NationMaster - Encyclopedia: History of German settlement in Eastern Europe

Historically, large populations of ethnic Germans have been concentrated in Central and Eastern Europe. In German, these populations are commonly referred to as Volksdeutsche. The number of ethnic Germans in Central and Eastern Europe dropped dramatically as the result of the German exodus from Eastern Europe. However, there are still a substantial number of ethnic Germans in the countries that are now Germany and Austria's neighbors to the east—Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, and Slovenia. In addition, there are or have been significant populations in such areas as Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, and Russia. // Part of the motivation behind the territorial changes are based on events in the history of Germany and Europe, especially Eastern Europe. ... This article gives an overview of the History of Germany. ... The Palace of Versailles, where the treaty was signed. ... The Silesian Uprisings (Polish: Powstania Å›lÄ…skie) was a series of three military insurections (1919-1921) of the Polish people in the Upper Silesia region against the German/Prussian forces in order to force them out the region and join it with Poland, that regained her independence after the World... A Polish map showing the territory known as the Polish Corridor The Polish Corridor was the name given to a strip of territory which was transferred from Germany to Poland by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. ... The Saar, corresponding to the current German state of the Saarland, was from governed by the League of Nations under the Treaty of Versailles from 1920 until a plebicite in 1935, when it was returned to Germany. ... The Remilitarization of the Rhineland by the German Army took place on 7 March, 1936 when German forces entered the Rhineland. ... German troops march into Austria on 12 March 1938. ... For the annual global security meeting held in Munich, see Munich Conference on Security Policy Chamberlain holds the paper containing the resolution to commit to peaceful methods signed by both Hitler and himself on his return from Germany in September 1938. ... National assembly meeting in St. ... Reichsgau and General Governement in 1941 At the beginning of World War II, significant Polish areas were annexed by Nazi Germany. ... The Big Three at the Yalta Conference, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin. ... Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin meeting at the Potsdam Conference on July 18, 1945. ... The Treaty of Zgorzelec or the Treaty between the Republic of Poland and the German Democratic Republic concerning the demarcation of the established and existing Polish-German state border was signed in Zgorzelec, Lower Silesia, Poland on July 6, 1950 by the prime ministers Józef Cyrankiewicz of Poland and... The Treaty of Warsaw is a treaty between West Germany and the Peoples Republic of Poland. ... The Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany is the final peace treaty negotiated between the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, and the Four Powers which occupied Germany at the end of World War II in Europe: France, the United Kingdom, the United States and... NOTE: Although the terms Recovered Territories, or Regained Territories have clear meanings in Poland and Polish historiography, they are not accepted terms or concepts outside of Poland, especially in Germany and the other German-speaking countries. ... Former eastern territories of Germany (German: ehemalige deutsche Ostgebiete) describes collectively those provinces or regions east of the Oder-Neisse line which were internationally recognised as part of the territory of Germany after the formation of the German Empire in 1871. ... The Oder-Neisse line (German: , Polish: ) marked the border between German Democratic Republic and Poland between 1950 and 1990. ... Main article: History of Poland In the period following its emergence in the 10th century, the Polish nation was led by a series of strong rulers who converted the Poles to Christianity, created a strong Central European state and integrated Poland into European culture. ... Ethnic Germans (usually simply called Germans, in German Volksdeutsche) are those who are considered, by themselves or others, to be ethnically German rather than anything else but who do not live within the Federal Republic of Germany nor hold its citizenship. ... Central Europe The Alpine Countries and the VisegrÃ¡d Group (Political map, 2004) Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ... Regions of Europe as delineated by the United Nations (UN definition of Eastern Europe marked salmon): Northern Europe Western Europe Eastern Europe Southern Europe Pre-1989 division between the West (grey) and Eastern Bloc (orange) superimposed on current national boundaries: Russia (dark orange), other countries of the former USSR (medium... Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans) is a historical term which arose in the early 20th century to apply for Germans living outside of the German Empire. ... It has been suggested that Expulsion of Germans after World_War II be merged into this article or section. ...

The German presence in Central and Eastern Europe is rooted in centuries of history, that of Prussia, Austria-Hungary, Bukovina, Königsberg (now Kaliningrad), Bessarabia and of a fractious Germany and eastward parts of Europe made up of many city states, whose royal families ruled over multi-ethnic populations. Motto: Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital KÃ¶nigsberg, later Berlin Political structure Duchy, Kingdom, Republic Duke1 - 1525â€“68 Albert I - 1688â€“1701 Frederick III King1 - 1701â€“13 Frederick I - 1888â€“1918 William II Prime Minister1,2... Austria-Hungary, also known as the Dual monarchy (or: the k. ... Bukovina (Ukrainian: , Bukovyna; Romanian: Bucovina; German and Polish: Bukowina; see also other languages) is a historical region on the northern slopes of the northeastern Carpathian Mountains and the adjoining plains. ... Government Russia District Subdivision Russia Northwestern Federal District Kaliningrad Oblast Mayor Yuri Savenko (2005) Geographical characteristics Area - City 215. ... 1927 map of Bessarabia from Charles Upson Clarks book Bessarabia or Bessarabiya (Basarabia in Romanian, Besarabya in Turkish, Ð‘ÐµÑÐ°Ñ€Ð°Ð±Ñ–Ñ in Ukrainian) is a historical term for the geographic entity in Eastern Europe bounded by the Dniester River on the East and the Prut River on the West. ...

Every city of even modest size as far east as Russia had a German quarter and a Jewish quarter (though, of course, there were relatively few Jews east of the Pale of Settlement). Travellers along any road would pass through, for example, a German village, then a Czech village, then a Polish village, etc., depending on the region. A Jewish quarter is the area of a city traditionally inhabited by Jews. ... The Pale of Settlement (Russian: Ð§ÐµÑ€Ñ‚Ð° Ð¾ÑÐµÐ´Ð»Ð¾ÑÑ‚Ð¸ - cherta osedlosti) was a western border region of Imperial Russia in which permanent residence of Jews was allowed, extending from the pale or demarcation line, to near the border with eastern/central Europe. ...

Migration Period

Near the end of the Migration Period (300-900 AD) that brought the Germanic and Slavic tribes as well as the Huns, etc., to what is now Central Europe, Slavs expanded westwards at the same time as Germans expanded eastwards. The result was German colonization as far east as Romania, and Slavic colonization as far west as present-day Lübeck (on the Baltic Sea), Hamburg (connected to the North Sea), and along the river Elbe and its tributary Saale further south. Human migration denotes any movement of groups of people from one locality to another, rather than of individual wanderers. ... Human migration denotes any movement of groups of people from one locality to another, rather than of individual wanderers. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Colonialism. ... Hamburg from above Hamburgs motto: May the posterity endeavour with dignity to conserve the freedom, which the forefathers acquired. ...

The migration movement may be divided into two phases; the first phase, between AD 300 and 500, largely seen from the Mediterranean perspective, put Germanic peoples in control of most areas of the former Western Roman Empire. (See also: Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Burgundians, Alans, Langobards, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Suebi, Alamanni). The first to formally enter Roman territory -- as refugees from the Huns -- were the Visigoths in 376. Tolerated by the Romans on condition that they defend the Danube frontier, they rebelled, eventually invading Italy and sacking Rome itself (410) before settling in the Iberia and founding a 200-year-long kingdom there. They were followed into Roman territory by the Ostrogoths led by Theodoric the Great, settling in Italy itself. The Western Roman Empire is the western half of the Roman Empire after its division by Diocletian in 286. ... This article deals with the continental Ostrogoths. ... Migrations The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe (the Ostrogoths being the other). ... The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose old form in Old Norse still was Burgundarholmr (the Island of the Burgundians), and from here to mainland Europe. ... The Alans, Alani, Alauni or Halani were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people, warlike nomadic pastoralists of varied backgrounds, who spoke an Iranian language and to a large extent shared a common culture. ... The Lombards (Latin Langobardi, from which the alternative name Longobards found in older English texts), were a Germanic people originally from Scandinavia that entered the late Roman Empire. ... White cliffs of Dover in England White cliffs of Rugen down the Baltic coast from Schleswig The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the cultural ancestor of Angeln, a modern district located in Schleswig, Germany. ... For other uses, see Saxon (disambiguation). ... Jutland peninsula The Jutes were a Germanic people who are believed to have originated from Jutland in modern Denmark and part of the Frisian coast. ... Suebi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... area settled by the Alamanni, and sites of Roman-Alamannic battles, 3rd to 6th century The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main, land that is today part of Germany. ... The Huns were a Turkic confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads. ... Migrations The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe (the Ostrogoths being the other). ... Events Visigoths appear on the Danube and request entry into the Roman Empire in their flight from the Huns Births Cyril of Alexandria, theologian Deaths Categories: 376 ... Events Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Roman Emperor. ... The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe. ... This article deals with the continental Ostrogoths. ... Gold medallion of Theodoric, discovered at Sinigaglia, Italy in the 19th century. ...

In Gaul, the Franks, a fusion of western Germanic tribes whose leaders had been strongly aligned with Rome, entered Roman lands more gradually and peacefully during the 5th century, and were generally accepted as rulers by the Roman-Gaulish population. Fending off challenges from the Allemanni, Burgundians and Visigoths, the Frankish kingdom became the nucleus of the future states of France and Germany. Meanwhile Roman Britain was more slowly conquered by Angles and Saxons. Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given, in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 - 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... White cliffs of Dover in England White cliffs of Rugen down the Baltic coast from Schleswig The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the cultural ancestor of Angeln, a modern district located in Schleswig, Germany. ... For other uses, see Saxon (disambiguation). ...

The second phase, between AD 500 and 700, saw Slavic tribes settling in Eastern Europe, particularly in eastern Magna Germania, and gradually making it predominantly Slavic. The Bulgars, who were present in far eastern Europe since the second century, in the seventh century expanded their kingdom to eastern Balkan territory of the Byzantine Empire. Distribution of Slavic people by language The Slavic peoples (Greek: , Latin: , Arabic: â€Ž Saqaliba, Old Church Slavonic: , Russian: , Polish: , Serbian: ), Croatian: , Bulgarian: ) are a linguistic and ethnic branch of Indo-European peoples, living mainly in Europe, where they constitute roughly a third of the population. ... Map of the Roman Empire and Germania Magna in the early 2nd century. ... Map showing the location of Bulgars, 650. ... ( 1st century - 2nd century - 3rd century - other centuries) Events Roman Empire governed by the Five Good Emperors ( 96– 180) – Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius. ... ( 6th century - 7th century - 8th century - other centuries) Events Islam starts in Arabia, the Quran is written, and Arabs subjugate Syria, Iraq, Persia, Egypt, North Africa and Central Asia to Islam. ... Old Great Bulgaria or Great Bulgaria (Î— Ï€Î±Î»Î±Î¹Î¬ Î¼ÎµÎ³Î¬Î»Î· Î’Î¿Ï…Î»Î³Î±ÏÎ¯Î± in Byzantine chronicles; alternative name: Onoguria/Onoghuria) was a Bulgar state, founded by Kubrat, which briefly existed in the 7th century north of the Caucasus mountains in the steppe between the rivers Dnieper and Lower Volga[1]. // Main article: Kubrat Kubrat (also Kurt or... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ...

