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The history of Guatemala can be traced back to the arrival of the first human settlers, presumed to have migrated from the north at least 12,000 years ago {5}. For much of that time, the civilization that developed there flourished, with little to no contact with cultures from outside of Mesoamerica. The Maya civilization dominated the region for nearly 2000 years before the Spanish arrived in the early 16th century, although most of the Great Classic Maya cities of the Petén region of Guatemala's northern lowlands were abandoned by the year 1000 AD. The states of the central highlands, however, were still flourishing until the arrival of the Spanish Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, who subjugated the native states, beginning in 1523. Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... HIStory – Past, Present and Future, Book I is a double album by American singer Michael Jackson released in June 1995 and remains Jacksons most conflicting and controversial release. ... This article is about the culture area. ... This article is about the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ... The Petén Basin is a geographical subregion of Mesoamerica, located in the northern portion of the modern-day nation of Guatemala, and essentially contained within the department of El Petén. ... A Conquistador (Spanish: []) (English: Conqueror) was a Spanish soldier, explorer and adventurer who took part in the gradual invasion and conquering of much of the Americas and Asia Pacific, bringing them under Spanish colonial rule between the 15th and 19th centuries. ... Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras (Badajoz, c. ...

Guatemala remained a Spanish colony for nearly 300 years, before gaining its independence in 1821. It was then a part of the Mexican Empire until becoming fully independent in the 1840's. Since then, Guatemala's history has been divided into periods of democratic rule and periods of civil war and military juntas. Most recently, Guatemala emerged from a 36-year civil war, reestablishing a representative government in 1996. The Mexican Empire was the name of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century when it was ruled by an Emperor. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

[edit] Pre-Columbian Guatemala

The first proof of human settlers in Guatemala goes back to 10,000 BC, although there is some evidence that put this date at 18,000 BC, such as obsidian arrow heads found in various parts of the country {History of Guatemala, 1999}. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, but pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation was developed by 3500 BC {5}. Archaic sites have been documented in Quiché in the Highlands and Sipacate, Escuintla on the central Pacific coast (6500 BC). El Petén El Petén is a department of the nation of Guatemala. ... This article is about the maize plant. ... // Centuries 31st century | 32nd century | 33rd century | 34th century | 35th century | 36th century | 37th century | 38th century | 39th century | 40th century Astronomical events The Earth will experience 2366 solar eclipses. ... El Quiché For other uses, see Quiché (disambiguation). ... Sipacate (located at 13°56 North, 91°9 West) is a resort on the Pacific coast of Guatemala, in Escuintla Department about 22 miles (36 km) west of Puerto San José. It is promoted as a venue for Surfing. ... Escuintla (sometimes spelled Esquintla) is a small city in south central Guatemala. ...

By 2500 BC, small settlements were developing in Guatemala’s Pacific lowlands, including such places as Tilapa, La Blanca, Ocós, El Mesak, and Ujuxte, where the oldest ceramic pottery from Guatemala has been found. A heavy concentration of pottery on the Pacific coast has been documented dating from 2000 BC. Recent excavations suggest that the Highlands were a geographic and temporal bridge between Early Preclassic villages of the Pacific coast and later Petén lowlands cities (5). (Redirected from 2500) (24th century - 25th century - 26th century - more centuries) The 25th century (Gregorian Calendar) comprises the years 2401-2500. ... La Blanca is a Pre Columbian and large site of predominately Middle Preclassic (1300-600 BC) date, located on the western Pacific coast of Guatemala, and being the most important polity on the Pacific coast of Mesoamerica until 600 BC when the dominance pass to the Ujuxte, 13 Km north. ... The site of Ujuxte (Ramon tree or breadnut tree) (uh-hush-te) is the largest Pre Classical site to be discovered in Pacific coast, Guatemala. ... Year 2000 (MM) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... El Petén El Petén is a department of the nation of Guatemala. ...

Recent excavations in the Antigua Guatemala Valley, at Urías and Rucal, have yielded stratified materials from the Early and Middle Preclassic, the first pottery in the Antigua Valley is very well-made and not simply a copy of either coastal or Piedmont types. Their paste analyses, however, indicate that the vessels were made of clays from different environmental zones, suggesting these were people from the Pacific coast who expanded into the Antigua Valley {History of Guatemala}. There are at least 5000 archaeological sites in Guatemala, 3000 of them in Petén alone.{5} La Antigua Guatemala (commonly referred to as just Antigua or La Antigua) is a city in the central mountains of Guatemala famous for its well-preserved Spanish New World Baroque architecture as well as a number of spectacular ruined churches. ... An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or historic or contemporary), and which has been investigated using the discipline of archaeology. ... El Petén El Petén is a department of the nation of Guatemala. ...

In Monte Alto near La Democracia, Escuintla, giant stone heads and Potbellies (or Barrigones) have been found, dating from 1800 BC {5}. These are ascribed to the Pre-Olmec Monte Alto Culture, and some scholars suggest the Olmec Culture originated in this area of the Pacific Lowlands {{4 Malmström}. However, it has also been argued the only connection between these statues and the later Olmec heads is their size Template:Coe 1981. Nonetheless, it is likely the Monte Alto Culture was the first complex culture of Mesoamerica, and predecessor of all other cultures of the region. In Guatemala, there are some sites with unmistakable Olmec style, such as Chocolá in Suchitepéquez, La Corona, in Peten, and Tak'alik A´baj, in Retalhuleu, the last of which is the only ancient city in the Americas with Olmec and Mayan features{6}. La Democracia is a municipality in the Escuintla department of Guatemala. ... Escuintla (sometimes spelled Esquintla) is a small city in south central Guatemala. ... (Redirected from 1800 BC) (19th century BC - 18th century BC - 17th century BC - other centuries) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events 1787 - 1784 BC -- Amorite conquests of Uruk and Isin 1786 BC -- Egypt: End of Twelfth Dynasty, start of Thirteenth Dynasty, start of Fourteenth Dynasty 1766... Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... Monte Alto is an ancient site in what is now Guatemala. ... Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). ... Chocolá was a Late Preclassic site (400 BC to 200 AD), a complex of more than 100 structures that was discovered before the turn of the last century but, until now, no one had undertaken systematic and comprehensive excavations. ... Suchitepequez Suchitepequez is a department in Guatemala. ... SMU graduate student Stanley Guenter cleans a panel of Maya glyphs discovered at La Corona. ... Takalik Abaj is an archeological site, formerly a site of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ... Retalhuleu Retalhuleu is a department located in the south-west of Guatemala, extending from the mountains to the Pacific Ocean coast. ... Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... This article is about the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ...

