The history of libertarianism is closely related to the history of classical liberalism. Modern libertarians see themselves as having revived the original doctrine of liberalism, and often call themselves "libertarians" and "classical liberals" interchangeably. The term "classical liberalism" itself was coined in the 20th century, and applied retroactively to pre-1850 liberalism, to avoid confusion with an accepted modern definition of liberalism. Image File history File links Portal. ... Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism[1] and laissez-faire liberalism[2]) is a doctrine stressing the importance of human rationality, individual property rights, natural rights, the protection of civil liberties, constitutional limitations of government, free markets, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of Adam...

Classical Liberalism

Renaissance thinkers such as Erasmus, Francis Bacon, Niccolò Machiavelli and Galileo Galilei represent the rise of empiricism and humanism in place of scholastic tradition of Middle Ages. This was followed by Age of Reason, which attempted to organise philosophy on rational, skeptical and axiomatic grounds. Three major thinkers of this period were René Descartes, Blaise Pascal and most importantly, Thomas Hobbes, whose Leviathan set the framework of all subsequent Western political philosophy. Influenced by the English Civil War, Hobbes conceived the hypothetical notion of the natural condition of mankind from the axiomatic proposition of human nature. Hobbes's state of nature is exemplified by the famous motto, bellum omnium contra omnes ("war of every man against every man"), where every person has a right and a need to do anything to preserve their own liberty and safety. To escape this state of chaos, people form social contract, ceding their individual rights to create sovereignty ruled under absolute monarch in explicit rejection to democracy. The law under this Leviathan state is positive, that is man made law which has no inherent or necessary connection with ethics or morality. The Renaissance (French for rebirth, or Rinascimento in Italian), was a cultural movement in Italy (and in Europe in general) that began in the late Middle Ages, and spanned roughly the 14th through the 17th century. ... Desiderius Erasmus in 1523 Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (also Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam) (October 27, probably 1466 – July 12, 1536) was a Dutch humanist and theologian. ... For other persons named Francis Bacon, see Francis Bacon (disambiguation). ... Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (May 3, 1469 – June 21, 1527) was an Italian political philosopher, musician, poet, and romantic comedic playwright. ... Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who is closely associated with the scientific revolution. ... In philosophy generally, empiricism is a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience in the formation of ideas, while discounting the notion of innate ideas. ... See also the specific life stance known as Humanism For the Renaissance liberal arts movement, see Renaissance humanism Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualities... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... The Age of Reason is either Thomas Paines book The Age of Reason. ... “Descartes” redirects here. ... Blaise Pascal (pronounced ), (June 19, 1623 – August 19, 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher. ... “Hobbes” redirects here. ... This article is about the biblical creature. ... For other uses, see English Civil War (disambiguation). ... State of nature is a term in political philosophy used to describe the hypothetical or empirical condition of humanity when or if government did not exist. ... For other uses, see Human nature (disambiguation). ... Bellum omnium contra omnes, a Latin phrase meaning the war of all against all, is the description that Thomas Hobbes gives to human existence in the state of nature thought experiment that he conducts in Leviathan (1651). ... This article deals with the philosophical and political concept of the social contract, and not with juridical contract theory. ... Individual rights represent the moral rights of individuals in society prior to government. ... “Sovereign” redirects here. ... Absolute monarchy is an idealized form of government, a monarchy where the ruler has the power to rule his or her country and citizens freely with no laws or legally-organized direct opposition telling him or her what to do, although some religious authority may be able to discourage the... Legal positivism is a school of thought in jurisprudence and the philosophy of law. ...