The Arabs tried to invade Europe via Asia Minor in the second half of the seventh century and the early eighth century, but were eventually defeated at the siege of Constantinople by the joint forces of Byzantium and Bulgaria in 717-18. At the same time, they invaded Europe via Gibraltar, conquering Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula) from the Visigoths in 711 before finally being halted by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732. These battles largely fixed the frontier between Christendom and Islam for the next three centuries. The Arabs (Arabic: Ø¹Ø±Ø¨ ) are an ethnic group found throughout the Middle East and North Africa. ... This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ... Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to... Byzantium, present day Istanbul, was an ancient Greek city-state, which according to legend was founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after their king Byzas or Byzantas (Î’ÏÎ¶Î±Ï‚ or Î’ÏÎ¶Î±Î½Ï„Î±Ï‚ in Greek). ... March 21 - Battle of Vincy between Charles Martel and Ragenfrid. ... Events Pelayo established the Kingdom of Asturias in the Iberian peninsula (modern day Portugal and Spain). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe. ... See also: phone number 711. ... Combatants Carolingian Franks Umayyad Caliphate Commanders Charles Martel â€˜Abd-al-Raá¸¥mÄn al-GhÄfiqÄ«â€ Strength Unknown, possibly 20,000 to 30,000 [1] Unknown, but the earliest Muslim sources, still after the era of the battle[2] mention a figure of 80,000. ...

During the eighth to tenth centuries, not usually counted as part of the Migrations Period but still within the Early Middle Ages, new waves of migration, first of the Magyars and later of the Turkic peoples, as well as Viking expansion from Scandinavia, threatened the newly established order of the Frankish Empire in Central Europe. Justinians wife Theodora and her retinue, in a 6th century mosaic from the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is about the various peoples speaking one of the Turkic languages. ... The term Viking commonly denotes the ship-borne explorers, traders, and warriors of the Norsemen (literally, men from the north) who originated in Scandinavia and raided the coasts of the British Isles, France and other parts of Europe as far east as the Volga River in Russia from the late... The Frankish Empire was the territory of the Franks, from the 5th to the 10th centuries, from 481 ruled by Clovis I of the Merovingian Dynasty, the first king of all the Franks. ...

Middle Ages

The medieval German Ostsiedlung or ("east colonization") refers to the expansion of German culture, language, states, and settlement eastern European regions inhabited by Slavs and Balts. Evolution of German linguistic area from 700 to 1950 Settlement in the East (German: ), also known as German eastward expansion, refers to the eastward migration and settlement of Germans into regions inhabited since the Great Migrations by the Balts, Romanians, Hungarians and, since about the 8th century, the Slavs. ... Evolution of German linguistic area from 700 to 1950 Settlement in the East (German: ), also known as German eastward expansion, refers to the eastward migration and settlement of Germans into regions inhabited since the Great Migrations by the Balts, Romanians, Hungarians and, since about the 8th century, the Slavs. ... Distribution of Slavic people by language The Slavic peoples (Greek: , Latin: , Arabic: â€Ž Saqaliba, Old Church Slavonic: , Russian: , Polish: , Serbian: ), Croatian: , Bulgarian: ) are a linguistic and ethnic branch of Indo-European peoples, living mainly in Europe, where they constitute roughly a third of the population. ... The Baltic Sea The Balts or Baltic peoples have lived around the eastern coast of Mare Suebicum, or Baltic Sea (Tacitus, AD 98) since ancient times. ...

After Christianization, the superior organization of the Roman Catholic Church led to further German expansion, known as the medieval Drang nach Osten. By 1100 or so, various rulers were often inviting ethnic Germans to their territories as craftsmen, miners, or farmers. This does not cite its references or sources. ...

Population growth during the High Middle Ages stimulated movement of peoples from the Rhenish, Flemish, and Saxon territories of the Holy Roman Empire eastwards into the less-populated Baltic region and Poland. These movements were supported by the German nobility, the Slavic kings and dukes, and the medieval Church. The majority of this settlement was peaceful, although it sometimes took place at the expense of Slavs and pagan Balts (see Northern Crusades). The cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the High Middle Ages. ... The Rhineland (Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany. ... Flanders (Dutch: ) has several main meanings: the social, cultural and linguistical, scientific and educational, economical and political community of the Flemings; generally called the Flemish community (others refer to this as the Flemish nation) which is, with over 6 million inhabitants, the majority of all Belgians; the constituent governing institution... With an area of 47,618 km and nearly eight million inhabitants, Lower Saxony (German Niedersachsen) lies in north-western Germany and is second in area and fourth in population among the countrys sixteen Bundesl nder (federal states). ... The extent of the Holy Roman Empire in c. ... The Teutonic knights in Pskov in 1240. ...

Settlement in the East (German: Ostsiedlung), also known as German eastward expansion, refers to the eastward migration and settlement of Germans into regions inhabited since the Great Migrations by Balts, Romanians, Hungarians and, since about the 8th century, the Slavs.^[1] Human migration denotes any movement of groups of people from one locality to another, rather than of individual wanderers. ... The Baltic Sea The Balts or Baltic peoples have lived around the eastern coast of Mare Suebicum, or Baltic Sea (Tacitus, AD 98) since ancient times. ... Distribution of Slavic people by language The Slavic peoples (Greek: , Latin: , Arabic: â€Ž Saqaliba, Old Church Slavonic: , Russian: , Polish: , Serbian: ), Croatian: , Bulgarian: ) are a linguistic and ethnic branch of Indo-European peoples, living mainly in Europe, where they constitute roughly a third of the population. ...

Ostsiedlung began around the 12th century, during the High Middle Ages, but accelerated along the Baltic with the advent of the Teutonic Order.^[2] In German scholarship^{[citation needed]}, it refers especially to the reassertion of Saxon authority over Sorbian or Wendish areas, especially Brandenburg by Albert the Bear. Teutonic Knights, charging into battle. ... For other uses, see Saxon (disambiguation). ... This article or section should be merged with List of Sorbian languages The Sorbian languages are members of the West Slavic branch of languages spoken in eastern Germany. ... Wends (German: Wenden, Latin: Venedi) is the English name for some Slavic people from north-central Europe. ... (Lower Sorbian: Bramborska; Upper Sorbian: Braniborska) is one of Germanys sixteen BundeslÃ¤nder (federal states). ... Albert I (c. ...

The Medieval Ostsiedlung began when Germans settled east of the Elbe and Saale rivers, regions largely inhabited by Polabian Slavs. Likewise, in Styria and Carinthia, German communities took form in areas inhabited by Slovenians. The emigration of the inhabitants from the Valais canton in Switzerland to the areas that had been settled before by the Romans had to some extent the same preconditions as the colonisation of the East, for example, Romania. This article is about a river in Central Europe. ... Length 413 km Elevation of the source 728 m Average discharge ? mÂ³/s Area watershed ? kmÂ² Origin Germany Mouth Elbe Basin countries Germany Saale is the name of two rivers in Germany: the Saxonian Saale (German: SÃ¤chsische Saale) and the Franconian Saale (German: FrÃ¤nkische Saale). ... Polabian Slavs is a collective term applied to a number of Slavic tribes living along the Elbe, between the Baltic Sea to the north, Solau to the west and Sudetes to the south. ... Styria (Steiermark in German, Štajerska in Slovenian) can refer to: Styria - a federal state of Austria Styria - an informal province in Slovenia Styria - a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire and crownland of Austria-Hungary This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that... Carinthia (Kärnten in German, Koroška in Slovenian) can refer to: Carinthia - a federal state of Austria Carinthia - an informal province in Slovenia Carinthia - a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire and crownland of Austria_Hungary Karantania - the first Slovenian state This is a disambiguation page — a navigational... The Valais (German: ) is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland in the south-western part of the country, in the Pennine Alps around the valley of the Rhone River from its springs to Lake Geneva. ... Area under Roman control Roman Republic Roman Empire Western Empire Eastern Empire Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ...

In the middle of the 14th century, the settling progress slowed as a result of the Black Death; in addition, the most arable and promising regions were largely occupied. Local Slavic leaders in late Medieval Pomerania and Silesia continued inviting German settlers to their territories. This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... Illustration of the Black Death from the Toggenburg Bible (1411). ... Duchy of Pomerania ruled by the slavic dynasty of Griffits (Polish: Gryfici, German: Greiffen) was a semi-independent state in the 17th century. ... Silesia (Czech: ; German: ; Latin: ; Polish: ; Silesian: ÅšlÃ³nsk) is a historical region in central Europe. ...

Hanseatic League

At the same time, trade in the Baltic Sea and Eastern Central Europe became dominated by Germans through the Hanseatic League. Along the trade routes, Hanseatic trade stations became centers of Germanness with large, relatively wealthy German populations and their influence on the worldly powers. Carta marina of the Baltic Sea region (1539). ... Hanseatic Leagues formation in Hamburg, Germany (circa 1241). ... Carta marina of the Baltic Sea region (1539). ...

The Hanseatic League (German: die Hanse, Dutch: de Hanze, Estonian: hansa, Polish: Hanza, Russian: Ганза (Ganza), Danish: Hansestæderne, Swedish: Hansan) was an alliance of trading guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly over the Baltic Sea, to a certain extent the North Sea, and most of Northern Europe for a time in the later Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, between the 13th and 17th centuries. Carta marina of the Baltic Sea region (1539). ... A military alliance is an agreement between two, or more, countries; related to wartime planning, commitments, or contingencies; such agreements can be both defensive and offensive. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... For the guitar manufacturer, see Guild Guitar Company. ... In economics, a monopoly (from the Latin word monopolium - Greek language monos, one + polein, to sell) is defined as a persistent market situation where there is only one provider of a product or service. ... The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, from 53Â°N to 66Â°N latitude and from 20Â°E to 26Â°E longitude. ... The North Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, located between the coasts of Norway and Denmark in the east, the coast of the British Isles in the west, and the German, Dutch, Belgian and French coasts in the south. ... Northern Europe is marked in dark blue Northern Europe is a name of the northern part of the European continent. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into modernity. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ...

Historians generally trace the origins of the Hanseatic League to the foundation of the Northern German town of Lübeck, established in 1158/1159 after the capture of the area from the Count of Schauenburg and Holstein by Henry the Lion, the Duke of Saxony. Carta marina of the Baltic Sea region (1539). ... The title of this article contains the character Ã¼. Where it is unavailable or not desired, the name may be represented as Luebeck. ... Events January 11 - Vladislav II becomes King of Bohemia End of the formal reign of Emperor Go-Shirakawa of Japan, also the beginning of his cloistered rule, which will last to his death in 1192. ... In the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinals are given the right of election of the Pope. ... Coronation of Henry the Lion and Matilda of England (1188) Henry the Lion (face of statue on his tomb in Brunswick Cathedral) Henry the Lion (1129 - August 6, 1195; in German, Heinrich der LÃ¶we) was a member of the Welf dynasty and Duke of Saxony as Henry III since... The Duchy of Saxony was a medieval Duchy covering the greater part of Northern Germany. ...

Exploratory trading adventures, raids and piracy had occurred earlier throughout the Baltic (see Vikings) — the sailors of Gotland sailed up rivers as far away as Novgorod, for example — but the scale of international economy in the Baltic area remained insignificant before the growth of the Hanseatic League. A raid is a brief attack, normally performed by a small military force of commandos, or by irregulars. ... The flag of 18th-century pirate Calico Jack Piracy is robbery committed at sea, or sometimes on the shore, by an agent without a commission from a sovereign nation. ... The term Viking commonly denotes the ship-borne explorers, traders, and warriors of the Norsemen (literally, men from the north) who originated in Scandinavia and raided the coasts of the British Isles, France and other parts of Europe as far east as the Volga River in Russia from the late... This article is about naval crewpeople; for other meanings, see sailor (disambiguation). ... is a county and province of Sweden and the largest island in the Baltic Sea. ... Velikiy Novgorod (Russian: ) is the foremost historic city of North-Western Russia, situated on the M10(E95) federal highway connecting Moscow and St. ...