Dr. Richard Hansen, the director of the archaeological project of the Mirador Basin, believes the Maya at Mirador Basin developed the first true political state in America, (The Kan Kingdom), around 1500 BC; and further believes the Olmec were not the mother culture in Mesoamerica, as is often thought. Template:Hansen, 2005 Due to recent findings at Mirador Basin in Northern Petén, Hansen suggests the Olmec and Maya cultures developed separately, and merged in some places like Tak'alik Abaj on the Pacific lowlands. There is no evidence yet to link the Preclassic Maya from Petén and those from the Pacific coast, but undoubtedly, they had cultural and economical links.^{[citation needed]} Archaeology or sometimes in American English archeology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... The Mirador Basin is a geographically defined elevated basin found in the remote rain forest of the northern department of Petén , Guatemala. ... This article is about the contemporary indigenous peoples and cultures who descend from, or remain, speakers of the Mayan languages of southern Mesoamerica. ... World map showing the Americas The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere historically considered to consist of the continents of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions. ... (Redirected from 1500 BC) Centuries: 17th century BC - 16th century BC - 15th century BC Decades: 1550s BC 1540s BC 1530s BC 1520s BC 1510s BC - 1500s BC - 1490s BC 1480s BC 1470s BC 1460s BC 1450s BC Events and Trends Stonehenge built in Wiltshire, England The element Mercury has been... Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... This article is about the culture area. ... The Mirador Basin is a geographically defined elevated basin found in the remote rain forest of the northern department of Petén , Guatemala. ... El Petén El Petén is a department of the nation of Guatemala. ... Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... El Petén El Petén is a department of the nation of Guatemala. ...

Nakbé, Mid Preclassic palace remains, Mirador Basin, Petén, Guatemala

Northern Guatemala has particularly high densities of Late Pre-classic sites, including Naachtun, Xulnal, El Mirador, Porvenir, Pacaya, La Muralla, Nakbé, Tintal, Wakná (formerly Güiro), Uaxactún, and Tikal. Of these, El Mirador, Tikal, Nakbé, Tintal, Xulnal and Wakná are the largest in the Maya world, Such size was manifested not only in the extent of the site, but also in the volume or monumentality, especially in the construction of immense platforms to support large temples. Many sites of this era display monumental masks for the first time (Uaxactún, El Mirador, Cival, Tikal and Nakbé ). These masks often seem to depict powerful natural forces such as Sun and Earth The Archeologist divide the cultural History of Mesoamerica in 3 periods: The Pre-Classic from 2000 BC to 250 AD, (Early: 2000 BC to 800 BC, Middle: 800 to 400 BC, and Late 400 BC to 250 AD), Classic from 250 to 900 AD, (Early 250 to 550 AD, Middle from 550 to 700 AD and Late 700 to 900 AD), and Post Classic from 900 to 1500 AD, (Early 900 to 1200 AD, and Late 1200 to 1500 AD) Image File history File linksMetadata Nakbe_str. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Nakbe_str. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... El Mirador is a large pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization, located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. ... Map of Mesoamerica During the Classic Period. ... Uaxactun (pronounced Wash-ak-toon) is an ancient ruin of the Maya civilization, located in the Peten department of Guatemala, some 40 km (25 miles) north of Tikal. ... For other uses, see Tikal (disambiguation). ... El Mirador is a large pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization, located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. ... For other uses, see Tikal (disambiguation). ... Map of Mesoamerica During the Classic Period. ... Uaxactun (pronounced Wash-ak-toon) is an ancient ruin of the Maya civilization, located in the Peten department of Guatemala, some 40 km (25 miles) north of Tikal. ... El Mirador is a large pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization, located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. ... Cival is an archaeological site in the Petén department of Guatemala, formerly a major city of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ... For other uses, see Tikal (disambiguation). ... Map of Mesoamerica During the Classic Period. ... This article is about the culture area. ...

Until a few years ago, the Pre Classic, was thought to be a formative period, with small villages of farmers, that lived in huts, and few permanent buildings, but this concept has been proved to be a big mistake, due to recent findings all over Guatemala, such as an altar in La Blanca, San Marcos, some 3 mt. in diameter from 1000 BC; Ceremonial sites at Miraflores, and El Naranjo from 800 BC, near Kaminal Juyú, in Guatemala City, El Portón in Baja Verapaz, The Mural paintings in San Bartolo, Petén, the Stucco Masks and monuments in Cival and of course The Mirador Basin major cities of Nakbé, Xulnal, Tintal, Wakná and Mirador, the Cradle of the Maya Civilization, where, the cities were not only numerous, but very sophisticated, and developed, with architectonic structures from 1400 BC. Indeed the two biggest cities of the Maya Civilization (El Mirador and Tintal) are there, with the same religious beliefs, astronomical, mathematical and writing knowledge of those in the Classic period. La Blanca is a Pre Columbian and large site of predominately Middle Preclassic (1300-600 BC) date, located on the western Pacific coast of Guatemala, and being the most important polity on the Pacific coast of Mesoamerica until 600 BC when the dominance pass to the Ujuxte, 13 Km north. ... San Marcos is a department in Guatemala. ... Kaminaljuyu is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization, in highland Guatemala, now within modern Guatemala City. ... Guatemala City (in full, La Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción; locally known as Guatemala or Guate) is the capital and largest city of the nation of Guatemala. ... Baja Verapaz is a department in Guatemala. ... Stucco is a material made of an aggregate, a binder, and water which is applied wet, and hardens when it dries. ... Cival is an archaeological site in the Petén department of Guatemala, formerly a major city of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ... The Mirador Basin is a geographically defined elevated basin found in the remote rain forest of the northern department of Petén , Guatemala. ... Map of Mesoamerica During the Classic Period. ... El Mirador is a large pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization, located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. ... Mesoamerican chronology The chronology of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is usually divided into the following eras: Paleo-Indian Period c. ...