Age of Enlightenment

John Locke challenged Hobbes in his Two Treatises of Government which was written beforehand and published after the Glorious Revolution with an introduction explicitly endorsing the event. His formulation laid the foundation of liberalism and was loosely reflected in the policy and the philosophy of the Whig of Britain. In contrast to Hobbes, John Locke proposed actual state of nature, a primitive society with no government. In this state, everyone is in a state of perfect freedom which is only constrained by the law of nature characterised by right to "life, liberty and estate". However, this ideal state lack effective authority of enforcement and the state of nature soon degenerate into Hobbesian state of unrest. However, unlike Hobbes's ethical egoism, this does not release men from moral obligation to observe natural law. Subsequently, a social contract was formed where men submit to the rule of law to "preserve" the state of nature and its natural law. The basis of Lockean social contract is the consent of the governed derived from the natural rights. On this basis, Locke formulated the justification of slavery and conquest in term of response to or retaliation to violation of natural right. This is, however, "but the state of war continued" and therefore all forms of slavery and tyranny are invalid by definition. It thus follow that there is a moral injunction to rebell against such institutions. As a practical matter, in every society, a part must rule the whole. As the majority is composed of more will and is stronger than the minority, the will of society must be determined by the majority. This makes liberal democracy a moral imperative of natural law and reason itself. Parliament should be comprised by those men who own estate. The role of legislature was to protect natural law in the form of civil right. In Locke's definition, "property" means "life, liberty, and estate." because the word "property" is derived from Latin 'proprius' meaning "that which is one's own including oneself". Hobbes argue that, in a state of nature (which he denied actual existence), everything would be held in commons: there could be no private property, and hence no justice or injustice. Locke proposed a labour theory of property that built on the idea of natural law (see Thomas Aquinas). Each individual in the state of nature, at a minimum, "owns" himself and consequently own his labour. By applying one's labour to nature, any fruits of labour become his by merit of its effort. This eventually cause natural emergence of economy based on private property, trade and money (tradable piece of metal). In ideal state of plenty, it makes no sense to enclose more land than one needs for its own consumption and exchange. However, as the population increases, problem of scarcity arises which cause inevitable conflict which prompt the formation of social contract where everyone submit both private property and commons under the rules of laws. For other persons named John Locke, see John Locke (disambiguation). ... The Two Treatises of Government (or Two Treatises of Government: In the Former, The False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer, And His Followers, are Detected and Overthrown. ... The Revolution of 1688, commonly known as the Glorious Revolution, was the overthrow of James II of England in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians and the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). ... The Whigs (with the Tories) are often described as one of two political parties in England and later the United Kingdom from the late 17th to the mid 19th centuries. ... For other persons named John Locke, see John Locke (disambiguation). ... State of nature is a term in political philosophy used in social contract theories to describe the hypothetical condition of humanity before the states foundation and its monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force. ... This page is under modification. ... Ethical egoism is belief that one ought to do what is in ones own self-interest, although a distinction should be made between what is really in ones self-interest and what is only apparently so (see psychological egoism). ... Natural law or the law of nature (Latin: lex naturalis) is an ethical theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere. ... Consent of the governed is a political theory that says a governments legitimacy and moral right to use state power is, or ought to be, derived from the people or society over which that power is exercised. ... For other uses, see Universalism (disambiguation). ... In political philosophy, the right to revolution (or right of rebellion) is a right articulated by John Locke in Two Treatises of Government as part of his social contract theory. ... // For the racing driver, see Will Power. ... Liberal democracy is a form of government. ... A parliament is a legislature, especially in those countries whose system of government is based on the Westminster system modelled after that of the United Kingdom. ... Civil rights or positive rights are those legal rights retained by citizens and protected by the government. ... In England and Wales, a common is a piece of land over which other people -- often neighbouring landowners -- could exercise one of a number of traditional rights, such as allowing their cattle to graze upon it. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas, O.P.(also Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino; c. ... In classical economics and all micro-economics labour is a measure of the work done by human beings and is one of three factors of production, the others being land and capital. ... This page deals with property as ownership rights. ... It has been suggested that Commerce be merged into this article or section. ... For other uses, see Money (disambiguation). ... In economics, scarcity is defined as a condition of limited resources, where society does not have sufficient resources to produce enough to fulfill subjective wants. ...