German cities achieved domination of trade in the Baltic with striking speed over the next century, and Lübeck became a central node in all the sea-borne trade that linked the areas around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. The 15th century saw the climax of Lübeck's hegemony. (Visby, one of the midwives of the Hanseatic league in 1358, declined to become a member. Visby dominated trade in the Baltic before the Hanseatic league, and with its monopolistic ideology, suppressed the Gotlandic free-trade competition.) The North Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, located between the coasts of Norway and Denmark in the east, the coast of the British Isles in the west, and the German, Dutch, Belgian and French coasts in the south. ... Visby is the largest city on the Swedish island of Gotland;it is arguably the best-preserved medieval town in Scandinavia, and has become a UNESCO World Heritage Site. ... is a county and province of Sweden and the largest island in the Baltic Sea. ...

Teutonic Knights

From the latter half of the 13th century to the 15th century, the crusading Teutonic Knights ruled over the lands of Prussia through their monastic state. The Knights' expansionist policies brought them into conflict with the newly-reunited Kingdom of Poland and embroiled them in several wars, culminating in the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War, whereby the united armies of Poland and Lithuania, bolstered by Bohemian mercenaries, defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Tannenberg in 1410. Its defeat was formalised in the Second Treaty of Thorn in 1466 ending the Thirteen Years' War, leaving western Prussia under Polish control as the province of Royal Prussia and eastern Prussia remaining under the knights, but as a fief of Poland. Hermann von Salza (c. ... File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Malbork Castle (German: ) was built by the Teutonic Order as Ordensburg and named Marienburg (literally Marys Castle). The city which grew around it was also named Marienburg, now called Malbork. ... Hermann von Salza (c. ... Nogat is one of the arms of the Vistula river, in the Vistula delta. ... Hermann von Salza (c. ... Motto: Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital KÃ¶nigsberg, later Berlin Political structure Duchy, Kingdom, Republic Duke1 - 1525â€“68 Albert I - 1688â€“1701 Frederick III King1 - 1701â€“13 Frederick I - 1888â€“1918 William II Prime Minister1,2... This article needs to be wikified. ... The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state in the years between the death of Casimir III in 1370 and the Union of Lublin in 1569. ... Grunwald, painted by Wojciech Kossak. ... Flag of Bohemia Bohemia (Czech: ; German: ) is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western and middle thirds of the Czech Republic. ... There were two battles, nearly 500 years apart, that bear the name Battle of Tannenberg: Battle of Tannenberg (1410) Battle of Tannenberg (1914) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The Second Treaty of ToruÅ„, Zweiter Friede von Thorn, (also referred to as Peace of ToruÅ„ 1466) was a peace treaty signed in the Hanse city of Thorn/ToruÅ„ on October 19, 1466 between the Polish king, the Prussian cities, and duke of Pomerania on one side, and the Teutonic... The Thirteen Years War (also called the War of the Cities) started out as an uprising by Prussian cities and the local nobility with the goal of gaining independence from the Teutonic Knights. ... Flag Map of Royal Prussia (light pink) Government Monarchy History - Established October 19, 1466 - Loss of autonomy 1 July 1569 - Annexed August 5, 1772 Royal Prussia (German: ; Polish: ) was a province of the Kingdom of Poland and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772. ... Under the system of feudalism, a fiefdom, fief, feud or fee, consisted of heritable lands or revenue-producing property granted by a liege lord in return for a vassal knights service (usually fealty, military service, and security). ...

The Teutonic Order lost eastern Prussia when, with the advance of Lutheranism, Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach secularized the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order in 1525, after having converted to Lutheran Protestantism, establishing himself as Duke Albert of Prussia and a vassal of the Polish crown (see Prussian Homage). Walther von Cronberg, the next Grand Master, was enfeoffed with the title to Prussia after the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, but the Order never regained possession of the territory. Elector and Duke Frederick William succeeded in revoking Polish sovereignty over the largely Germanized Duchy of Prussia in 1660. Image File history File links Ethnic map of Prussia File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Ethnic map of Prussia File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1329x1775, 1252 KB) Opis en: Statue of Albrecht von Hohenzollern-Ansbach, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, Castle of Malbork, Poland pl: Pomnik Albrechta von Hohenzollern-Ansbach, Wielkiego Mistrza Zakonu KrzyÅ¼ackiego, Zamek w Malborku, Polska Author: Jan JerszyÅ„ski (2005... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1329x1775, 1252 KB) Opis en: Statue of Albrecht von Hohenzollern-Ansbach, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, Castle of Malbork, Poland pl: Pomnik Albrechta von Hohenzollern-Ansbach, Wielkiego Mistrza Zakonu KrzyÅ¼ackiego, Zamek w Malborku, Polska Author: Jan JerszyÅ„ski (2005... Albert (May 16, 1490 - March 20, 1568), (Albertus in Latin, Margrave Albrecht of Brandenburg in German) Grand Master of the Teutonic Order and first duke of Ducal Prussia, was the third son of Frederick of Hohenzollern, prince of Ansbach and Bayreuth, and Sophia, daughter of Casimir IV Jagiello Grand Duke... Malbork Castle 2003. ... Lutheranism is a movement within Christianity that began with the theological insights of Martin Luther in the 16th century. ... Albert (May 16, 1490 - March 20, 1568), (Albertus in Latin, Margrave Albrecht of Brandenburg in German) Grand Master of the Teutonic Order and first duke of Ducal Prussia, was the third son of Frederick of Hohenzollern, prince of Ansbach and Bayreuth, and Sophia, daughter of Casimir IV Jagiello Grand Duke... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Look up vassal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Prussian Homage by Jan Matejko The Prussian Homage or Prussian Tribute (Polish: hoÅ‚d pruski) was the formal investment of Albert of Prussia as duke of the Polish fief of Ducal Prussia. ... Reading of the Confessio Augustana by Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Augsburg, 1530 The Diet of Augsburg were the meetings of the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire in the German city of Augsburg. ... Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. ...

Ethnic Germans in Eastern Europe

Thus some of the people whom we today often consider "Germans", with a common culture and worldview very different from that of the surrounding rural peoples, colonized as far north of present-day Germany as Bergen (in Norway), Stockholm (in Sweden), and Vyborg (in Russia). At the same time, it is important to note that the Hanseatic League was not exclusively German in any ethnic sense. Many towns who joined the league should not at all be characterized as "German"; they were outside of the Holy Roman Empire, which even in itself was not in any way exclusively German.

It is thus that some groups, such as the Baltic Germans, the Volga Germans, and the Transylvanian Saxons, had established residence in the eastern Baltic, southern Russia, and what is now Romania, respectively. By the 1500s, much of Pomerania, Prussia, the Sudetenland, Bessarabia, Galicia, South Tyrol, Carniola, and Lower Styria had many German cities and villages. Numerous transfers and migrations occurred later.

18th century

Partitions of Poland

After the Partitions of Poland by the Kingdom of Prussia, Austria, and the Russian Empire in the late 18th century, Prussia gained much of western Poland. Russia and Sweden eventually conquered the lands taken by the Livonian Order in Estonia and Livonia. The Partitions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: RozbiÃ³r Polski or Rozbiory Polski; Lithuanian: Lietuvos-Lenkijos padalijimai, Belarusian: ÐŸÐ°Ð´Ð·ÐµÐ»Ñ‹ Ð ÑÑ‡Ñ‹ ÐŸÐ°ÑÐ¿Ð°Ð»Ñ–Ñ‚Ð°Ð¹) took place in the 18th century and ended the existence of the sovereign Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... Flag of Prussia (1894 - 1918) The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ... Anthem: God Save the Tsar! Russian Empire in 1914 Capital Saint Petersburg Language(s) Russian Government Monarchy Emperor - 1721-1725 Peter the Great - 1894-1917 Nicholas II History - Established 22 October, 1721 - February Revolution 2 March, 1917 Area - 1897 22,400,000 km2 8,648,688 sq mi Population - 1897... The Livonian Brothers of the Sword (Latin Fratres militiae Christi, literally the brothers of the army of Christ), also known as the Christ Knights, Sword Brethren or The Militia of Christ of Livonia, was a military order started in 1202 by Albert von Buxhövden, bishop of Riga (or Prince... Baltic Tribes, ca 1200 CE This article is about the region in Europe. ...

19th century

By the 1800s, every city of even modest size as far east as Russia had a German quarter and a Jewish quarter. Travellers along any road would pass through, for example, a German village, then a Czech village, then a Polish village, etc., depending on the region.

Certain parts of Eastern Europe, especially those close to the border of Germany contained areas in which ethnic Germans constituted a majority.

The rise of European nationalism

The expulsion of Germans after World War II must be interpreted in the context of the evolution of global nationalism in general and European nationalism in particular.

The latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century saw the rise of nationalism in Europe. Previously, a country consisted largely of whatever peoples lived on the land that was under the dominion of a particular ruler. Thus, as principalities and kingdoms grew through conquest and marriage, a ruler could wind up with peoples of many different ethnicities under his dominion. EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ...

The concept of nationalism was based on the idea of a "people" who shared a common bond through race, religion, language and culture. Furthermore, nationalism asserted that each "people" had a right to its own nation. Thus, much of European history in the latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century can be understood as efforts to realign national boundaries with this concept of "one people, one nation".

Much conflict would arise when one nation asserted territorial rights to land outside its borders on the basis of a common bond with the people living on that land. Another source of conflict arose when a group of people who constituted a minority in one nation would seek to secede from the nation either to form an independent nation or join another nation with whom they felt stronger ties. Yet another source of conflict was the desire of some nations to expel people from territory within its borders on the ground that those people did not share a common bond with the majority of people living in that nation.

Historical eastern Germany

Historical Eastern Germany or Former German Eastern Territories are terms which can be used to describe collectively those provinces or regions east of the Oderâ€“Neisse line which were parts of Germany after its unification in 1871 and were internationally recognised as such at the time. ...