[edit] The Conquest

Sent out by Hernán Cortés with 120 horsemen, 300 foot soldiers and several hundred Cholula and Tlascala auxiliaries, Pedro de Alvarado was engaged in the conquest of the highlands of Guatemala from 1523 to 1527. He left Tenochtitlán, with 120 Cavalry units, 160 crossbowers and riflemen, 4 heavy artillery pieces, 300 infantry men, and 20,000 tlaxcaltec, cholulas, and mexicas. He entered Guatemala from Soconusco on the Pacific lowlands, headed for Xetulul Humbatz, Zapotitlan. Alvarado at first allied himself with the Cakchiquel nation to fight against their traditional rivals the Quiché nation. Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras (Badajoz, c. ... Events April - Battle of Villalar - Forces loyal to Emperor Charles V defeat the Comuneros, a league of urban bourgeois rebelling against Charles in Spain. ... January 5 - Felix Manz, co-founder of the Swiss Anabaptists, was drowned in the Limmat in Zürich by the Zürich Reformed state church. ... Plan of Tenochtitlan (Dr Atl) Mexico City statue commemorating the foundation of Tenochtitlan Tenochtitlan (pronounced ) or, alternatively, Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was the capital of the Aztec empire, which was built on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now central Mexico. ... Not to be confused with Golgotha, which was called Calvary. ... This article is about the weapon. ... For other uses, see Rifleman (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Artillery (disambiguation). ... Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles during the Battle of the Somme in World War I Infantry or footmen are very highly disciplined and trained soldiers who fight primarily with small arms(rifles), but are trained to use everything from their bare hands to missle systems in order to neutralize... Tlaxcaltec leader speaking to conquistador as depicted in History of Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo, published in 1590 The Tlaxcaltecs or Tlacullos were an indigenous group of the Nahuatl culture that inhabited the area in Meso-America that approximates the territory currently known as the state of Tlaxcala, Mexico. ... For other uses, see Aztec (disambiguation). ... Soconusco refers to the region of rich lowlands and foothills along the Pacific coast of southeastern Chiapas, Mexico. ... For other meanings of Pacific, see Pacific (disambiguation). ... Disambiguation: For the region of Scotland please see Scottish Lowlands Lowlands, also known as A Campingflight to Lowlands Paradise, is a music festival, held annually in the Netherlands in August. ... The Cakchiquiel are a group of indegenous people of Mayan descent, native to the midwestern highlands of Guatemala. ... The Kiche (or Quiché in Spanish spelling), are a Native American people, part of the Maya ethnic group. ...

Alvarado started his conquest in Xepau Olintepeque, defeating the K'iché's 72,000 men, led by Tecún Umán (now Guatemala's national hero). Alvarado then went to Gumarcaj, (Utatlan), the K'iché capital, and burned it on March 7, 1524. He proceeded to Iximche, and established near there in Tecpan on July 25, 1524, to launch several campaigns to other cities, as Chuitinamit, the capital of the Tzutuhils,(1524), Mixco Viejo, capital of the Poqomams, and Zaculeu, capital of the Mam, (1525). He was named Captain General in 1527. Olintepeque is a municipality in the Quetzaltenango department of Guatemala. ... Statue of Tecún Umán in Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. ... Gumarcaj, sometimes rendered as Cumarcaj or Kumarcaaj, is an archeological site in El Quiché department of Guatemala. ... General View of Iximché, Guatemala Iximché is a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site in the western highlands of Guatemala. ... | Tecpán Guatemala (locally referred to as just Tecpán) is a municipality in the department of Chimaltenango, in Guatemala, on the Inter-American Highway CA-1. ... The Tzutuhil (or Tzutujil) are a Native American people, part of the Maya ethnic group. ... Events March 1, 1524/5 - Giovanni da Verrazano lands near Cape Fear (approx. ... Mixco Viejo is an archaeological site in the north east of the Chimaltenango district of Guatemala, some 50 km to the north of Guatemala City. ... Ceremonial center of Saqulew, ballcourt in front center Zaculeu (traditional spelling) or Saqulew (modern Maya spelling) is a Pre-Columbian archeological site in the highlands of south western Guatemala, a short distance outside of the city of Huehuetenango. ... The Mam are a Native American people of the highlands of western Guatemala. ... Events January 21 - The Swiss Anabaptist Movement was born when Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, George Blaurock, and about a dozen others baptized each other in the home of Manzs mother on Neustadt-Gasse, Zürich, breaking a thousand-year tradition of church-state union. ... January 5 - Felix Manz, co-founder of the Swiss Anabaptists, was drowned in the Limmat in Zürich by the Zürich Reformed state church. ...

Feeling his position secure, Alvarado turned against his allies Cakchiquels, meeting them in several battles until they were subdued in 1530. Battles with other tribes continued up to 1548, when the Kek'chí in Nueva Sevilla, Izabal where defeated, leaving the Spanish in complete control of the region. Izabal is one of the 22 departments in the nation of Guatemala. ...

It should be noted that not all native tribes were subdued by bloodshed. Fray Bartolome de las Casas, pacified the Keck'chí in Alta Verapaz without violence. Bartolomé de Las Casas This article is about a Spanish priest in the 16th century. ... Alta Verapaz Semuc-Champey pools in the Cahabòn River, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala Alta Verapaz is a department in the north central part of Guatemala. ...