The Lockean framework was further developed by later Enlightenment thinkers, most notably, Immanuel Kant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith. Kant expanded the concept of natural rights in his formulation of categorical Imperative, from which all other moral obligation and natural rights are generated as inalienable natural law. Rousseau, reformulated state of nature by contending that man was good by nature, a noble savage in direct conflict with the notion of the original sin. Rousseau suggested that man's bad habits are the products of civilization, specifically social hierarchies, property, and markets, which led to increased interdependence and inequality and chaos, resulting in deeply flawed original social contract which ought to be revised. The idea of Rousseau together Montesquieu's separation of powers provided the founding principle of revolutionary republicanism of subsequent era. “Kant” redirects here. ... Jean-Jacques Rousseau, (June 28, 1712 – July 2, 1778) was a Genevan philosopher of the Enlightenment whose political ideas influenced the French Revolution, the development of socialist theory, and the growth of nationalism. ... For other persons named Adam Smith, see Adam Smith (disambiguation). ... The categorical imperative is the central philosophical concept of the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and of modern deontological ethics. ... The term moral obligation has a number of meanings in moral philosophy, in religion, and in laymans terms. ... For other uses, see Universalism (disambiguation). ... Natural law or the law of nature (Latin: lex naturalis) is an ethical theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere. ... State of nature is a term in political philosophy used in social contract theories to describe the hypothetical condition of humanity before the states foundation and its monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force. ... A section of Benjamin Wests The Death of General Wolfe; Wests depiction of this Native American has been considered an idealization in the tradition of the Noble savage (Fryd, 75) In the 18th century culture of Primitivism the noble savage, uncorrupted by the influences of civilization was considered... “Original Sin” redirects here. ... Montesquieu can refer to: Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu Several communes of France: Montesquieu, in the Hérault département Montesquieu, in the Lot-et-Garonne département Montesquieu, in the Tarn-et-Garonne département This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages... The Politics series Politics Portal This box:      Separation of powers, a term coined by French political Enlightenment thinker Baron de Montesquieu[1][2], is a model for the governance of democratic states. ... Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, with an emphasis on liberty, rule by the people, and the civic virtue practiced by citizens. ...

Republican reformulation of Lockean framework, which emphasise civic virtue and the common good is somewhat contrasted by the classical economics of the Wealth of Nations, magnum opus of Adam Smith. The book was Smith's attempt at refutation to the theory and policy of mercantilism, bullionism and monopolistic guilds. Written at the dawn of industrial revolution, Smith further reformulated Lockean labour theory of property into labour theory of value. He also demonstrated that division of labour is a result as well as a consequence of dynamic engine of economic progress which was made possible by the use of capital. At the same time, he stated that such specialisation leads to a 'mental mutilation' in workers and advocated government investment in compulsory public education. Smith stresses the critical importance of meritocracy, allowing individuals to achieve what their "God-given talents" will allow them to, without interference from outside forces which lead to inefficiency in the division of labor and hamstring progress generally. Smith stated that "a voluntary, informed transaction always benefits both parties." provided that there is no coercion or fraud. Smith repeatedly admonished tendency of merchant and craftsmen to form cartel. But despite this tendency, the market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided by so called invisible hand to produce the right amount and variety of goods at its natural price. His thinking was further developed by subsequent English classical economist such as David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus and John Stuart Mill. For the Wikipedia policy regarding civility, see Wikipedia:Civility Civic virtue is the cultivation of habits of personal living that are claimed to be important for the success of the community. ... The common good is a term that can refer to several different concepts. ... Classical economics is widely regarded as the first modern school of economic thought. ... Adam Smith An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the magnum opus of the Scottish economist Adam Smith, published on March 9, 1776 during the Scottish Enlightenment. ... For other persons named Adam Smith, see Adam Smith (disambiguation). ... Mercantile redirects here. ... The Theory & Its Origins Bullionism is an economic theory that defines wealth by the amount of precious metals owned. ... A guild is an association of persons of the same trade or pursuits, formed to protect mutual interests and maintain standards of morality or conduct. ... A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. ... The labor theory of value (LTV) is a theory in economics and political economy concerning a market-oriented society: the theory equates the value of an exchangeable good or service (i. ... Division of labour is the specialisation of cooperative labour in specific, circumscribed tasks and roles, intended to increase efficiency of output. ... Capital has a number of related meanings in economics, finance and accounting. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... For other use of Invisible Hand, please see Invisible hand (disambiguation) The invisible hand is a metaphor coined by the economist Adam Smith to illustrate how those who seek wealth by following their individual self-interest, stimulate the economy as a secondary effect and thus assist society as a whole. ... When the price of any commodity is neither more nor less than what is sufficient to pay the rent of the land, the wages of the labour, and the profits of the stock employed in raising, preparing, and bringing it to market, according to their natural rates, the commodity is... Classical economics is a school of economic thought whose major developers include William Petty, Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill. ... David Ricardo (18th April, 1772–11th September, 1823), a political economist, is often credited with systematizing economics, and was one of the most influential of the classical economists, along with Thomas Malthus and Adam Smith. ... Thomas Robert Malthus, FRS (13th February, 1766 – 29th December, 1834), was an English demographer and political economist. ... John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873), British philosopher, political economist civil servant, and Member of Parliament, was an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. ...

