NationMaster - Encyclopedia: History of Tamil Nadu

The region of Tamil Nadu in India has been under continuous human habitation since prehistoric times, and the history of Tamil Nadu and the civilisation of the Tamil people are among the oldest in the world. Throughout its history, spanning from the early Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures. Except for relatively short periods in its history, the Tamil region has remained independent of external occupation. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... South India is a geographic and linguistic-cultural region of India. ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... Languages Tamil Religions Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Jainism Related ethnic groups Dravidian people Brahui people Kannadigas Malayalis Tamils Telugus Tuluvas Gonds The Tamil people are an ethnic group from the Indian subcontinent with a recorded history going back more than two millennia. ... This cranium, of Homo heidelbergensis, a Lower Paleolithic predecessor to Homo neanderthalensis, dates to between 400,000 BCE to 500,000 BCE The Paleolithic is a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of stone tools. ...

The three Tamil dynasties of Chera, Chola and Pandya were of ancient origins. Together they ruled over this land with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growth of some of the oldest extant literature in the world. They had extensive maritime trade contacts with the Roman empire. These three dynasties were in constant struggle with each other vying for hegemony over the land. Invasion by the Kalabhras during the third century disturbed the traditional order of the land by displacing the three ruling dynasties. These occupiers were overthrown by the resurgence of the Pandyas and the Pallavas, who restored the traditional kingdoms. The Cholas, who re-emerged from obscurity in the ninth century by defeating the Pallavas and the Pandyas, rose to become a great power and extended their empire over the entire southern peninsula. At its height the Chola empire had spread from Bengal in the northeast to Sri Lanka in the south. The Chola navy held sway over the Sri Vijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia. The Chera dynasty (Tamil: à®šà¯‡à®°à®°à¯ Malayalam: àµ‡à´šà´° ) were one of the ancient Tamil dynasties who ruled the southern India from ancient times until around the fifteenth century CE. The Early Cheras ruled over the Malabar Coast, Coimbatore, Karur and Salem Districts in South India, which now forms part of the modern day... The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: , IPA: ) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. ... The Pandyan kingdom à®ªà®¾à®£à¯à®Ÿà®¿à®¯à®°à¯ was an ancient Tamil state in South India of unknown antiquity. ... Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years 200 BCE and 300 CE.[1][2] This collection contains 2381 poems written by 473 poets, some 102 of whom are anonymous authors[3]. The period during which these poems were written is commonly referred to... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... Kalabhras were the South Indian dynasty who between the 3rd and the 6th century C.E. ruled over entire Tamil country, displacing the ancient Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties. ... The Pallavas were hereditary Hindu rulers who dominated southeastern India between the 4th and 9th centuries. ... Bengal (Bengali: à¦¬à¦™à§à¦— BÃ´ngo, à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾ Bangla, à¦¬à¦™à§à¦—à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ BÃ´ngodesh or à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ Bangladesh), is a historical and geographical region in the northeast of South Asia. ... Chola Military was one of the most well organised and effective fighting machines of the medieval times. ... Srivijaya (-jaya meaning success or excellence) was an ancient kingdom on the island of Sumatra which was to influence much of the Malay Archipelago. ... Location of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia. ...

Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India due to incursions of Muslim armies from the northwest marked a turning point in the history of Tamil Nadu. With the decline of the three ancient dynasties during the fourteenth century, the Tamil country became part of the Vijayanagara Empire. Under this empire the Telugu speaking Nayak governors ruled the Tamil land. The brief appearance of the Marathas gave way to the European trading companies, who began to appear during the seventeenth century and eventually assumed greater sway over the indigenous rulers of the land. The Madras Presidency comprising of most of southern India was created in the eighteenth century and was ruled directly by the British East India Company. After the independence of India, the state of Tamil Nadu was created based on linguistic boundaries. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent took place from the 13th to the 16th centuries. ... The ancient Tamil country refers to the areas of South India and the northeastern Sri Lanka in which Tamil was the major language during ancient times. ... The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... Telugu (à°¤à±†à°²à±à°—à±) is a Dravidian language primarily spoken in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, where it is the official language. ... Thanjavur Nayaks were the rulers of Thanjavur principality of Tamil Nadu between the 16th to the 19th century C.E. Nayakas were subordinates of the imperial Vijayanagara emperors, and were appointed as provincial governors by the Vijaya Nagar Emperor. ... Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. ... East India Company was the name of several historical European companies chartered with the monopoly of trading with Asia; more specifically with India. ... Madras Presidency, also known as Madras Province and known officially as Presidency of Fort St. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... On August 8, 1942, Gandhi led the Quit India Movement, a move for early independence. ... India is subdivided into 28 states, 6 union territories and a national capital territory. ...