The last cities conquered were Tayasal, capital of the Itzá Maya, and Zacpetén, capital of the Ko'woj Maya, both in 1697, after several attempts, including a failed attempt by Hernan Cortez in 1542. In order to conquer these last Maya sites, the Spaniards had to attack them on three fronts, one coming from Yucatan, another from Belize, and the third one from Alta Verapaz. Flores is the capital city of El Petén department of Guatemala. ... The Maya are people of southern Mexico and northern Central America (Guatemala, Belize, western Honduras, and El Salvador) with some 3,000 years of history. ... Zacpetén: This site shows a long occupation, it was most heavily occupied during the Middle Preclassic (1000 BC to 300 BC), and Late Classic through Terminal Classic (AD 600 to AD 950), and a late Late Post Classic occupation by the Kowoj Maya, through Contact (AD 1200 to... the Kowoj (also recorded as Coguo, Cohuo, Kobow, Kobox, and Kowo) were a Maya group and polity, from the Late Postclassic period (ca. ... The Yucatán Peninsula separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico. ... Alta Verapaz Semuc-Champey pools in the Cahabòn River, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala Alta Verapaz is a department in the north central part of Guatemala. ...

[edit] The 19th century

Guatemala gained independence from Spain on September 15, 1821; it briefly became part of the Mexican Empire and then for a period belonged to a federation called The United Provinces of Central America, until the federation broke up in civil war in 1838–1840 (See: History of Central America). Guatemala's Rafael Carrera was instrumental in leading the revolt against the federal government and breaking apart the Union. Carrera dominated Guatemalan politics until 1865, backed by conservatives, large land owners and the church. is the 258th day of the year (259th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1821 (MDCCCXXI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... The Mexican Empire was the name of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century when it was ruled by an Emperor. ... Capital Guatemala City; in 1834 moved to San Salvador Created 1823 Dissolved 1840 Demonym Centroamerican The United Provinces of Central America (UPCA) was a country that existed in Central America from July 1823 to approximately 1840. ... This is the history of Central America. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Town alcaldes of Highland Guatemala in traditional dress, 1891

Guatemala's "Liberal Revolution" came in 1871 under the leadership of Justo Rufino Barrios, who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing. During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala. Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took the country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain this, losing his life on the battlefield in 1885 against forces in El Salvador. Alcaldes of Upper Guatemala; Town Alcaldes of Highland Guatemala, from Appletons Annual Cyclopedia and Register, 1891 This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Alcaldes of Upper Guatemala; Town Alcaldes of Highland Guatemala, from Appletons Annual Cyclopedia and Register, 1891 This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Alcalde is the Spanish title of the chief administrator of a town. ... Justo Rufino Barrios (July 19, 1835 – April 2, 1885) was a President of Guatemala known for his liberal reforms and his attempts to reunite Central America. ... For other uses, see Coffee (disambiguation). ...

[edit] The Early 20th century

The U.S.-based multinational United Fruit Company (UFC) started becoming a major force in Guatemala in 1901, during the long presidencies of Manuel José Estrada Cabrera and General Jorge Ubico. During the latter's dictatorship in the 1930s, Guatemala was further opened up to foreign investment, with special favours being made from Ubico to the United Fruit Company in particular. The UFC responded by pouring investment capital into the country, buying controlling shares of the railroad, electric utility, and telegraph, while also winning control of over 40% of the country's best land and de facto control over its only port facility. As a result, Government was often subservient to the interests of the UFC. While the company helped with building some schools, it also opposed building highways because this would compete with its railroad monopoly. Entrance facade of old United Fruit Building on St. ... Manuel José Estrada Cabrera (November 21, 1857 – September 24, 1923) was President of Guatemala from 8 February 1898 to 15 April 1920. ... Jorge Ubico, President of Guatemala (1931-1944) Jorge Ubico y Castañeda (November 10, 1878; † 14 July 1946) was President of Guatemala from 14 February 1931 to 4 July 1944. ...

[edit] The "Ten Years of Spring"

In 1944, General Jorge Ubico's dictatorship was overthrown by the "October Revolutionaries", a group of dissident military officers, students, and liberal professionals who were empowered by the wave of revolutions that swept up old, unpopular dictatorships in Venezuela, Cuba, and El Salvador around the same time. The social unrest preceding the coup culminated in the killing of a schoolteacher by an Army soldier, which sparked a broad general strike that paralyzed the country and forced Ubico to surrender power to his generals. Further unrest prompted two young officers at the time, Jacobo Arbenz and Francisco Javier Arana, to lead a final coup and unseat the dictatorship. Year 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Jorge Ubico, President of Guatemala (1931-1944) Jorge Ubico y Castañeda (November 10, 1878; † 14 July 1946) was President of Guatemala from 14 February 1931 to 4 July 1944. ... A general strike is a strike action by an entire labour force in a city, region or country. ... Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán was the democratically-elected, left-wing reformist President of Guatemala. ... Francisco Javier Arana (1905 - 1949) was one of the three leaders of the military junta which ruled Guatemala from 20 October 1944 to 15 March 1945. ...

In a highly popular move, the pair of officers then stepped aside and made way for a general election. This started what is called The Ten Years of Spring, a period of free speech and political activity, proposed land reform, and a perception that great progress could be made in Guatemala. A civilian president, Juan José Arévalo, was elected in 1945 and held the presidency until 1951. A former professor, he brought about social reforms, allowing new political parties and unions (with some restrictions), which placated the public.-1... Juan José Arévalo Bermejo (1904 – 1990) was the first of the reformist presidents of Guatemala. ... The Lawrence textile strike (1912), with soldiers surrounding peaceful demonstrators A trade union or labor union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages, hours, and working conditions, forming a cartel of labour. ...