German Empire

East Brandenburg, Silesia, the Province of Prussia (later split into East Prussia and West Prussia), Pomerania and Province of Posen were incorporated into the German Empire by Otto von Bismarck in 1871. In some areas, such as the Province of Posen or the southern part of Upper Silesia, the majority population was Polish, while in others it was predominantly German. Adams Prussia map with proper spelling of Königsberg and Württemberg File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Adams Prussia map with proper spelling of Königsberg and Württemberg File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (945x762, 99 KB) La bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:nl. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (945x762, 99 KB) La bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:nl. ... Anthem: Das Lied der Deutschen The LÃ¤nder of Germany during the Weimar Republic, with the Free State of Prussia (Freistaat PreuÃŸen) as the largest Capital Berlin Language(s) German Government Republic President - 1919-1925 Friedrich Ebert - 1925-1933 Paul von Hindenburg Chancellor - 1919 Philipp Scheidemann - 1933 Adolf Hitler... East Brandenburg or Neumark Brandenburg was the name of historical region. ... Silesia (Czech: ; German: ; Latin: ; Polish: ; Silesian: ÅšlÃ³nsk) is a historical region in central Europe. ... The Province of Prussia was a province of Poland from the 15th century until 1660, consisting of Royal Prussia and Ducal Prussia. ... East Prussia (German: Ostpreu en; Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Russian: Восточная Пруссия — Vostochnaya Prussiya) was a province of Kingdom of Prussia, situated on the territory of former Ducal Prussia. ... One of four districts of East Prussia in 1920 - 1938. ... Duchy of Pomerania ruled by the slavic dynasty of Griffits (Polish: Gryfici, German: Greiffen) was a semi-independent state in the 17th century. ... The Province of Posen (German: , Polish: ) was a province of Prussia from 1846-1918. ... Motto: Gott mit Uns (German: God with usâ€) Anthem: Heil dir im Siegerkranz (unofficial) Territory of the German Empire in 1914, prior to World War I Capital Berlin Language(s) Official: German Unofficial minority languages: Polish (Posen, Lower Silesia,Upper Silesia, Masuria) French (Alsace-Lorraine) Government Constitutional monarchy Emperor - 1871... â€œBismarckâ€ redirects here. ... The Province of Posen (German: , Polish: ) was a province of Prussia from 1846-1918. ... Map of Upper Silesia, 1746 Upper Silesia (Polish: GÃ³rny ÅšlÄ…sk, German: Oberschlesien, Czech: HornÃ Slezsko) is the south-eastern part of Silesia, a historical and geographical region of Poland (Opole Voivodship and Silesian Voivodship) and of the Czech Republic (Silesian-Moravian Region). ...

World War I

By World War I, there were isolated groups of Germans or so-called Schwaben as far southeast as the Bosporus (Turkey), Georgia, and Azerbaijan. After the war, Germany's and Austria-Hungary's loss of territory and the rise of communism in the Soviet Union meant that more Germans than ever were minorities in various countries, though on the whole they still enjoyed fairly good treatment. Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna... Swabia (German Schwaben) is a historic region in Germany and a language area. ... Bosporus - photo taken from International Space Station. ... Communism is an ideology that seeks to establish a classless, stateless social organization based on common ownership of the means of production. ...

Under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the Germans gained a controlling interest in many western territories of the former Russian Empire, that the Soviet Union was forced to surrender as a price for peace. However this control was short-lived as the controlling interest in territories was removed either by the direct actions of the national groups in those territories, or by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, at Brest, formerly Brest-Litovsk, between Russia and the Central Powers, marking Russias exit from World War I. While the treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year, it gave some relief to... The Palace of Versailles, where the treaty was signed. ...

Treaty of Versailles

The provisions of the Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I obliged Germany to transfer some territory to other countries. In Central Europe, these included: The Palace of Versailles, where the treaty was signed. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna...

Voivodship wielkopolskie since 1999 Coat of Arms for voivodship wielkopolskie Greater Poland (also Great Poland; Polish: , German: GroÃŸpolen, Latin: Polonia Maior) is a historical region of west-central Poland. ... The Province of Posen (German: , Polish: ) was a province of Prussia from 1846-1918. ... Pomerelia (German: ) is a historical region in northern Poland. ... One of four districts of East Prussia in 1920 - 1938. ... Flag of Prussia (1894 - 1918) The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ... The Partitions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: RozbiÃ³r Polski or Rozbiory Polski; Lithuanian: Lietuvos-Lenkijos padalijimai, Belarusian: ÐŸÐ°Ð´Ð·ÐµÐ»Ñ‹ Ð ÑÑ‡Ñ‹ ÐŸÐ°ÑÐ¿Ð°Ð»Ñ–Ñ‚Ð°Ð¹) took place in the 18th century and ended the existence of the sovereign Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... Anthem: Mazurek DÄ…browskiego Capital Warsaw Language(s) Polish Government Republic President List Prime minister List Legislature Sejm Historical era Interwar period - World War I November 11, 1918 - Invasion November 2, 1939 Area - 1939 388,600 km2 150,039 sq mi Population - 1939 est. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Map of Upper Silesia, 1746 Upper Silesia (Polish: GÃ³rny ÅšlÄ…sk, German: Oberschlesien, Czech: HornÃ Slezsko) is the south-eastern part of Silesia, a historical and geographical region of Poland (Opole Voivodship and Silesian Voivodship) and of the Czech Republic (Silesian-Moravian Region). ... Moravian-Silesian Region (Czech: MoravskoslezskÃ½ kraj) is an administrative unit (kraj) of the Czech Republic, located in the north-eastern part of its historical region of Moravia and in most of the Czech part of the historical region of Silesia. ... Map of Upper Silesia, 1746 Upper Silesia (Polish: GÃ³rny ÅšlÄ…sk, German: Oberschlesien, Czech: HornÃ Slezsko) is the south-eastern part of Silesia, a historical and geographical region of Poland (Opole Voivodship and Silesian Voivodship) and of the Czech Republic (Silesian-Moravian Region). ... Panorama of Katowice at night Katowice (pronunciation: [] (Czech: Katovice, German: Kattowitz) is an important city of the historical region of Upper Silesia in southern Poland on the KÅ‚odnica and Rawa rivers. ... DziaÅ‚dowo (German: ) is a town in north-central Poland with 20,830 inhabitants (2004). ... East Prussia (German: Ostpreu en; Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Russian: Восточная Пруссия — Vostochnaya Prussiya) was a province of Kingdom of Prussia, situated on the territory of former Ducal Prussia. ... KlaipÄ—da Region (Memel Region, Memelland) is the name of the part of Lithuania Minor consisting of the coastland around KlaipÄ—da (formerly known as Memel) and along the Curonian Lagoon, on the right bank of Neman River. ... Historical map of Memelland and the northern part of East Prussia The KlaipÄ—da Region (Lithuanian: ) or Memel Territory (German: ; French: ) was defined by the Treaty of Versailles in 1920 when it was put under the administration of the Council of Ambassadors. ... One of four districts of East Prussia in 1920 - 1938. ... Warmia in 1547 Warmia (Polish: , German: , Latin: Varmia, also historically known as Ermeland) is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland. ... Sailing on Lake MikoÅ‚ajki. ... For alternative meanings of Gdańsk and Danzig, see Gdansk (disambiguation) and Danzig (disambiguation) The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... The Vistula (Polish: ) is the longest river in Poland. ... The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, from 53Â°N to 66Â°N latitude and from 20Â°E to 26Â°E longitude. ... Flag of Danzig The Free City of Danzig refers to either of two short-lived city-states which were centered on the present-day Baltic port known as GdaÅ„sk (German: Danzig). ... The League of Nations was an international organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. ...

Polish corridor

After World War I, the creation of the Polish Corridor cut off the East Prussian land connection from the rest of Weimar Germany. Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna... A Polish map showing the territory known as the Polish Corridor The Polish Corridor was the name given to a strip of territory which was transferred from Germany to Poland by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. ... East Prussia (German: Ostpreu en; Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Russian: Восточная Пруссия — Vostochnaya Prussiya) was a province of Kingdom of Prussia, situated on the territory of former Ducal Prussia. ... Anthem: Das Lied der Deutschen The LÃ¤nder of Germany during the Weimar Republic, with the Free State of Prussia (Freistaat PreuÃŸen) as the largest Capital Berlin Language(s) German Government Republic President - 1919-1925 Friedrich Ebert - 1925-1933 Paul von Hindenburg Chancellor - 1919 Philipp Scheidemann - 1933 Adolf Hitler...

Nazi claims to Lebensraum

In the 19th century, the rise of romantic nationalism in Germany led to the concepts of Pan-Germanism and Drang nach Osten, which in part gave rise to the concept of Lebensraum. This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Pan-Germanism, one of the ethnically-charged political movements of the 19th century for unity of the German-speaking peoples of Europe. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Lebensraum (German for habitat or living space) was one of the major political ideas of Adolf Hitler, and an important component of Nazi ideology. ...

German nationalists used the existence of large German minorities in other countries as a basis for territorial claims. Many of the propaganda themes of the Nazi regime against Czechoslovakia and Poland claimed that the ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche) in those territories were persecuted. The status of ethnic Germans, and the lack of contiguity of German majority lands resulted in numerous repatriation pacts whereby the German authorities would organize population transfers (especially the Nazi-Soviet population transfers arranged between Adolf Hitler) and Joseph Stalin, and others with Benito Mussolini's Italy) so that both Germany and the other country would increase their homogeneity. EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... An Australian anti-conscription propaganda poster from World War One U.S. propaganda poster, which warns against civilians sharing information on troop movements (National Archives) The much-imitated 1914 Lord Kitchener Wants You! poster Swedish Anti-Euro propaganda for the referendum of 2003. ... Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans) is a historical term which arose in the early 20th century to apply for Germans living outside of the German Empire. ...

However, these population transfers were considered but a drop in the pond, and the "Heim ins Reich" rhetoric over the continued disjoint status of enclaves such as Danzig and Königsberg was an agitating factor in the politics leading up to World War II, and is considered by many to be among the major causes of Nazi aggressiveness and thus the war. Adolf Hitler used these issues as a pretext for waging wars of aggression against Czechoslovakia and Poland. Hitler redirects here. ...

Danzig and the Danzig corridor

As a result of the Versailles treaty after World War I, Danzig became a free city under the protection of the League of Nations. Its predominantly German population had no right of self-determination in a referendum as in other disputed parts of the former German Empire. When Poland regained its independence after World War I, the Poles hoped to regain the city to provide the free access to the sea which they had been promised by the Allies on the basis of Woodrow Wilson's "Fourteen Points". However, since the population of the city was predominantly German, it was not placed under Polish sovereignty, but became the Free City of Danzig, an independent quasi-state under the auspices of the League of Nations, governed by its predominantly German residents but with its external affairs largely under Polish control. The Free City had its own constitution, national anthem, parliament (Volkstag), and government (Senat). It issued its own stamps and currency, bearing the legend "Freie Stadt Danzig" and symbols of the city's maritime orientation and history. Woodrow Wilson with the American Peace Commissioners The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 is the peace treaty created as a result of six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 which put an official end to World War I between the Allies and Central Powers. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna... The League of Nations was an international organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. ... Motto: Gott mit Uns (German: God with usâ€) Anthem: Heil dir im Siegerkranz (unofficial) Territory of the German Empire in 1914, prior to World War I Capital Berlin Language(s) Official: German Unofficial minority languages: Polish (Posen, Lower Silesia,Upper Silesia, Masuria) French (Alsace-Lorraine) Government Constitutional monarchy Emperor - 1871... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna... Map of the World showing the participants in World War I. Those fighting on the Allies side (at one point or another) are depicted in green, the Central Powers in orange, and neutral countries in gray. ... Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 - February 3, 1924), was the 28th President of the United States. ... United States President Woodrow Wilson listed the Fourteen Points in a speech that he delivered to the United States Congress on January 8, 1918. ... Flag of Danzig The Free City of Danzig refers to either of two short-lived city-states which were centered on the present-day Baltic port known as GdaÅ„sk (German: Danzig). ... The League of Nations was an international organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. ...