General tenet of Enlightenment was that nature, while basically good, was not basically self-ordering and, instead, had to be ordered with reasoning and maturity. Thinking of later enlightenment thinkers such as Smith and Rousseau who believed that social order at its natural state as somewhat self-ordering and that chaos was, in a real sense, the result of excessive intervention of authority or entrenched political or commercial interest. This shift represented the impending end of the Enlightenment and the beginning of Romanticism. Romantics redirects here. ...

Age of Romanticism

Romanticism was an artistic and intellectual movement in the history of ideas that originated in late 18th century. It stressed strong emotion, the individual imagination as a critical authority, and overturning of previous social conventions, particularly the position of the aristocracy. There was a strong emphasis on the importance of sublimity through a connection with nature. In economic term it was the period of Industrial Revolution. In political term, it was period of greater demand for democracy represented by independent movement in American Revolution and subsequent French Revolution, the Latin American independence movement and the May Constitution of Poland. In term of libertarian political philosophy, the period is characterised by the emergence on utilitarianism, individualism, anarchism and laissez-faire economics. Romantics redirects here. ... For the book by Bertrand Russell, see History of Western Philosophy (Russell) Philosophy has a long history conventionally divided into three large eras: the Ancient, Medieval and Modern. ... In aesthetics, the sublime (from the Latin sublimis (exalted)) is the quality of transcendent greatness, whether physical, moral, intellectual or artistic. ... A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. ... This article discusses utilitarian ethical theory. ... Individualism is a term used to describe a moral, political, or social outlook that stresses human independence and the importance of individual self-reliance and liberty. ... Anarchist redirects here. ... Laissez-faire is short for laissez faire, laissez passer, a French phrase meaning to let things alone, let them pass. First used by the eighteenth century Physiocrats as an injunction against government interference with trade, it is now used as a synonym for strict free market economics. ...

The origin of utilitarianism is credited generally to Jeremy Bentham who was born at a time of great social change accompanied by demands for greater democracy. He stated that the utility, that is pain and pleasure is the only absolutes in the world which govern human behaviour. He further insisted that what is ethical is whatever brings "the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people". Bentham soon realised that the former could potentially conflict with the later. He dropped the second part and talked simply about Greatest happiness principle. The ethical proposition of Bentham was a clear break from the ethical proposition of natural law. Moreover, in political term, the principle can be applied to both totalitarian and anarchist principle. This article discusses utilitarian ethical theory. ... Jeremy Bentham (IPA: or ) (February 15, 1748 O.S. (February 26, 1748 N.S.) – June 6, 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. ... In economics, utility is a measure of the relative happiness or satisfaction (gratification) gained. ... What is it? The Greatest Happiness Principle was developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) as a way to spread happiness or moral good to the largest amount of people. ...