Arana and Arbenz, still both highly regarded at the time, anticipated to soon succeed Arévalo. Arana tried to prematurely hasten the process of Arévalo's descent in a failed coup which brought about Arana's death in a controversial arrest-gone-wrong. This cleared the way for Arbenz to secure power; as he did in a landslide general election in 1951. Arbenz together with Arévalo further promoted the progressive social change that characterized the latter's presidency, clearing much of the old restrictions on political parties and labour unions, while also purging the army brass of its remaining pro-Arana officers -- one of whom was Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas; a man who would play a major role in Guatemalan politics in the coming years. Arbenz also permitted the Communist Guatemalan Party of Labour to achieve legal status in 1952. The party subsequently gained a noticeable role in the government decision-making process that it had not had before. Castillo Armas wearing the presidential sash after his taking of power Carlos Castillo Armas (November 4, 1914 – July 26, 1957) was president of Guatemala from July 8, 1954 until his assassination in 1957. ... Guatemalan Party of Labour The Guatemalan Party of Labour (Partido Guatemalteco del Trabajo) was a Communist party in Guatemala. ...

[edit] Operation PBSUCCESS

Main article Operation PBSUCCESS

Arbenz proceeded to nationalize and redistribute un-utilized land owned by the United Fruit Company, which had a practical monopoly on Guatemalan fruit production and some industry. In response, United Fruit lobbied the Eisenhower administration to remove Arbenz. Of still greater importance, though, was the widespread American concern about the possibility of a so-called "Soviet beachhead"^[1] opening up in the Western Hemisphere. Arbenz's sudden legalization of the Communist party and importing of arms from then Soviet-satellite state of Czechoslovakia,^[2] among other events, convinced major policy makers in the White House and CIA to try for Arbenz's forced removal, although his term was to end naturally in two years. This led to a CIA-orchestrated coup, known as Operation PBSUCCESS, which saw Arbenz toppled and forced into exile by Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas. Despite most Guatemalans' attachment to the original ideals of the 1944 uprising, some private sector leaders and the military began to believe that Arbenz represented a Communist threat and supported his overthrow, hoping that a successor government would continue the more moderate reforms started by Arevalo. After the CIA coup, hundreds of Guatemalans were rounded up and killed. Former president Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán on the cover of TIME magazine in June 1954 after his overthrow Operation PBSUCCESS was a CIA-organized covert operation that overthrew the democratically-elected President of Guatemala, Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in 1954. ... Entrance facade of old United Fruit Building on St. ... Dwight David Ike Eisenhower (October 14, 1890–March 28, 1969), American soldier and politician, was the 34th President of the United States (1953–1961) and supreme commander of the Allied forces in Europe during World War II, with the rank of General of the Army. ... CCCP redirects here. ... Satellite state or client state is a political term that refers to a country which is formally independent but which is primarily subject to the domination of another, larger power. ... For other uses, see White House (disambiguation). ... CIA redirects here. ... Former president Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán on the cover of TIME magazine in June 1954 after his overthrow Operation PBSUCCESS was a CIA-organized covert operation that overthrew the democratically-elected President of Guatemala, Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in 1954. ... Castillo Armas wearing the presidential sash after his taking of power Carlos Castillo Armas (November 4, 1914 – July 26, 1957) was president of Guatemala from July 8, 1954 until his assassination in 1957. ...

[edit] Civil war

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Main article Guatemalan Civil War

The Guatemalan Civil War (1960-96) involved the government, right-wing paramilitary organizations, and left-wing insurgents. A variety of factors contributed: social and economic injustice and racism against the indigenous population, the 1954 coup which reversed reforms, weak civilian control of the military, Marxist ideology advocating violent revolution instead of democratic participation and reform, the United States support of the government, and Cuban support of the insurgents. The Truth Commission after the war estimated that more than 200,000 people were killed. Mostly indigenous people by state forces who used a "scorched earth" policy. This does not cite its references or sources. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ...

In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of Gen. Ydígoras Fuentes, who took power in 1958 following the murder of Col. Castillo Armas, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with Cuba.^{[citation needed]} This group became the nucleus of the forces that were in armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years. José Miguel Ramón Ydígoras Fuentes (1895 – 1982) was President of Guatemala from 2 March 1958 to 31 March 1963. ...

Four principal left-wing guerrilla groups — the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), the Revolutionary Organization of Armed People (ORPA), the Rebel Armed Forces (FAR), and the Guatemalan Party of Labour (PGT) — conducted economic sabotage and targeted government installations and members of government security forces in armed attacks. These organizations combined to form the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) in 1982. At the same time, extreme right-wing groups of self-appointed vigilantes, including the Secret Anti-Communist Army (ESA) and the White Hand (La Mano Blanca), tortured and murdered students, professionals, and peasants suspected of involvement in leftist activities. Guerrilla redirects here. ... The Guerrilla Army Of The Poor (EGP - Ejercito Guerrillero de los Pobres) was one of the four guerrilla organizations comprising the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG - Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca) that negotiated and signed the Peace accords in Guatemala with the Government and the Army of Guatemala. ... Guatemalan Party of Labour The Guatemalan Party of Labour (Partido Guatemalteco del Trabajo) was a Communist party in Guatemala. ... Partido Guatemalteco del Trabajo Fuerzas Armadas Rebeldes Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres Organización Pueblo en Armas The Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (in Spanish: Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca) (initials: URNG) was a guerilla movement which emerged in Guatemala in 1982. ...

Shortly after President Julio César Méndez Montenegro took office in 1966, the army launched a major counterinsurgency campaign that largely broke up the guerrilla movement in the countryside. The guerrillas then concentrated their attacks in Guatemala City, where they assassinated many leading figures, including U.S. Ambassador John Gordon Mein in 1968. Between 1966 and 1982, there were a series of military or military-dominated governments. Julio César Méndez Montenegro (1915 – 1996) was President of Guatemala from 1 July 1966 to 1 July 1970. ... Ambassador John Gordon Mein (September 10, 1913-August 28, 1968) was the first US ambassador to have been assassinated. ...