The vast majority of the city's population favoured eventual return to Germany. In the early 1930s the Nazi Party capitalized on these pro-German sentiments, and in 1933 garnered 38 percent of vote for the Danzig Volkstag. Thereafter, the Nazis under the Bavarian Gauleiter Albert Förster achieved dominance in the city government - which, nominally, was still overseen by the League of Nations' High Commissioner. National Socialism redirects here. ... The geographic region and Free State of Bavaria (German: Freistaat Bayern), with an area of 70,553 kmÂ² (27,241 square miles) and 12. ... A Gauleiter was the party leader of a regional branch of the NSDAP (more commonly known as the Nazi Party) or the head of a Gau or of a Reichsgau. ... Albert FÃ¶rster (July 26, 1902 - February 28, 1952) was a German politician. ...

Nazi demands, at their minimum, would have seen the return of Danzig to Germany and a one kilometer, state-controlled route for easier access across the Polish Corridor, from Pomerania to Danzig (and from there to East Prussia).^[4] Originally, the Poles had rejected this proposal, but later appeared willing to negotiate (as did the British) by August.^[5] By this time, however, Hitler had Soviet backing and had decided to attack Poland. Germany feigned an interest in diplomacy (delaying the Case White deadline twice), to try to drive a wedge between Britain and Poland.^[6] Duchy of Pomerania ruled by the slavic dynasty of Griffits (Polish: Gryfici, German: Greiffen) was a semi-independent state in the 17th century. ... East Prussia (German: Ostpreu en; Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Russian: Восточная Пруссия — Vostochnaya Prussiya) was a province of Kingdom of Prussia, situated on the territory of former Ducal Prussia. ... Molotov (left), Ribbentrop (in black) and Stalin The Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, also known as the Hitler-Stalin pact or Nazi-Soviet pact, was a non-aggression treaty between Germany and Russia, or more precisely between the Soviet Union and the Third Reich. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ...

World War II

The status of ethnic Germans, and the lack of contiguity resulted in numerous repatriation pacts whereby the German authorities would organize population transfers (especially the Nazi-Soviet population transfers arranged between Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, and others with Benito Mussolini's Italy) so that both Germany and the other country would increase their homogeneity. However, this was but a drop in the pond, and the Heim ins Reich rhetoric over the continued disjoint status of enclaves such as Danzig and Königsberg was an agitating factor in the politics leading up to World War II, and is considered by many to be among the major causes of Nazi aggressiveness and thus the war. The Nazi-Soviet population transfers were a series of population transfers between 1939 and 1941 of Germans from territories occupied by Soviet Union due to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, notably Bessarabia and the Baltic states of Estonia and Latvia, all of which traditionally had large German minorities. ... Hitler redirects here. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (July 29, 1883 â€“ April 28, 1945) was the prime minister and dictator of Italy from 1922 until 1943, when he was overthrown. ... The Heim ins Reich initiative (German: Home into the Realm) was a policy pursued by Adolf Hitler starting in 1939 and largely responsible for the outbreak of World War II. The initiative attempted to convince people of German descent living outside of Germany that they should strive to unify their... For alternative meanings of Gdańsk and Danzig, see Gdansk (disambiguation) and Danzig (disambiguation) The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... Former German name of the city of Kaliningrad. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

The actions of Germany ultimately had extremely negative consequences for most ethnic Germans in Central and Eastern Europe, who often fought on the side of the Nazi regime - some were drafted, others volunteered or worked through the paramilitary organisations such as Selbstschutz, which supported the German invasion of Poland and murdered tens of thousands of Poles. In places such as Yugoslavia, Germans were drafted by their country of residence, served loyally, and even held as POWs by the Nazis, and yet later found themselves drafted again, this time by the Nazis after their takeover. Because it was technically not permissible to draft non-citizens, many ethnic Germans ended up being (oxymoronically) forcibly volunteered for the Waffen-SS. In general, those closest to Nazi Germany were the most involved in fighting for her, but the Germans in remote places like the Caucasus were likewise accused of collaboration. The territorial changes following World War II can be very roughly understood as the following: Russia became bigger, Germany became smaller, and Poland was forced west. This anecdotal summary (minus the plight of the Poles) can be extended to Germany's borders with France and Czechoslovakia as well. Selbstschutz (German: ) was a name used by a number of paramilitary organisations created out of ethnic Germans in Central Europe. ... Yugoslavia (Jugoslavija in Latin, ÐˆÑƒÐ³Ð¾ÑÐ»Ð°Ð²Ð¸Ñ˜Ð° in Cyrillic, English: Land of the South Slavs) describes four political entities that existed one at a time on the Balkan Peninsula in Europe, during most of the 20th century. ... Geneva Convention definition A prisoner of war (POW) is a soldier, sailor, airman, or marine who is imprisoned by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. ... Waffen-SS recruitment poster; Volunteer to the Waffen-SS The Waffen-SS was the armed wing of the Schutzstaffel. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

Nazi occupation of Poland

On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland, triggering the outbreak of World War II. Upon the defeat of Poland, the territories were occupied and annexed by Nazi Germany. These annexations were not recognised by the Allied governments, that after the 1942 Declaration by the United Nations were also known as the United Nations. September 1 is the 244th day of the year (245th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1939 (MCMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full year calendar). ... Combatants Poland Germany, Soviet Union, Slovakia Commanders Edward Rydz-ÅšmigÅ‚y Fedor von Bock (Army Group North), Gerd von Rundstedt (Army Group South), Mikhail Kovalov (Belorussian Front), Semyon Timoshenko (Ukrainian Front), Ferdinand ÄŒatloÅ¡ (Field Army Bernolak) Strength 39 divisions, 16 brigades, 4,300 guns, 880 tanks, 400 aircraft, Total: 950... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Combatants Poland Germany, Soviet Union, Slovakia Commanders Edward Rydz-ÅšmigÅ‚y Fedor von Bock (Army Group North), Gerd von Rundstedt (Army Group South), Mikhail Kovalov (Belorussian Front), Semyon Timoshenko (Ukrainian Front), Ferdinand ÄŒatloÅ¡ (Field Army Bernolak) Strength 39 divisions, 16 brigades, 4,300 guns, 880 tanks, 400 aircraft, Total: 950... Historical Eastern Germany or Former German Eastern Territories are terms which can be used to describe collectively those provinces or regions east of the Oderâ€“Neisse line which were parts of Germany after its unification in 1871 and were internationally recognised as such at the time. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis Powers during the Second World War. ... The Declaration by United Nations was a World War II document agreed to on January 1, 1942 by 26 governments, several of them governments-in-exile. ... The foundation of the U.N. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. ...

Support of Nazi invasion by German minorities

German minority organisations assisted the German Reich in its invasion in Czechoslovakia and took part in the September 1939 Campaign in Poland. Selbstschutz and German nationalist organisations created in Poland and Czechoslovakia by Germans took part in various actions (sabotage, etc.) against Polish population. Selbstschutz (German: ) was a name used by a number of paramilitary organisations created out of ethnic Germans in Central Europe. ...

Evacuation, flight and expulsion of Germans during World War II

By late 1944 the after the Soviet success of In the wake of the Belorussian Offensive in August 1944, the Eastern Front became relatively stable. Romania and Bulgaria had been forced to surrender and declare war on Germany. The Germans had lost Budapest and most of the rest of Hungary. The plains of Poland were now open to the Soviet Red Army. Starting on January 12, 1945, the Red Army began the Vistula-Oder Offensive which was followed a day later by the start of the Red Army's East Prussian Offensive. During World War II, Operation Bagration was the general attack by Soviet forces to clear the Nazis from Belarus which resulted in the destruction of the German Army Group Centre, possibly the greatest defeat for the Wehrmacht during the war. ... January 12 is the 12th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Combatants Wehrmacht i. ... The East Prussian Offensive was an offensive by the Red Army in its fight against the German Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front (World War II). ...

German populations in Eastern Europe took flight from the advancing Red Army, resulting in a great population shift. After the final Soviet offensives began in January, 1945, hundreds of thousands of German refugees, many of whom had fled to Danzig by foot from East Prussia (see evacuation of East Prussia), tried to escape through the city's port in a large-scale evacuation that employed hundreds of German cargo and passenger ships. Some of the ships were sunk by the Soviets, including the Wilhelm Gustloff, after an evacuation was attempted at neighboring Gdynia. In the process, tens of thousands of refugees were killed. Red Army flag The Workers and Peasants Red Army (Russian: Ð Ð°Ð±Ð¾Ñ‡Ðµ-ÐšÑ€ÐµÑÑ‚ÑŒÑÐ½ÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐšÑ€Ð°ÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÐÑ€Ð¼Ð¸Ñ, Raboche-Krestyanskaya Krasnaya Armiya; RKKA or usually simply the Red Army) were the armed forces first organized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War in 1918 and that in 1922 became the army of the Soviet Union. ... January is the first month of the year and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 days. ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday. ... East Prussia (German: Ostpreu en; Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Russian: Восточная Пруссия — Vostochnaya Prussiya) was a province of Kingdom of Prussia, situated on the territory of former Ducal Prussia. ... The Evacuation of East Prussia refers to the events that took place in East Prussia, especially the evacuation of German population from that area as well as from other Prussian lands in 1944 and 1945. ... The Wilhelm Gustloff slides into the water during launch ceremonies. ... Gdynia (IPA: , German: (until 1939 and after 1945) / Gotenhafen (1939-1945); Kashubian: ) is a city in the Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland and an important seaport at GdaÅ„sk Bay on the south coast of the Baltic Sea. ...

Cities such as Danzig also endured heavy Western Allied and Soviet bombardment. Those who survived and could not escape encountered the Red Army. On 30 March 1945, the Soviets captured the city and left it in ruins.[3] The Western Allies were the democracies and their colonial peoples, within the broader coalition of Allies during World War II. The term is generally understood to refer to the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations (from 1939), exiled forces from Occupied Europe (from 1940), the United States, (from 1941), Italy... Red Army flag The Workers and Peasants Red Army (Russian: Ð Ð°Ð±Ð¾Ñ‡Ðµ-ÐšÑ€ÐµÑÑ‚ÑŒÑÐ½ÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐšÑ€Ð°ÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÐÑ€Ð¼Ð¸Ñ, Raboche-Krestyanskaya Krasnaya Armiya; RKKA or usually simply the Red Army) were the armed forces first organized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War in 1918 and that in 1922 became the army of the Soviet Union. ... March 30 is the 89th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (90th in leap years). ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday. ...

Determining the postwar German-Polish border

As it became evident that the Allies were going to defeat Nazi Germany decisively, the question arose as to how to redraw the borders of Eastern European countries after the war. In the context of those decisions, the problem arose of what to do about ethnic minorities within the redrawn borders.

The Yalta Conference

The final decision to move Poland's boundary westward was made by the US, Britain and the Soviets at the Yalta Conference, shortly before the end of the war. The precise location of the border was left open; the western Allies also accepted in general the principle of the Oder River as the future western border of Poland and of population transfer as the way to prevent future border disputes. The open question was whether the border should follow the eastern or western Neisse rivers, and whether Stettin, the traditional seaport of Berlin, should remain German or be included in Poland. The western Allies sought to place the border on the eastern Neisse, but Stalin insisted that the border should be on the western Neisse. Motto: (Out Of Many, One) (traditional) In God We Trust (1956 to date) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington D.C. Largest city New York City None at federal level (English de facto) Government Federal constitutional republic - President George Walker Bush (R) - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence from... The Big Three at the Yalta Conference, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin. ...

Image File history File links Map of Poland in 1945, drawn by User: Adam Carr. ... Image File history File links Map of Poland in 1945, drawn by User: Adam Carr. ...

