Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ... A tithe (from Old English teogoþa tenth) is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a (usually) voluntary contribution or as a tax or levy, usually to support a Jewish or Christian religious organization. ... In English history, the Established Church is the Church of England, the church which is established by the Government, supported by it, and of which the monarch is the titular head; until 1920 it also held the same position in Wales. ... The New Model Army became the best known of the various Parliamentarian armies in the English Civil War. ... For other meanings see Diggers (disambiguation) and Levellers (disambiguation) The Diggers were a group begun by Gerrard Winstanley in 1649 which called for a total destruction of the existing social order and replacement with a communistic and agrarian lifestyle based around the precepts of Christian Nationalism, wishing to rid England... The Fifth Monarchy Men were a radical Puritan politico-religious party active from 1649 to 1661 (the Interregnum) during Oliver Cromwells government. ... The Ranters were a radical English sect in the time of the Commonwealth, who were regarded as heretical by the established Church of that period. ...

The Protectorate, which preceded the Restoration, might have continued a little longer if Oliver Cromwell's son, Richard Cromwell, had been capable of carrying on his father's policies. Richard Cromwell eventually resigned his position as Lord Protector, but Britain was not yet ready to be a republic. George Monck, governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, instituted military rule when the younger Cromwell resigned his position in 1659; Monck then began negotiations for Charles to return from exile. The Declaration of Breda paved the way for the restoration and Charles's return from exile, an event which took place on May 23, 1660. Later in London, on May 29, he was restored as king. King Charles II, the first monarch to rule after the English Restoration. ... Richard Cromwell (4 October 1626 – 12 July 1712) was the third son of Oliver Cromwell, and the second Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland, for little over eight months, from 3 September 1658 until 25 May 1659. ... Lord Protector is a particular English title for Heads of State, with two meanings (and full styles) at different periods of history. ... in particular, for the archaizing senses of republic, as a translation of politeia or res publica Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      A republic is a form of government maintained by a state or country whose sovereignty is based on consent of the governed... George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle by Sir Peter Lely, painted 1665–1666. ... Motto (Latin) No one provokes me with impunity Cha togar mfhearg gun dioladh (Scottish Gaelic) Wha daur meddle wi me?(Scots)1 Anthem (Multiple unofficial anthems) Scotlands location in Europe Capital Edinburgh Largest city Glasgow Official languages English, Gaelic and Scots1 Government Constitutional monarchy  -  Monarch Queen Elizabeth II... // Events May 25 - Richard Cromwell resigns as Lord Protector of England following the restoration of the Long Parliament, beginning a second brief period of the republican government called the Commonwealth. ... Breda in the Netherlands, where King Charles II of England resided during his exile, has given its name to his Declaration of Breda (1660). ... is the 143rd day of the year (144th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Events January 1 - Colonel George Monck with his regiment crosses from Scotland to England at the village of Coldstream and begins advance towards London in support of English Restoration. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... May 29 is the 149th day of the year (150th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

After eleven years without a king, the transition back to a true monarchy was quick and almost uneventful. The people might have supported the limiting of the power of the king, but what they did not like were the strictures placed on society by the Puritans. Amongst other things, the Puritans banned gambling, cockfights, the theatre and even Christmas. The arrival of Charles II—The Merry Monarch—brought a relief from the warlike and then strict society that people had lived in for several years. The theatre returned, along with expensive fashions such as the periwig and even more expensive commodities from overseas. The British Empire had been expanding since the late 16th century, and along with much wealth returning to the country, expensive luxury items were also appearing. Sugar and coffee from the East Indies, tea from India and slaves from Africa were all essential items forming the backbone of trade and the first three became the basis of London society. “Kingdom” redirects here. ... The term gambling has had many different meanings depending on the cultural and historical context in which it is used. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Christmas is an annual holiday that celebrates the birth of Jesus. ... This article needs cleanup. ... The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Magnification of grains of sugar, showing their monoclinic hemihedral crystalline structure. ... A cup of coffee Workers sorting and pulping coffee beans in Guatemala Mature coffee fruit still on the plant Coffee is a widely consumed beverage prepared from the roasted seeds — commonly referred to as beans — of the coffee plant. ... The Indies, on the display globe of the Field Museum, Chicago The Indies or East Indies (or East India) is a term used to describe lands of South and South-East Asia, occupying all of the former British India, the present Indian Union, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Maldives, and... Tea leaves in a Chinese gaiwan. ... Slave redirects here. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ...