John Stuart Mill reformulated Bentham's utilitarianism in term of individual liberty. Mill states that "Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign". Mill is compelled to say this due to what he calls the "tyranny of the majority", wherein majority could control etiquette and morality of individuals. Mill also articulated harm principle that people can do anything they like as long as it does not harm others. Mill insisted that cultural and spiritual happiness to be of greater value than mere physical pleasure and that utilitarianism requires that political arrangements which satisfy the "liberty principle", where each person would be guaranteed the greatest possible liberty that would not interfere with the liberty of others, so that each person may maximize his or her happiness. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873), British philosopher, political economist civil servant, and Member of Parliament, was an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. ... The harm principle is laid out in John Stuart Mills arguably most famous work, On Liberty. ... The non-aggression principle (also called the non-aggression axiom, anticoercion principle, or zero aggression principle) is a deontological ethical stance associated with the libertarian movement. ...

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon advocated an anarchist version of social contract which was not between individuals and the state, but rather "an agreement of man with man; an agreement from which must result what we call society". One of his famous statements is that "anarchy is order". In his formulation of mutualism, he asserted that labour is the only legitimate form of property ("property is freedom"), rejecting both private and collective ownership of property in favour of possession ("property is theft!"). Proudhon endorse limited private property "as a counterweight to the power of the State, and by so doing to insure the liberty of the individual." Proudhon's advocacy of property ownership was not absolute and he continued to oppose concentrations of both wealth and property, arguing instead for small-scale property ownership associated with peasants and artisans. Proudhon still opposed private property in land: “What I cannot accept, regarding land, is that the work put in gives a right to ownership of what has been worked on.” In addition, he still believed that that “property” should be more equally distributed and limited in size to that actually used by individuals, families and workers associations. (Theory of Property in Selected Writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon p. 136, p. 129, p. 133, p. 135, p. 129) Pierre Joseph Proudhon. ... Anarchism is a generic term describing various political philosophies and social movements that advocate the elimination of hierarchy and imposed authority. ... Mutualism is an economic theory or system, largely associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, based on a labor theory of value which holds that in extreme laissez-faire, market competition will cause the market values (prices) of commodities and services to align with the amount of labor embodied in those things. ...

Laissez-faire economics is the combination of quantity theory of money proposed byJean-Baptiste Say, Say's law of demand and supply articulated by James Mills, international trade theory based on David Ricardo's comparative advantage and lastly, John Stuart Mill's articulation of theories of production based on factors of production. In essence, it state that recession cannot occur because of failure in demand or lack of money. This theories evolved into what is sometimes called "law of markets" which was the framework of macroeconomics from mid 1800s until the 1930s and inspire neoclassical economics which arose later in the 19th century. Laissez-faire is short for laissez faire, laissez passer, a French phrase meaning to let things alone, let them pass. First used by the eighteenth century Physiocrats as an injunction against government interference with trade, it is now used as a synonym for strict free market economics. ... In economics, the velocity of money refers to a key term in the quantity theory of money, which centers on the equation of exchange: where is the total amount of money in circulation in an economy at any one time (say, on average during a month). ... Jean-Baptiste Say (January 5, 1767 – November 15, 1832) was a French economist and businessman. ... In economics, Say’s Law or Say’s Law of Markets is a principle attributed to French businessman and economist Jean-Baptiste Say (1767-1832) stating that there can be no demand without supply. ... David Ricardo (18th April, 1772–11th September, 1823), a political economist, is often credited with systematizing economics, and was one of the most influential of the classical economists, along with Thomas Malthus and Adam Smith. ... In economics, the theory of comparative advantage explains why it can be beneficial for two parties (countries, regions, individuals and so on) to trade if one has a lower relative cost of producing some good. ... John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873), British philosopher, political economist civil servant, and Member of Parliament, was an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. ... In economics, factors of production are resources used in the production of goods and services, including land, labor, and capital. ...