The Postdam Conference

At the Potsdam Conference the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union placed the German territories east of the Oder-Neisse line (Poland referred to by the Polish communist government as the "Western Territories" or "Regained Territories") as formally under Polish administrative control. It was anticipated that a final peace treaty would follow shortly and either confirm this border or determine whatever alterations might be agreed upon. Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin meeting at the Potsdam Conference on July 18, 1945. ... Note: although the term recovered territories has a clear meaning in Poland and Polish historiography, it is not a widely accepted term or concept in English speaking nations. ... A peace treaty is an agreement (a peace treaty) between two hostile parties, usually countries or governments, that formally ends a war or armed conflict. ...

The final agreements in effect compensated Poland for 187,000 km² located east of the Curzon line with 112,000 km² of former German territories. The northerneastern third of East Prussia was directly annexed by the Soviet Union and remains part of Russia to this day. The Curzon Line was a demarcation line proposed in 1919 by the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon of Kedleston, as a possible armistice line between Poland, to the west, and Soviet Russia to the east, during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919â€“20. ...

It was also decided that all Germans remaining in the new and old Polish territory should be expelled, to prevent any claims of minority rights. Among the provisions of the Potsdam Conference was a section that provided for the Orderly transfer of German populations. The specific wording of this section was as follows:

Expulsion of Germans from eastern Europe after World War II

After the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, Gdańsk was assigned to Poland, along with all other territories east of the Oder-Neisse line. Germans expelled from the Sudetenland // The expulsion of Germans after World War II refers to the escape and mass deportation of people considered Germans (Reichsdeutsche and some Volksdeutsche) from various European states and territories during 1945 and in the first three years after World War II 1946-48. ... The Big Three at the Yalta Conference, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin. ... Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin meeting at the Potsdam Conference on July 18, 1945. ... The Oder-Neisse line (German: , Polish: ) marked the border between German Democratic Republic and Poland between 1950 and 1990. ...

The majority of the German-speaking population east of the Oder–Neisse line that had not already been evacuated by Nazi authorities or fled from the advancing Red Army in the winter of 1944–1945 was expelled with no consideration as to whether their families had lived in the region for centuries or were recent settlers who moved there during the Second World War. At the same time, several million Poles similarly expelled from former Polish land annexed by the USSR were settled there. Although in the post-war period earlier German sources often cited the number of evacuated and expelled Germans at 16 million and the death toll at between 1.7^[7] and 2.5 million^[8], the numbers are considered by some writers to be exaggerated^[9]. Some present-day German estimates place the numbers at 14 million expelled and about 500 thousand killed^[10]^[9]. The exact number of civilian casualties therefore remains disputed. It has been suggested that Expulsion of Germans after World_War II be merged into this article or section. ... Red Army flag The Workers and Peasants Red Army (Russian: Ð Ð°Ð±Ð¾Ñ‡Ðµ-ÐšÑ€ÐµÑÑ‚ÑŒÑÐ½ÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐšÑ€Ð°ÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÐÑ€Ð¼Ð¸Ñ, Raboche-Krestyanskaya Krasnaya Armiya; RKKA or usually simply the Red Army) were the armed forces first organized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War in 1918 and that in 1922 became the army of the Soviet Union. ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday. ... Germans expelled from the Sudetenland // The expulsion of Germans after World War II refers to the escape and mass deportation of people considered Germans (Reichsdeutsche and some Volksdeutsche) from various European states and territories during 1945 and in the first three years after World War II 1946-48. ...

Czechoslovakia

See also: Beneš decrees, Sudetenland, Ústí massacre. The BeneÅ¡ decrees (Czech: ; German: ; Slovak: ; Hungarian: ) refers to a series of laws enacted by the Czechoslovak government of exile during World War II in absence of Czechoslovak parliament (see details in Czechoslovakia: World War II (1939 - 1945)). Today, the term is most frequently used for the part of them... Sudetenland (German; Sudety in Czech and Polish) was the name used in the first half of the 20th century for the regions inhabited mostly by Germans in the border areas of Bohemia, Moravia, and those parts of Silesia associated with Bohemia. ... Location of ÃšstÃ nad Labem in the Czech Republic The ÃšstÃ massacre (Czech: ÃšsteckÃ½ masakr) was a mass lynching of ethnic Germans in ÃšstÃ nad Labem (Aussig an der Elbe), a city in northern Czechoslovakia in post-World War II Europe, on July 31, 1945. ...

Before the German annexation of Sudetenland, roughly one-third of the population in the Czech lands had been ethnic Germans. Most of the so-called Sudeten Germans, were active Nazi collaborators and supporters before and during the Second World War. After the war, the Germans living in the border regions of Czechoslovakia were expelled from the country in late 1945. Many thousands died violent deaths during the expulsion and many more died from hunger and untreated illnesses contracted during or after the massive exodus. In 1946, an estimated 1.3 million ethnic Germans were deported to the American zone of what would become West Germany. An estimated 800,000 were deported to the Soviet zone (in what would become East Germany). [4] == On the same day, Hitler met with Chamberlain at Berchtesgaden and demanded the swift return of the Sudetenland to the Third Reich under threat of war. ... Sudetenland (German; Sudety in Czech and Polish) was the name used in the first half of the 20th century for the regions inhabited mostly by Germans in the border areas of Bohemia, Moravia, and those parts of Silesia associated with Bohemia. ... the german inhabitants of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. ...

Hungary

In Hungary the persecution of the German minority began in 22 December 1944 when the Soviet Commander-in-Chief ordered the deportations. Five percent of the German population (appr. 20 000 people) had been evacuated by the Volksbund before that. They went to Austria, but many of them returned to their home next spring. In January 1945 the Soviet Army collected 32 000 ethnic Germans and deported them to the Soviet Union to do slave labour (malenkiy robot). Many of them died there because of the hardships and cruelties. On 29 December 1945 the new Hungarian Government ordered the deportation of every people who declared him/herself German in the census of 1941 or was a member of the Volksbund, the SS and any other armed German organisation. According to this decree mass deportations began. The first wagon departed from Budaörs (Wudersch) on 19 January 1946 with 5788 people. 185-200 000 German-speaking Hungarian citizens were deprived of their rights and all possessions, and deported to West Germany. Until July 1948 a more 50 000 people went to the eastern zone of Germany. Most of the deported Germans found a new home in Baden-Württemberg, Bayern and Hessen. In 1947 and 1948 a forced population exchange happened between Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Some 74 000 ethnic Hungarians were deported from Slovakia in exchange for about the same number of Slovaks from Hungary. They and the Székelys of Bukovina were settled in the former German villages of southeastern Transdanubia. In some parts of Tolna, Baranya and Somogy counties the original population was totally replaced by the new settlers. In 1949 only 22 455 people dared to declare themselves German, but the real numbers were certainly higher. Probably half of the German community was able to survive the dark years between 1944 and 1950 in Hungary. December 22 is the 356th day of the year (357th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... December 29 is the 363rd day of the year (364th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 2 days remaining. ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday. ... January 19 is the 19th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... 1948 (MCMXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1948 calendar). ... Migrations of the SzÃ©kelys The SzÃ©kelys of Bukovina are a minor Hungarian ethnic group with a special history. ... This article is about Transdanubia, the region in Hungary. ... Tolna is the name of: an administrative county (comitatus or megye) in present Hungary, an administrative county in the former Kingdom of Hungary, a town in Hungary. ... Baranya (Hungarian, in Croatian and Serbian: Baranja) is the name of an administrative county (comitatus or megye) in present Hungary, and also in the former Kingdom of Hungary. ... Somogy is the name of an administrative county (comitatus or megye) in present Hungary, and also in the former Kingdom of Hungary. ...

Soviet Union

Kaliningrad Oblast

Ethnic Germans living in a small section of Russia were deported after the war . As agreed in the Potsdam Agreement the East Prussian region around Königsberg, the captical of East Prussia was annexed by the Soviet Union. The Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad and the region was called Kaliningrad Oblast. Today the Kaliningrad Oblast is a small Russian exclave separated from the rest of Russia by Lithuania and Belarus. Location of the Kaliningrad Oblast Map of the Kaliningrad Oblast Kaliningrad Oblast Flag Kaliningrad Oblast (Russian: ; German: or Nordostpreussen, Northeast Prussia), informally called Yantarny kray (, meaning Amber region) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast) on the Baltic coast, with no land connection to the rest of Russia; it... The Potsdam Agreement, or the Potsdam Proclamation, was an agreement on policy for the occupation and reconstruction of Germany and other nations after fighting in the European Theatre of World War II had ended with the German surrender of May 8, 1945. ... Former German name of the city of Kaliningrad. ... Government Russia District Subdivision Russia Northwestern Federal District Kaliningrad Oblast Mayor Yuri Savenko (2005) Geographical characteristics Area - City 215. ... Location of the Kaliningrad Oblast Map of the Kaliningrad Oblast Kaliningrad Oblast Flag Kaliningrad Oblast (Russian: ; German: or Nordostpreussen, Northeast Prussia), informally called Yantarny kray (, meaning Amber region) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast) on the Baltic coast, with no land connection to the rest of Russia; it... D is Bs exclave, but is not an enclave. ...

Königsberg, and it was an important city in the history of Germany, as it was the capital of Prussia. Immanuel Kant, the famous German philosopher, was in fact born there, in the present-day Russian exclave. Along with a section of Poland and a very small section of Lithuania, the Kaliningrad exclave formerly formed the German province (under the Nazis: Gau) of East Prussia, which from 1918 to 1939 had been an exclave too, but of Weimar Germany rather than of Soviet Russia. After the war, the remnant of Germans still living there were expelled and replaced by ethnic Russian settlers and the families of military staff. The expelled Germans mostly headed to Western Germany. Today, in Germany many descendants of Germans who were expelled from the former city of Königsberg are still alive. Though the deportation of Germans from this northern part of former East Prussia often was conducted in a violent and aggressive way by Soviet officials who sought to revenge the Nazi terror in Soviet areas during the war, present Russian inhabitants of the Kaliningrad sector (northern East Prussia) treat history less complicated. German names are even revived in commercial Russian trade. In future the name of Kaliningrad might be changed to the old Königsberg again. Because the exclave during Soviet times was a military zone which nobody was allowed to enter without special permission, many old German Prussian villages are still intact, though they have become dilapidated over the course of time. The city centre of Kaliningrad however was entirely rebuilt, as British bombs (1944) and the siege of Königsberg (Festung Königsberg in 1945 siege) had left it in ruins. Motto: Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital KÃ¶nigsberg, later Berlin Political structure Duchy, Kingdom, Republic Duke1 - 1525â€“68 Albert I - 1688â€“1701 Frederick III King1 - 1701â€“13 Frederick I - 1888â€“1918 William II Prime Minister1,2... Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 â€“ 12 February 1804), was a German philosopher from KÃ¶nigsberg in East Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). ... Gau can denote Gau, the German term for shire. ... East Prussia (German: Ostpreu en; Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Russian: Восточная Пруссия — Vostochnaya Prussiya) was a province of Kingdom of Prussia, situated on the territory of former Ducal Prussia. ... East Prussia (German: Ostpreu en; Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Russian: Восточная Пруссия — Vostochnaya Prussiya) was a province of Kingdom of Prussia, situated on the territory of former Ducal Prussia. ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... Festung is a generic German word for a fortress. ... Former German name of the city of Kaliningrad. ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday. ...

The Evacuation of East Prussia refers to the events that took place in East Prussia, especially the evacuation of German population from that area as well as from other Prussian lands in 1944 and 1945. ...