One in nine of the population of the country is estimated to have lived in London near the end of the Stuart period and, as a hub of trade, expensive goods from all over accumulated there. Coffee houses were becoming the centres of business and social life, and it has also been suggested that tea might have played its own part in making Britain great, as the antiseptic qualities of tea allowed people to live closer together, protecting them from germs, and making the Industrial Revolution possible.^[1] These products can be considered as beginning the consumer society which, while it promoted trade and brought development and riches to society, helped widen the gap between rich and poor. A Street Cafe, Jerusalem, Henry Fenn (1838- ): steel engraving in Picturesque Palestine, ca 1875 A coffeehouse, coffee shop, or caf shares some of the characteristics of a bar, and some of the characteristics of a restaurant. ... An antiseptic solution of iodine applied to a cut Antiseptics (Greek αντί, against, and σηπτικός, putrefactive) are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction. ... The Industrial Revolution was a major shift of technological, socioeconomic, and cultural conditions that occurred in the late 18th century and early 19th century in some Western countries. ... Consumers refers to individuals or households that purchase and use goods and services generated within the economy. ...

At the beginning of the reign of the Stuart kings, James I of England (James VI of Scotland) authorised a new translation of the Bible which was known as the King James Bible or Authorised Version. This was not only an important event in clearly separating the Anglican and Catholic churches, just as the Book of Common Prayer had done fifty years earlier, but as a standard text it also was a major influence on English literature, language and thought for centuries to come. Newspapers, a fairly new invention, soon became important tools of social discourse and the diarists of the time such as Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn are some of the best sources we have of everyday life in Restoration England. James Stuart (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scots as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James I. He ruled in Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567, when he was only one year old. ... This page is about the version of the Bible; for the Harvey Danger album, see King James Version (album). ... The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... For the novel by Joan Didion, see A Book of Common Prayer. ... The term English literature refers to literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by writers not necessarily from England; Joseph Conrad was Polish, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, Salman Rushdie is Indian, V.S... See Diary (novel) for the novel by Chuck Palahniuk. ... Samuel Pepys, FRS (23 February 1633 – 26 May 1703) was an English naval administrator and Member of Parliament, who is now most famous for his diary. ... John Evelyn (October 31, 1620 – February 27, 1706) was an English writer, gardener and diarist. ... King Charles II, the first monarch to rule after the English Restoration. ...

Georgian society

Stuart society ended with the Glorious Revolution, perhaps not all that glorious, but it did show that the power of the king had not recovered from limitations it suffered in the civil war and was still under obligation to the state. One of William III's first actions on coming to power was to sign the Act of Toleration of 1689 which granted rights of free religious worship to many of the Protestant sects which had been formed around the time of the civil war. Baptists, Congregationalists, Methodists, Ranters and Quakers were all allowed to pray freely, although many of these groups had taken the opportunity of the expanding empire and had set themselves up in colonies. The Revolution of 1688, commonly known as the Glorious Revolution, was the overthrow of James II of England in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians and the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). ... William III of England (The Hague, 14 November 1650 – Kensington Palace, 8 March 1702; also known as William II of Scotland and William III of Orange) was a Dutch aristocrat and a Protestant Prince of Orange from his birth, Stadtholder of the main provinces of the Dutch Republic from 28... The Act of Toleration was an act of the English Parliament (24 May 1689) which granted freedom of worship to Nonconformists , Protestants who dissented from the Church of England such as Baptists, Congregationalists, Quakers and Methodists. ... Events Louis XIV of France passed the Code Noir, allowing the full use of slaves in the French colonies. ... Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. ... Congregational churches are Protestant Christian churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation indepedently and autonomously runs its own affairs. ... The Methodist movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity. ... The Ranters were a radical English sect in the time of the Commonwealth, who were regarded as heretical by the established Church of that period. ... The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, or Friends, is a religious community founded in England in the 17th century. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