On March 23, 1982, army troops commanded by junior officers staged a coup d'état to prevent the assumption of power by General Ángel Aníbal Guevara, the hand-picked candidate of outgoing President and General Romeo Lucas García. They denounced Guevara's electoral victory as fraudulent. The coup leaders asked retired Gen. Efraín Ríos Montt to negotiate the departure of Lucas Guevara. Ríos Montt had been the candidate of the Christian Democracy Party in the 1974 presidential election and was widely regarded as having been denied his own victory through fraud. is the 82nd day of the year (83rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday (link displays the 1982 Gregorian calendar). ... Coup redirects here. ... General Ángel Aníbal Guevara Rodríguez is a Guatemalan soldier and politician. ... Fernando Romeo Lucas García (born 1924) was the President of Guatemala from 1 July 1978 to 23 March 1982. ... José Efraín Ríos Montt (born June 16, 1926) is a former dictator of Guatemala, army general, and former president of Congress. ... The Guatemalan Christian Democracy (Democracia Cristiana Guatemalteco) is a political party in Guatemala. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Ríos Montt was by this time a lay pastor in the evangelical Protestant Church of the Word. In his inaugural address, he stated that his presidency resulted from the will of God. He was widely perceived as having strong backing from the Reagan administration in the United States. He formed a three-member military junta that annulled the 1965 constitution, dissolved Congress, suspended political parties and cancelled the electoral law. After a few months, Ríos Montt dismissed his junta colleagues and assumed the de facto title of "President of the Republic". The Church of the Word (Spanish: Iglesia el Verbo) is a evangelical pentacostal Christian church. ... This article is about the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... Reagan redirects here. ... A military dictatorship is a form of government wherein the political power resides with the military; it is similar but not identical to a stratocracy, a state ruled directly by the military. ... The Congress of the Republic (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of the Republic of Guatemala. ...

Guerrilla forces and their leftist allies denounced Ríos Montt who sought to defeat the guerrillas with military actions and economic reforms; in his words, "rifles and beans". In May 1982, the Conference of Catholic Bishops accused Ríos Montt of responsibility for growing militarization of the country and for continuing military massacres of civilians. An army officer was quoted in the New York Times of 18 July 1982 as telling an audience of indigenous Guatemalans in Cunén that: "If you are with us, we'll feed you; if not, we'll kill you."^[3] The Plan de Sánchez massacre occurred on the same day. The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ... is the 199th day of the year (200th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday (link displays the 1982 Gregorian calendar). ... For other uses, see Native Americans (disambiguation). ... Cunén is a municipality in the Guatemalan department of El Quiché. Category: ... Plan de Sánchez is a village in the municipality of Rabinal, Baja Verapaz department, Guatemala. ...

The government began to form local civilian defense patrols (PACs). Participation was in theory voluntary, but in practice, many rural Guatemalan men (including young boys and the elderly), especially in the northwest, had no choice but to join either the PACs or be tarred as guerrillas. At their peak, the PACs are estimated to have included 1 million conscripts. Ríos Montt's conscript army and PACs recaptured essentially all guerrilla territory — guerrilla activity lessened and was largely limited to hit-and-run operations. However, Ríos Montt won this partial victory at an enormous cost in civilian deaths.

Ríos Montt's brief presidency was probably the most violent period of the 36-year internal conflict, which resulted in thousands of deaths of mostly unarmed indigenous civilians. Although leftist guerrillas and right-wing death squads also engaged in summary executions, forced disappearances, and torture of noncombatants, the vast majority of human rights violations were carried out by the Guatemalan military and the PACs they controlled. The internal conflict is described in great detail in the reports of the Historical Clarification Commission (CEH) and the Archbishop's Office for Human Rights (ODHAG). The CEH estimates that government forces were responsible for 93% of the violations; ODHAG earlier estimated that government forces were responsible for 80%. The Historical Clarification Commission (Spanish: Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico, or CEH) was Guatemalas truth and reconciliation commission. ...

On August 8, 1983, Ríos Montt was deposed by his own Minister of Defense, General Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, who succeeded him as de facto president of Guatemala. Mejía justified his coup, saying that "religious fanatics" were abusing their positions in the government and also because of "official corruption". Seven people were killed in the coup, although Ríos Montt survived to found a political party (the Guatemalan Republic Front) and to be elected President of Congress in 1995 and again in 2000. Awareness in the United States of the conflict in Guatemala, and its ethnic dimension, increased with the 1983 publication of the "testimonial" account I, Rigoberta Menchú; Rigoberta Menchú was later awarded the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize for her work in favor of broader social justice. In 1998 a book by U.S. anthropologist David Stoll challenged some of the details in Menchú's book, creating an international controversy. After the publication of Stoll's book, the Nobel Committee reiterated that it had awarded the Peace Prize based on Menchú's uncontested work promoting human rights and the peace process. is the 220th day of the year (221st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Jimi Hendrix song, see 1983. ... Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores (born 1930) was President of Guatemala from 8 August 1983 to 14 January 1986. ... Rigoberta Menchú Tum (b. ... Lester B. Pearson after accepting the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish and Norwegian: Nobels fredspris) is the name of one of five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel. ... David Stoll is an American anthropologist currently teaching at Middlebury College in Vermont. ...

General Mejía allowed a managed return to democracy in Guatemala, starting with a July 1, 1984 election for a Constituent Assembly to draft a democratic constitution. On May 30, 1985, after nine months of debate, the Constituent Assembly finished drafting a new constitution, which took effect immediately. Vinicio Cerezo, a civilian politician and the presidential candidate of the Christian Democracy Party, won the first election held under the new constitution with almost 70% of the vote, and took office on January 14, 1986. is the 182nd day of the year (183rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year. ... A constituent assembly is a body elected with the purpose of drafting, and in some cases, adopting a constitution. ... is the 150th day of the year (151st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year. ... Marco Vinicio Cerezo Arévalo was born December 26, 1942 in Guatemala City in Guatemala. ... The Guatemalan Christian Democracy (Democracia Cristiana Guatemalteco) is a political party in Guatemala. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar). ...