Memel Territory

Under the Treaty of Versailles, the northeastern part of East Prussia, named Memel Territory in the treaty, was placed under the control of France and was later annexed by Lithuania, as the Klaipėda Region. In 1939 the region reverted to German jurisdiction and 1n 1945 as a result of the decisions at the Potsdam Conference it was decreed that the former Memel Territory became a part of the Lithuanian SSR which was part of the USSR. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, it has been part of the Republic of Lithuania and contained within Klaipėda and Tauragė Counties. Memel Territory, or as it is now official called today, Klaipeda Region, is of continuing vital importance to Lithuania, acting as an important harbour, as well as an industrial and agrarian region. The Versailles border along the river remains in effect as the current boundary between Lithuania and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia. KlaipÄ—da Region (Memel Region, Memelland) is the name of the part of Lithuania Minor consisting of the coastland around KlaipÄ—da (formerly known as Memel) and along the Curonian Lagoon, on the right bank of Neman River. ... KlaipÄ—da Region (Memel Region, Memelland) is the name of the part of Lithuania Minor consisting of the coastland around KlaipÄ—da (formerly known as Memel) and along the Curonian Lagoon, on the right bank of Neman River. ... Historical map of Memelland and the northern part of East Prussia The KlaipÄ—da Region (Lithuanian: ) or Memel Territory (German: ; French: ) was defined by the Treaty of Versailles in 1920 when it was put under the administration of the Council of Ambassadors. ... Historical map of Memelland and the northern part of East Prussia The KlaipÄ—da Region (Lithuanian: ) or Memel Territory (German: ; French: ) was defined by the Treaty of Versailles in 1920 when it was put under the administration of the Council of Ambassadors. ... State motto: Lithuanian: VisÅ³ Å¡aliÅ³ proletarai, vienykitÄ—s! Translation: Workers of the world, unite! Capital Vilnius Official language None. ... Administrative divisions ISO_3166-2 code LT-KL Number of municipalities 7 Number of elderates 43 General information Capital KlaipÄ—da Major cities KlaipÄ—da (pop. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Location of the Kaliningrad Oblast Map of the Kaliningrad Oblast Kaliningrad Oblast Flag Kaliningrad Oblast (Russian: ; German: or Nordostpreussen, Northeast Prussia), informally called Yantarny kray (, meaning Amber region) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast) on the Baltic coast, with no land connection to the rest of Russia; it...

During the last year of World War II, most Germans inhabitants of the Memel Territory fled to the west, joining the exodus of the others from Königsberg and other cities south of the area. German civilian remnants were put on deportation trains in 1946. Ethnic Lithuanians from crowded villages replaced the former German population of Memel and surrounding formerly mixed German-Lithuanian areas. Memel was renamed Klaipėda definitively. You can still find descendants of Germans expelled from Lithuania. They are mostly found in former West Germany, like the Germans who fled from the rest of East Prussia. The fact that the section of Germany now in Lithuanian hands was small but important is reflected in a obsolete verse of the German national anthem - Von der Maas bis an die Memel ("From the Meuse to the Neman") is part of the song, referring to the Neman River (German: Memel or Memelfluss) that flows near Klaipėda. Former German name of the city of Kaliningrad. ... 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... Location Ethnographic region Lithuania minor County KlaipÄ—da County Municipality KlaipÄ—da city municipality Coordinates Number of elderates 1 General Information Capital of KlaipÄ—da County KlaipÄ—da city municipality Population 187,316 in 2006 (3rd) First mentioned 1252 Granted city rights 1254 or 1258 (LÃ¼beck); 1475 (CheÅ‚mno... East Prussia (German: Ostpreu en; Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Russian: Восточная Пруссия — Vostochnaya Prussiya) was a province of Kingdom of Prussia, situated on the territory of former Ducal Prussia. ... Das Lied der Deutschen (The Song of the Germans) or Das Deutschlandlied (The Song of Germany) has since 1922 been the national anthem of Germany. ... The Neman (Belarusian: ; Lithuanian: ; Russian: ; Polish: ; German: ) is a major Eastern European river rising in Belarus and flowing through Lithuania before draining into the Baltic Sea near KlaipÄ—da. ... Location Ethnographic region Lithuania minor County KlaipÄ—da County Municipality KlaipÄ—da city municipality Coordinates Number of elderates 1 General Information Capital of KlaipÄ—da County KlaipÄ—da city municipality Population 187,316 in 2006 (3rd) First mentioned 1252 Granted city rights 1254 or 1258 (LÃ¼beck); 1475 (CheÅ‚mno...

The results

Up to 12.4 or even 16.5 million Germans of the postwar population were forced to leave. The estimates of people that lost their lives differ. According to Federal Statistics Bureau of Germany in 1958 more than 2.1 million had lost their lives during this process. The monumental statistical work of the Gesamterhebung zur Klärung des Schicksals der deutschen Bevölkerung in den Vertreibungsgebieten, Bd. 1-3, München 1965, confirms this figure. The standard study by Gerhard Reichling "Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen" concludes that 2,020,000 Germans perished as a result of the expulsion and deportation to slave labour in the Soviet Union. One German researcher, Rüdiger Overmans, has claimed that only 1,100,000 people lost their lives. These lower figures and the methodology for obtaining them are disputed by some scholars including Dr. Fritz Peter Habel and Alfred de Zayas, who maintain in the newest editions of their publications that the death toll was well over two millions. Czech and Polish sources give a much lower estimate (Czech historians arguing that most of the estimated population drop is because of the soldiers that were killed at the front). It is worth noting that the only detailed effort to count the casualities was made by ethnic Germans from Yugoslavia, who documented all their victims, resulting in a figure half the estimate of the Federal Statistics Bureau. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

The deaths were caused by death marches ordered by Soviet officials, banditry, famine and widespread disease that accompanied postwar conditions in that part of Europe as well as appalling conditions in the concentration camps created to hold German civilians awaiting expulsion. Probably one of the worst examples of the latter was run by Salomon Morel. It has been suggested that Internment be merged into this article or section. ... Salomon Morel, passport photo taken in 1993 Salomon (also Solomon or Shlomo) Morel (born November 15, 1919 in GarbÃ³w, Poland, died February 2007 in Tel Aviv, Israel) was a Polish Jew, who, between February and November 1945, was a member of Communist State Security, known in Polish as Urz...

A 1986 German source^[11] gives the following details of the population transfers. Population transfers included Image File history File links Download high resolution version (500x646, 26 KB) Beschreibung, Quelle und Lizenz Manche BundeslÃ¤nder sind erst 1946 gebildet worden. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (500x646, 26 KB) Beschreibung, Quelle und Lizenz Manche BundeslÃ¤nder sind erst 1946 gebildet worden. ...

The expellee population, in total 11,926,000, increased to 12,400,000 in 1950 due to the natural growth in population. In line with nationalisation made towards all citizens in communist countries, property in the affected territory that belonged to Germany and Germans was confiscated and redistributed among the population.

Allied American numbers from 1957 give a number of about 16.5 million Germans who were subject to deportation. About 3 millions, according to this study, were 'lost on the way'. 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The Potsdam Agreement called for equal distribution of the transferred Germans between American, British, French and Soviet occupation zones in Germany. In actuality, twice as many expelled Germans found refuge in the occupation zones that later formed "West Germany" than in the so-called "East Germany" (Soviet Zone), and large numbers of these Eastern German refugees went eventually to other countries of the world, including the United States, Canada and Australia. The Potsdam Agreement, or the Potsdam Proclamation, was an agreement on policy for the occupation and reconstruction of Germany and other nations after fighting in the European Theatre of World War II had ended with the German surrender of May 8, 1945. ... Motto: ÐŸÑ€Ð¾Ð»ÐµÑ‚Ð°Ñ€Ð¸Ð¸ Ð²ÑÐµÑ… ÑÑ‚Ñ€Ð°Ð½, ÑÐ¾ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÑÐ¹Ñ‚ÐµÑÑŒ! (Transliterated: Proletarii vsekh stran, soedinyaytes!) Translation: Workers of the world, unite!) Anthem: The Internationale (1922â€“1944) Hymn of the Soviet Union (1944â€“1991) Capital Moscow Language(s) Russian (the de facto official language), 14 other official languages Government Socialist republic Leaders - 1922â€“1924 Vladimir Lenin - 1924â€“1953 Joseph Stalin... GDR redirects here. ...

It is worth noting that the expulsion was not always indiscriminate. In Czechoslovakia large numbers of skilled Sudeten German workmen were forced to remain to labour for the Czechs [5]. Likewise in the Opole/Oppeln region in Upper Silesia, German miners and their families were allowed to stay, though the German language remained forbidden for the next forty years. Secretly German traditions and dialect survived however, to be slowly recognized since the late 1990s. Opole ( ; German: ) is a city in southern Poland on the Oder River (Odra). ... Motto: none Voivodship Opole Municipal government Rada Miasta Opola Mayor Ryszard Zembaczyński Area 96,2 km² Population - city - urban - density 128 800 250 000 1338/km² Founded City rights - - Latitude Longitude 50°40 N 17°56 E Area code +48 77 Car plates OP Twin towns - Municipal Website... Map of Upper Silesia, 1746 Upper Silesia (Polish: GÃ³rny ÅšlÄ…sk, German: Oberschlesien, Czech: HornÃ Slezsko) is the south-eastern part of Silesia, a historical and geographical region of Poland (Opole Voivodship and Silesian Voivodship) and of the Czech Republic (Silesian-Moravian Region). ... For the band, see 1990s (band). ...

Summary of German expellee population

Notes:
Germany-The pre-war eastern German provinces that became Polish in 1945 and Kaliningrad region that became Soviet
Eastern Europe- Includes ethnic Germans in Czechoslovakia, Poland, Danzig, the Baltic nations, Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia. Does not include the USSR.
Population in 1939- Includes bilinguals who were listed as Germans.
Military Losses 1939-45 Research by R. Overmans has increased this total by 360,000 thus reducing civilian losses.
Wartime Transfers In -Wartime evacuation of persons from western Germany.
Civilian Losses -Losses primarily during military campaign in 1945, also includes 270,000 dead in the USSR after being deported as laborers. This table reflects the research of Reichling and Overmans that has adjusted the estimate of civilian deaths downward from the 1958 German government estimate of 2.1 million dead.
Remaining in East Europe-Primarily bilinguals except in the case of Romania. Research by G. Reichling has increased this total by 230,000 thus reducing civilian losses
Government Russia District Subdivision Russia Northwestern Federal District Kaliningrad Oblast Mayor Yuri Savenko (2005) Geographical characteristics Area - City 215. ...

Sources:
Gerhard Reichling. Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen. Bonn 1986 ISBN 3-88557-046-7.
Rűdiger Overmans. Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Oldenbourg 2000. ISBN 3-486-56531-1 Fritz Peter Habel Dokumente zur Sudetenfrage Langen Müller,Munich 2003, ISBN 3-7844-2691-3. Alfred de Zayas Die Nemesis von Potsdam Herbig, Munich 2005. ISBN 3-7766-2454-X. Newest statistical survey pp. 32-34.