The Industrial Revolution can be thought of as starting as early as the 16th century, although it did not reach its peak until the 19th century, and the form it took during the Georgian era was an agricultural revolution. Along with developments in technology such as Jethro Tull's seed drill which allowed greater yields, the process of enclosure, which had been altering rural society since the Middle Ages, became unstoppable. More people were made unemployed by being excluded and forced off the land which, despite compensation, often meant having to enter the workhouse, leaving many with a lasting distrust of the law. Criticism from the church did not stop the process, and the new mechanisation that was being introduced needed much larger fields — the layout of the British countryside with the patchwork of fields divided by hedgerows that we see today. As in other major times of inclosure, the poor moved into the cities looking for work, and not only did existing cities grow but small market towns such as Manchester, Sheffield and Leeds became cities simply by weight of population. (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Georgian architecture of The Circus, Bath, built between 1754 and 1768 The Georgian era is a period of British history, normally defined as including the reigns of the kings George I, George II, George III and George IV, i. ... The British Agricultural Revolution describes a period of agricultural development in Britain between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, which saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. ... Jethro Tull Jethro Tull (born March 1672 in Basildon, Berkshire; died 21 February 1741 in Shalbourne, Berkshire (now Wiltshire)) was an English agricultural pioneer during the Industrial Revolution and the Agricultural Revolution. ... Seeder redirects here. ... For other uses of the term see Enclosure (disambiguation) Enclosure (also inclosure) is the process of conversion of common land to private ownership. ... Former workhouse at Nantwich, dating from 1780 A workhouse was a place where people who were unable to support themselves could go to live and work. ... Manchester shown within England Coordinates: , Sovereign state United Kingdom Constituent country England Region North West England Ceremonial county Greater Manchester Admin HQ Manchester City Centre Founded 13th Century City Status 1853 Government  - Type Metropolitan borough, City  - Governing body Manchester City Council Area  - Borough & City 115. ... Sheffield is a city and metropolitan borough in South Yorkshire, England. ... Leeds is a major city in West Yorkshire, England. ...

The agricultural changes also took place in Scotland, which had recently became part of Britain by the Act of Union 1707, with equally or even more destructive results. Lowland Clearances first altered the make-up of southern Scotland, and fifty years later the north suffered under the Highland Clearances. The clearance of the north had much more to do with politics and the failure of the Jacobite rebellion than the merely economic changes taking place elsewhere, but they permanently altered Scotland. The subsistence farming which had existed in the Highlands since ancient times was swept away and replaced by sheep farming, along with much of the culture of the clan based society. Many Scottish people either entered the big cities or emigrated. Motto (Latin) No one provokes me with impunity Cha togar mfhearg gun dioladh (Scottish Gaelic) Wha daur meddle wi me?(Scots)1 Anthem (Multiple unofficial anthems) Scotlands location in Europe Capital Edinburgh Largest city Glasgow Official languages English, Gaelic and Scots1 Government Constitutional monarchy  -  Monarch Queen Elizabeth II... The Acts of Union were twin Acts of Parliament passed in 1707 (taking effect on 26 March) by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. ... The Lowland Clearances (Scottish Gaelic: Fuadaich nan Galltachd) in Scotland were one of the results of the British Agricultural Revolution, which changed the traditional system of agriculture which had existed in Lowland Scotland for hundreds of years. ... The Highland Clearances (Scottish Gaelic: Fuadaich nan Gàidheal, the expulsion of the Gael) is a name given to the forced displacement of the population of the Scottish Highlands from their ancient ways of warrior clan subsistence farming, leading to mass emigration. ... This article is not about the Jacobite Orthodox Church, nor is it about Jacobinism or the earlier Jacobean period. ... Location Geography Area Ranked 1st  - Total 30,659 km²  - % Water  ? Admin HQ Inverness ISO 3166-2 GB-HLD ONS code 00QT Demographics Population Ranked 7th  - Total (2005) 213,590  - Density 8 / km² Politics The Highland Council http://www. ... Species See text. ... Clan map of Scotland Scottish clans (from Old Gaelic clann, children), give a sense of identity and shared descent to people in Scotland and to their relations throughout the world, with a formal structure of Clan Chiefs officially registered with the court of the Lord Lyon, King of Arms which...

Despite changes taking place in Britain throughout Georgian times, it is often noted that the country was relatively calm and stable, certainly compared with the revolutions and wars which were convulsing Europe at the time. The politics of the French Revolution did not translate directly into British society to spark an equally seismic revolution, nor did the loss of the American Colonies dramatically weaken or disrupt Britain. Part of the economic stability can be ascribed to wealth gained through the colonisation of India. Britain's more gradual adoption of the radical politics of the time is often explained by the growth in Methodism among the poor and working classes, which diverted their attention to more spiritual rather than physical revolutions. Another factor frequently cited for the stable basis which the burgeoning industrial revolution would be built on is the fact of the Civil War in the 17th century. Although not in living memory, the war that raged between king and parliament still influenced national life, and fear of yet another damaging revolution is thought to have prevented many from engaging in such activities. World map showing the location of Europe. ... The French Revolution (1789–1815) was a period of political and social upheaval in the political history of France and Europe as a whole, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on... John Trumbulls Declaration of Independence, showing the five-man committee in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress The American Revolution refers to the period during the last half of the 18th century in which the Thirteen Colonies that... // Company Rule, 1757-1857 Expansion and territory It was not until the middle of the 19th century that almost all of the territory that now constitutes Bangladesh, India and Pakistan came under the rule of the British East India Company. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Wycliffe Tyndale · Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      For school of ancient... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ...