[edit] 1986 to 1996: from constitution to peace accords

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Upon its inauguration in January 1986, President Cerezo's civilian government announced that its top priorities would be to end the political violence and establish the rule of law. Reforms included new laws of habeas corpus and amparo (court-ordered protection), the creation of a legislative human rights committee, and the establishment in 1987 of the Office of Human Rights Ombudsman. The Supreme Court also embarked on a series of reforms to fight corruption and improve legal system efficiency. For other uses, see Habeas corpus (disambiguation). ...

With Cerezo's election, the military moved away from governing and returned to the more traditional role of providing internal security, specifically by fighting armed insurgents. The first two years of Cerezo's administration were characterized by a stable economy and a marked decrease in political violence. Dissatisfied military personnel made two coup attempts in May 1988 and May 1989, but military leadership supported the constitutional order. The government was heavily criticized for its unwillingness to investigate or prosecute cases of human rights violations.

The final two years of Cerezo's government also were marked by a failing economy, strikes, protest marches, and allegations of widespread corruption. The government's inability to deal with many of the nation's problems — such as infant mortality, illiteracy, deficient health and social services, and rising levels of violence — contributed to popular discontent.

Presidential and congressional elections were held on November 11, 1990. After a runoff ballot, Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías was inaugurated on January 14, 1991, thus completing the first transition from one democratically elected civilian government to another. Because his Movement of Solidarity Action (MAS) Party gained only 18 of 116 seats in Congress, Serrano entered into a tenuous alliance with the Christian Democrats and the National Union of the Center (UCN). is the 315th day of the year (316th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year. ... Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías was born on 26 April 1945 in Guatemala to Jorge Adán Serrano, a nationally known politician of his day, and was President of Guatemala from 14 January 1991 to 31 May 1993. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar. ... The Congress of the Republic (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of the Republic of Guatemala. ...

The Serrano administration's record was mixed. It had some success in consolidating civilian control over the army, replacing a number of senior officers and persuading the military to participate in peace talks with the URNG. He took the politically unpopular step of recognizing the sovereignty of Belize, which until then had been officially, though fruitlessly, claimed by Guatemala as a province. The Serrano government reversed the economic slide it inherited, reducing inflation and boosting real growth. Civilian control of the military is a doctrine in military and political science that places ultimate responsibility for a countrys strategic decision-making in the hands of the civilian political leadership, rather than professional military officers. ...

On May 25, 1993, Serrano illegally dissolved Congress and the Supreme Court and tried to restrict civil freedoms, allegedly to fight corruption. The autogolpe (or autocoup) failed due to unified, strong protests by most elements of Guatemalan society, international pressure, and the army's enforcement of the decisions of the Court of Constitutionality, which ruled against the attempted takeover. In the face of this pressure, Serrano fled the country. is the 145th day of the year (146th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar). ... A self-coup or autocoup is a form of coup détat that occurs when a countrys leader dissolves the national legislature and assumes extraordinary powers not granted under normal circumstances. ...

On June 5, 1993, Congress, pursuant to the 1985 constitution, elected the Human Rights Ombudsman, Ramiro de León Carpio, to complete Serrano's presidential term. De León was not a member of any political party; lacking a political base but with strong popular support, he launched an ambitious anticorruption campaign to "purify" Congress and the Supreme Court, demanding the resignations of all members of the two bodies. is the 156th day of the year (157th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar). ... Ramiro de León Carpio (January 12, 1942 – April 16, 2002) was the President of Guatemala from June 6, 1993 until January 14, 1996. ...

Despite considerable congressional resistance, presidential and popular pressure led to a November 1993 agreement brokered by the Catholic Church between the administration and Congress. This package of constitutional reforms was approved by popular referendum on January 30, 1994. In August 1994, a new Congress was elected to complete the unexpired term. Controlled by the anti-corruption parties — the populist Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) headed by Ríos Montt, and the center-right National Advancement Party (PAN) — the new Congress began to move away from the corruption that characterized its predecessors. is the 30th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1994 (MCMXCIV) The year 1994 was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by the United Nations. ... The Guatemalan Republican Front (Spanish:Frente Republicano Guatemalteco (FRG)) is a political party in Guatemala. ... The National Advancement Party (Spanish: Partido de Avanzada Nacional, known by the acronym PAN) is a Guatemalan political party. ...

Under de León, the peace process, now brokered by the United Nations, took on new life. The government and the URNG signed agreements on human rights (March 1994), resettlement of displaced persons (June 1994), historical clarification (June 1994), and indigenous rights (March 1995). They also made significant progress on a socioeconomic and agrarian agreement.

National elections for president, Congress, and municipal offices were held in November 1995. With almost 20 parties competing in the first round, the presidential election came down to a January 7, 1996 runoff in which PAN candidate Álvaro Arzú Irigoyen defeated Alfonso Portillo Cabrera of the FRG by just over 2% of the vote. Arzú won because of his strength in Guatemala City, where he had previously served as mayor, and in the surrounding urban area. Portillo won all of the rural departments except Petén. Under the Arzú administration, peace negotiations were concluded, and the government signed peace accords ending the 36-year internal conflict in December 1996. (See section on peace process) is the 7th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar). ... Álvaro Enrique Arzú Yrigoyen (b. ... Categories: Stub | 1951 births | Presidents of Guatemala ...

[edit] 1996 Peace Accords to Present

The human rights situation remained difficult during Arzú's tenure, although some initial steps were taken to reduce the influence of the military in national affairs. The most notable human rights abuses of this period were the brutal slaying of Bishop Juan José Gerardi two days after he had publicly presented a major Catholic Church sponsored human rights report known as REMHI, and the disappearance of Efraín Bámaca Velásquez, also known as Comandante Everardo, who, it was later revealed, was tortured and assassinated in 1993 without trial by Guatemalan Army officers on the payroll of the CIA. Msgr. ...