Legacy of the expulsion

From the time that the policy was undertaken until the 1990s, there was little argument in Germany over the morality of the policy. Perhaps the primary reason for this is that Cold War geopolitics discouraged criticism of post-war Allied policies by the West Germans and of post-war Soviet policies by the East Germans. There was some discussion of the expulsions in the first decade and a half after World War II but serious review and analysis of the events was not undertaken until the 1990s. It can be surmised that the fall of the Soviet Union, the spirit of glasnost and the unification of Germany opened the door to a renewed examination of these events. The rise of Gorbachev Although reform stalled between 1964–1982, the generational shift gave new momentum for reform. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The German Empire of 1871. ...

Expelled Germans in postwar Germany

After World War II many expellees (German: Heimatvertriebene) from the land east of the Oder-Neisse found refuge in both West Germany and East Germany. Refugees who had fled voluntarily but were later refused to return are often not distinguished from those who were forcibly deported, just as people born to German parents that moved into areas under German occupation either on their own or as Nazi colonists. This article is in need of attention. ...

In a document signed 50 years ago the Heimatvertriebene organisations have also recognized the plight of the different groups of people living in today's Poland who were by force resettled there. The Heimatvertriebene are just one of the groups of millions of other people, from many different countries, who all found refuge in today's Germany.

Some of the expellees are active in politics and belong to the political right-wing. Many others do not belong to any organizations, but they continue to maintain what they call a lawful right to their homeland. The vast majority pledged to work peacefully towards that goal while rebuilding post-war Germany and Europe.

The expellees are still highly active in German politics, and are one of the major political factions of the nation, with still around 2 million members. The president of their organization is as of 2004 still a member of the national parliament. 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Although expellees (in German Heimatvertriebene) and their descendants were active in West German politics, the prevailing political climate within West Germany was that of atonement for Nazi actions. However the CDU governments have shown considerable support for the expellees and German civilian victims. This article is in need of attention. ... National Socialism redirects here. ... This article needs cleanup. ...

Polish-German relations

Although relations between Poland and the Federal Republic of Germany have generally been cordial since 1991, there remain disputes about the War, the post-War expulsion, the treatment of the current German minority in Poland and the treatment of German heritage in modern day Western Poland.

Status of the German minority in Poland

The remaining German minority in Poland (152,897 people according to the 2002 census) is still awaiting formal recognition of minority rights as a minority law has not been introduced by the Polish parliament yet. There are German speakers throughout Poland, but only the vojvodship of Opole/Oppeln has a larger concentration. There are a few inofficial bilingual signs in some of the smaller towns of the Opole/Oppeln region. In addition there are some bilingual schools and in a few towns German can sometimes be used besides Polish in dealings with officials on a lower level at the discretion of local council officials. However Western European standards of minority protection including universal bilingual topography, use of the language in courts and in dealings with all government officials as well as bilingual education for the entire population remain unfulfilled.

Finalization of the Polish-German border

For decades, the CDU controlled German government considered the Oder-Neisse line to be completely unacceptable. Even the Social Democrats of the SPD initially refused to accept the Oder-Neisse line. The 1991 Polish-German border agreement finalized the Oder-Neisse line as the Polish-German border. The agreement gave to minority groups in both countries several rights, such as the right to use national surnames, speak their native languages, and attend schools and churches of their choice. These rights had been denied previously on the basis that the individual had already chosen the country in which they wanted to live. This article needs cleanup. ... The Oder-Neisse line (German: , Polish: ) marked the border between German Democratic Republic and Poland between 1950 and 1990. ... Social Democratic Party of Germany Spectral Power Density ...

Restricting sale of property to foreigners

In November 2005 Der Spiegel published a poll from Allensbach Institut which estimated that 61 % of Poles believed Germans would try to get back territories that were formerly under German control or demand compensation[6],[7]. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

There are also some worries among Poles that rich descendants of the expelled Germans would buy the land the Polish state confiscated in 1945. It is believed that this may result in large price increases, since the current Polish land price is low compared to Western Europe. This led to Polish restrictions on the sale of property to foreigners, including Germans: special permission is needed. This policy is comparable to similar restrictions on the Baltic Åland Islands. These restrictions will be lifted 12 years after the 2004 accession of Poland to the European Union, i.e on May 1, 2016. The restrictions are weak, they aren't valid for companies and certain types of properties. National motto: ? Official language Swedish Capital Mariehamn Governor Peter LindbÃ¤ck Premier Roger Nordlund Total Area - Land - Water 6,784 kmÂ² 1,527 kmÂ² 5,258 kmÂ² Population - Total (2002) - Density 26,257 17. ... May 1 is the 121st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (122nd in leap years). ... 2016 (MMXVI) will be a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The attempts by German organisations to build a Centre Against Expulsions dedicated to German people's alleged suffering during World War II has led Polish politicians and activists to propose a Center for Martyrology of Polish Nation (called also Center for the Memory of Suffering of the Polish Nation) that would document the systematical oppression conducted on Polish people by German state during World War II and which would serve to educate German people about atrocities their state and regime conducted on their neighbours. However this proposal was attacked and rejected by German politicians[8]. The Centre Against Expulsions (ger. ...

German minority in the Czech Republic

There are about 40,000 Germans remaining in the Czech Republic. Their number has been consistently decreasing since World War II. According to the 2001 census there remain 13 municipalities and settlements in the Czech Republic with more than 10% Germans.

The situation in Slovakia was different from that in the Czech lands, in that the number of Germans was considerably lower and that the Germans from Slovakia were almost completely evacuated to German states as the Soviet army was moving west through Slovakia, and only the fraction of them that returned to Slovakia after the end of the war was deported together with the Germans from the Czech lands. Carpathian Germans (German: Karpatendeutsche, Slovak: karpatskÃ Nemci), sometimes simply called Slovak Germans (German: Slowakeideutsche), is the name for a group of German language speakers on the territory of present-day Slovakia. ...

The Czech Republic has introduced a law in 2002 that guarantees the use of native minority languages (incl.German)as official languages in municipalities where autochthonous linguistic groups make up at least 10% of the population. Besides the use in dealings with officials and in courts the law also allows for bilingual signage and guarantees education in the native language. The law so far only exists on paper and has not been implemented anywhere, neither in the Polish speaking Tesin/Cieszyn area nor in Western and Northern Bohemia where a hand full of towns still have in excess of 10% German speakers.

The remaining tiny German minority in the Czech Republic has been granted some rights on paper, however the actual use of the language in dealings with officials is usually not possible. There is no bilingual education system in Western and Northern Bohemia, where the German minority is most concentrated. The Czech authorities have enacted a unique hurdle in their minority act.

Many representatives of expelees organizations support the erection of bilingual signs in all formerly German speaking territory as a visible sign of the bilingual linguistic and cultural heritage of the region. While the erection of bilingual signs is technically permitted if a minority constitutes 10% of the population, the minority is also forced to sign a petition in favour of the signs in which 40% of the adult minority population must participate.

Czech-German relations

On 28 December 1989, Václav Havel, at that time a candidate for president of Czechoslovakia (he was elected one day later), suggested that Czechoslovakia should apologise for the expulsion of ethnic Germans after World War II. Most of other politicians of the country didn't agree, and there was also no reply from leaders of Sudeten German organizations. Later, the German President Richard von Weizsacker answered this by apologizing to Czechoslovakia during his visit to Prague on March 1990 after Václav Havel repeated his apology characterizing the expulsion as "the mistakes and sins of our fathers". However, the Beneš decrees continue to remain in force in Czechoslovakia. December 28 is the 362nd day of the year (363rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 3 days remaining. ... 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... VÃ¡clav Havel, GCB, CC, (IPA: ) (born October 5, 1936 in Prague) is a Czech writer and dramatist. ... Dr. Richard Freiherr von WeizsÃ¤cker ( listen?, born April 15, 1920) is a German politician (CDU). ... Nickname: City of a Hundred Spires Motto: Praga Caput Rei publicae Location within the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Capital City of Prague Founded 9th century - Mayor Pavel BÃ©m Area - City 496 kmÂ² (191. ... The BeneÅ¡ decrees (Czech: ; German: ; Slovak: ; Hungarian: ) refers to a series of laws enacted by the Czechoslovak government of exile during World War II in absence of Czechoslovak parliament (see details in Czechoslovakia: World War II (1939 - 1945)). Today, the term is most frequently used for the part of them...

In Czech-German relations, the topic has been effectively closed by the Czech-German declaration of 1997. One principle of the declaration was that parties will not burden their relations with political and legal issues which stem from the past.

However, some expelled Sudeten Germans or their descendants are demanding return of their former property, which was confiscated after the war. Several such cases have been taken to Czech courts. As confiscated estates usually have new inhabitants, some of whom have lived there for more than 50 years, attempts to return to a pre-war state may cause fear. The topic comes to life occasionally in Czech politics. Like in Poland, worries and restrictions concerning land purchases exist in the Czech Republic. According to a survey by the Allensbach Institut in November 2005, 38 % of Czechs believe Germans want to regain territory they lost or will demand compensation.

German minority in Hungary

Today the German minority in Hungary have minority rights, organisations, schools and local councils but spontaneous assimilation is well under way. Many of the deportees visited their old homes after the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1990.

References

Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze, German: Pommern and Pommerellen, Pomeranian (Kashubian): Pòmòrze and Pòmòrskô, Latin: Pomerania, Pomorania) is a geographical and historical region in northern Poland and Germany on the south coasts of the Baltic Sea between and on both sides of the Vistula and Oder (Odra) rivers... Indiana University, founded in 1820, is a nine-campus university system in the state of Indiana. ... H-Net is an interdisciplinary online discussion forum for humanities and social sciences scholars. ...

Notes

^ Wallbank and Schrier, Living World History, pp. 193
^ Sebastian Haffner, The Rise and Fall of Prussia, pp. 6–10.
^ the German population in those areas in 1921 was 16.7% in the Poznań region (1910: 27.1%), and 18.8% in the area of Polish Pomorze (1910: 42.5%). [2]
^ See Documents Concerning the German Polish Relations and the Outbreak of Hostilities between Great Britain and Germany on September 3, 1939. See also the Soviet archived, Documents Relating to the Eve of the Second World War Volume II: 1938-1939 (New York: International Publishers), 1948.
^ See Documents Concerning the German Polish Relations and the Outbreak of Hostilities between Great Britain and Germany on September 3, 1939 See also the Soviet archived, Documents Relating to the Eve of the Second World War Volume II: 1938-1939 (New York: International Publishers), 1948.
^ See Documents Concerning the German Polish Relations and the Outbreak of Hostilities between Great Britain and Germany on September 3, 1939. Hitler's change of position is well reflected in Goebbel's personal diary. See also the Soviet archived, Documents Relating to the Eve of the Second World War Volume II: 1938-1939 (New York: International Publishers), 1948.
^ (German) Hans-Ulrich Wehler (2003). Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte Band 4: Vom Beginn des Ersten Weltkrieges bis zur Gründung der beiden deutschen Staaten 1914-1949. Munich: C.H. Beck Verlag. ISBN 3-406-32264-6.
^ (English) Dagmar Barnouw (2005). The War in the Empty Air: Victims, Perpetrators, and Postwar Germans. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 143. ISBN 0-253-34651-7.
^ ^a ^b (English) Frank Biess (2006). "Review of Dagmar Barnouw, The War in the Empty Air: Victims, Perpetrators, and Postwar Germans" (pdf). H-Net Reviews: 2.
^ (German) Rüdiger Overmans (2004). Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg (German Military Losses in WWII). Munich: Oldenbourg, 298-300. ISBN 3-486-56531-1.
^ Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen. Gerhard Reichling. 1986 ISBN 3-88557-046-7

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