Victorian era

The social changes during the Victorian era were wide-ranging and fundamental, leaving their mark not only upon Britain but upon much of the world which was under Britain's influence during the 19th century. It can even be argued that these changes eclipsed the massive shifts in society during the 20th century; certainly many of the developments of the 20th century have their roots in the 19th. The technology of the Industrial Revolution had a great impact on society. Inventions not only introduced new industries for employment, but the products and services produced also altered society. Mining to extract the coal and other raw materials needed to fuel the Industrial Revolution was a major new industry, and before 1842 even women worked in the mines. Queen Victoria (shown here on the morning of her accession to the Throne, 20 June 1837) gave her name to the historic era The Victorian era of the United Kingdom marked the height of the British Industrial Revolution and the apex of the British Empire. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... The Industrial Revolution was a major shift of technological, socioeconomic, and cultural conditions that occurred in the late 18th century and early 19th century in some Western countries. ... Chuquicamata, the largest open pit copper mine in the world, Chile. ... 1842 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ...

The status of the poor is one area in which huge changes occurred. A good illustration of the differences between life in the Georgian and Victorian eras are the writings of two of Britain's greatest authors, Jane Austen and Charles Dickens. Both writers held a fascination for people, society and the details of everyday life but in Austen the poor are almost absent, mainly because they were still the rural poor, remote and almost absent from the minds of the middle classes. For Dickens, only a few years later, the poor were his main subject, as he had partly suffered their fate. The poor now were an unavoidable part of urban society and their existence and plight could not be ignored. Industrialisation made large profits for the entrepreneurs of the times, and their success was in contrast not only to the farm workers who were in competition with imported produce but also to the aristocracy whose landowning wealth was now becoming less significant than business wealth. It is about this time that the class system, always seen as a hallmark of Britain, began to flourish. Probably inspired by the even more complex caste system of newly colonised India, the British class system created an intricate hierarchy of people which contrasted the new and old rich, the skilled and unskilled, the rural and urban and many more. 1873 engraving of Jane Austen, based on a portrait drawn by her sister Cassandra. ... “Dickens” redirects here. ... Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social restriction and social stratification, enforced by law or common practice, based on endogamy, occupation, economic status, race, ethnicity, etc. ...

John Wesley's Methodists had succeeded in their campaign for the abolition of slavery in 1807 and Britain began its work to eradicate it worldwide, but at the same time indentured labour and near-slavery were still common, even at the heart of Empire. Some of the first attacks on industrialisation were the Luddites' destruction of machines, but this had less to do with factory conditions and more to do with machines mass-producing linen much quicker and cheaper than the handmade products of skilled labourers. The army was called to the areas of Luddite activity such as Lancashire and Yorkshire and for a time there were more British soldiers controlling the Luddites than fighting Napoléon in Spain. The squalid, dangerous and oppressive conditions of many of the new Victorian factories and the surrounding communities which rose to service them became important issues of discontent, and the workers began to form trade unions to get their working conditions addressed. John Wesley (June 28 [O.S. June 17] 1703 – March 2, 1791) was an eighteenth-century Anglican minister and Christian theologian who was an early leader in the Methodist movement. ... The Methodist movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity. ... Slave redirects here. ... Year 1807 (MDCCCVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar). ... An Indentured servant is an unfree labourer under contract to work (for a specified amount of time) for another person, often without any pay, but in exchange for accommodation, food, other essentials and/or free passage to a new country. ... The Luddites were a group of English workers in the early 1800s who protested – often by destroying machines – against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution that they felt threatened their jobs. ... Lancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England, bounded to the west by the Irish Sea. ... Look up Yorkshire in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Bonaparte as general, by Antoine-Jean Gros. ... A trade union or labor union is a continuous association of wage-earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment. ...

The first unions were feared and distrusted by the government, which tried in different ways to ban them. The most widely known case was that of the Tolpuddle Martyrs of 1834, an early attempt at a union whose members were tried on a spurious charge, found guilty and transported to Australia. The sentence was challenged and they were released shortly afterwards, but unions were still threatened. It was not until the formation of the TUC in 1868 and the passing of the Trade Union Act 1871 that union membership became reasonably legitimate. Many pieces of legislation were passed to improve working conditions, including the Ten