Guatemala held presidential, legislative, and municipal elections on November 7, 1999, and a runoff presidential election on December 26. In the first round the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) won 63 of 113 legislative seats, while the National Advancement Party (PAN) won 37. The New Nation Alliance (ANN) won 9 legislative seats, and three minority parties won the remaining four. In the runoff on December 26, Alfonso Portillo (FRG) won 68% of the vote to 32% for Óscar Berger (PAN). Portillo carried all 22 departments and Guatemala City, which was considered the PAN's stronghold. is the 311th day of the year (312th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events of 2008: (EMILY) Me Lesley and MIley are going to China! This article is about the year. ... is the 360th day of the year (361st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Guatemalan Republican Front (Spanish:Frente Republicano Guatemalteco (FRG)) is a political party in Guatemala. ... The National Advancement Party (Spanish: Partido de Avanzada Nacional, known by the acronym PAN) is a Guatemalan political party. ... Pres. ... Pres. ...

Portillo was criticized during the campaign for his relationship with the FRG's chairman, former president Ríos Montt. Many charge that some of the worst human rights violations of the internal conflict were committed under Ríos Montt's rule. Nevertheless, Portillo's impressive electoral triumph, with two-thirds of the vote in the second round, gave him a claim to a mandate from the people to carry out his reform program.

President Portillo pledged to maintain strong ties to the United States, further enhance Guatemala's growing cooperation with Mexico, and participate actively in the integration process in Central America and the Western Hemisphere. Domestically, he vowed to support continued liberalization of the economy, increase investment in human capital and infrastructure, establish an independent central bank, and increase revenue by stricter enforcement of tax collections rather than increasing taxation. Portillo also promised to continue the peace process, appoint a civilian defense minister, reform the armed forces, replace the military presidential security service with a civilian one, and strengthen protection of human rights. He appointed a pluralist cabinet, including indigenous members and others not affiliated with the FRG ruling party.

Progress in carrying out Portillo's reform agenda during his first year in office was slow. As a result, public support for the government sank to nearly record lows by early 2001. Although the administration made progress on such issues as taking state responsibility for past human rights cases and supporting human rights in international fora, it failed to show significant advances on combating impunity in past human rights cases, military reforms, a fiscal pact to help finance peace implementation, and legislation to increase political participation.

Faced with a high crime rate, a public corruption problem, often violent harassment and intimidation by unknown assailants of human rights activists, judicial workers, journalists, and witnesses in human rights trials, the government began serious attempts in 2001 to open a national dialogue to discuss the considerable challenges facing the country.

In July 2003, the Jueves Negro demonstrations rocked the capital, forcing the closing of the US embassy and the UN mission, as supporters of Ríos Montt called for his return to power. His supporters demanded that the nation's courts overturn a ban against former coup leaders so that he could run as a presidential candidate in the 2003 elections. The supporters were given meals by FRG in return for protesting. Jueves negro (Spanish: Black Thursday) refers to a violent series of political demonstrations that created havoc in Guatemala City on 24 July 2003. ...

On November 9, 2003, Óscar Berger, a former mayor of Guatemala city, won the presidential election with 38.8% of the vote. However, because he failed to achieve a fifty percent majority, he won a runoff election on December 28, defeating the center-left candidate Álvaro Colom. Ríos Montt trailed a distant third with just 11%. is the 313th day of the year (314th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Pres. ... is the 362nd day of the year (363rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

In early October 2005, Guatemala was devastated by Hurricane Stan, a relatively weak storm that triggered a flooding disaster that left at least 1,500 people dead. Lowest pressure 977 mbar (hPa; 28. ...

The 2007 presidential election was won by the centre-left Álvaro Colóm.

[edit] See also

• History of the west coast of North America

The west coast of North America consists of the modern American states of California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and arguably Alaska and parts of the Yukon. ...

[edit] External links

• Guatemala Cradle of the Maya Civilization
• Background Note: Guatemala - Information from the US State Department
• History of Guatemala - A general overview to the history of Guatemala.

[edit] Notes

Allen Welsh Dulles (April 23, 1893 – January 29, 1969) was an influential director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1953 to 1961 and a member of the Warren Commission. ... Internet Archive headquarters is in the Presidio, a former US military base in San Francisco. ...

[edit] References

• Cullather, Nick (1999). Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3311-2. , pg 106
• Eric Morier-Genoud, "Sant’ Egidio et la paix. Interviews de Don Matteo Zuppi & Ricardo Cannelli", LFM. Social sciences & missions, no.13, Oct. 2003, pp.119-145
• Matt Samson, "The Martyrdom of Manuel Saquic. Constructing Maya Protestantism in the face of war in contemporary Guatemala", LFM. Social sciences & missions, no.13, Oct. 2003, pp.41-74
• Malmström, Vincent H. The Origins of Civilization in Mesoamerica: A Geographic Perspective, Department of Geography, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755
• Historia General de Guatemala, 1999, several authors ISBN 84-88522-07-4.
• GREEN, DEE F., AND GARETH W. LOWE (EDS.) 1989 Olmec Diffusion: A Sculptural View from Pacific Guatemala. In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec (Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, eds.): 227–246. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Eng.

[edit] Further reading

• Paul J. Dosal, Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala 1899-1944, Wilmington, De., Scholarly Resources 1993
• Greg Grandin, The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War, Chicago 2004
• Immerman, R. H., The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention, University of Texas Press: Austin, 1982.
• Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993.
• Piero Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954. Princeton University Press, 1991
• Victoria Sanford, Buried secrets : truth and human rights in Guatemala, New York [u.a.] : Palgrave Macmillan, 2003
• Stephen Schlesinger, Stephen Kinzer, Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in Guatemala, Garden City, NY : Doubleday, 1982
• Cullather, Nick (1999). Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3311-2