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (587x900, 70 KB) Summary Detail of the main Vimanam (Tower) of the Great Temple at Thanjavur Licensing The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with... // Pre-historic period c. ... Early Tamil History has few authentic sources. ... The ancient Tamil country refers to the areas of South India and the northeastern Sri Lanka in which Tamil was the major language during ancient times. ... The Pallavas were hereditary Hindu rulers who dominated southeastern India between the 4th and 9th centuries. ... The Pandyan kingdom was an ancient state at the tip of South India, founded around the 6th century BCE. It was part of the Dravidian cultural area, which also comprised other kingdoms such as that of the Pallava, the Chera, the Chola, the Chalukya and the Vijayanagara. ... The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: , IPA: ) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Chera dynasty. ... The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... The Madurai Nayaks were the rulers of the city and region of Madurai, in India, from 1559 until 1736. ... TANJORE NAYAK KINGS Tanjore Nayak kings started as viceroys of Vijaynagar dynasty lasted 1535 to 1675,a span of 140 years by only 4 kings each having a lengthy reign. ...

Pre-historic period

Although very little concrete historical evidence has been found so far for the period before 600 CE, the history of the Tamil people probably predates the Christian era.^[1] Various legends became prevalent after the tenth century CE regarding the antiquity of the Tamil people. According to Iraiyanar Agapporul, a tenth/eleventh-century annotation on the Sangam literature, the Tamil country extended southwards beyond the natural boundaries of the Indian peninsula comprising 49 ancient nadus (divisions). The land was supposed to have been destroyed by a deluge. The Sangam legends also added to the antiquity of the Tamil people by claiming tens of thousands of years of continuous literary activity during three Sangams. However no direct archaeological finds have supported these legends.^[2] This article is about the History of South Asia. ... The archaeological record in India (encompassing the territory of the modern nations of the Republic of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) shows first traces of Homo sapiens from ca. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bangladesh. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bhutan. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_India. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Maldives. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Nepal. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Sri_Lanka. ... The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic in South Asia. ... Mehrgarh was an ancient settlement in South Asia and is one of the most important sites in archaeology for the study of the earliest neolithic settlements in that region. ... Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro. ... The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BC, in and around the Punjab region. ... The Vedic period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the history of India when the sacred Vedic Sanskrit texts such as the Vedas were composed. ... The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition. ... This article tries to compile and classify all the kingdoms of ancient India mentioned in the Sanskrit/Vedic literature. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Magadha was an ancient kingdom of India, mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. ... A representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was erected around 250 BC. It is the emblem of India. ... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BCE through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century CE. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and... The SÄtavÄhanas (Marathi:à¤¸à¤¾à¤¤à¤µà¤¾à¤¹à¤¨ Telugu:à°¸à°¾à°¤à°µà°¾à°¹à°¨à±à°²à±), also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled from Junnar, Pune over Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... The Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (ruled 375-415) The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India. ... Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire. ... The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: , IPA: ) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. ... During the middle ages, several Islamic regimes established empires in South Asia. ... The Delhi Sultanate (Ø¯Ù„ÛŒ Ø³Ù„Ø·Ù†Øª), or Sulthanath-e-Hind (Ø³Ù„Ø·Ù†ØªÙ ÛÙ†Ø¯) / Sulthanath-e-Dilli (Ø³Ù„Ø·Ù†ØªÙ Ø¯Ù„ÛŒ) refers to the various Muslim dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526. ... The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim-ruled kingdomsâ€“-Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Bidar, and Berar of south-central India. ... The Hoysala Empire ruled part of southern India from 1000 to 1346. ... The Kakatiya Dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083 to 1323. ... The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... It has been suggested that Mughal Era be merged into this article or section. ... This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling. ... The Sikh Empire (from 1801-1849) was formed on the foundations of the Sikh Confederacy by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. ... In 1498, the Portuguese set foot in Goa. ... Caution! This Article Is Under Construction This article or section is currently in the middle of an expansion or major revamping. ... Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire Further information: History of Bangladesh The history of Bengal (including Bangladesh and West Bengal) dates back four millennia. ... Himachal Pradesh has been inhabited by human beings since the dawn of civilization. ... // Orissa has a history spanning a period of over 3000 years. ... The historical regions of Pakistan are former states, provinces and territories which mainly existed between 1947 and 1975 when the current provinces and territories were finally established. ... The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah (1580), which mentions the construction of a fort by Sher Khan of Punjab. The name is mentioned again in Ain-e-Akbari (part 1), written by Abul Fazal, who also mentions that the territory... The history of South India covers a span of over two thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires. ... Tibet is situated between the two ancient civilizations of China and India, but the tangled mountain ranges the Tibetan Plateau and the towering Himalayas serve to distance it from both. ... The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several lists of incumbents. ... Indology is a name given by indologists to the academic study of the history, languages, and cultures of South Asia. ... Indian literature is generally acknowledged, but not wholly established, as the oldest in the world. ... India has had a maritime history dating back around 5,000 years. ... Science and technology in ancient India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production technology, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games. ... This is a timeline of Indian history. ... The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic in South Asia. ... Era Vulgaris redirects here. ... Anno Domini (Latin: In the year of the Lord), or more completely Anno Domini Nostri Jesu Christi (in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ), commonly abbreviated AD or A.D., is the designation used to number years in the dominant Christian Era in the world today. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... now. ...

The prehistoric period during which the Palaeolithic civilisations existed in the Tamil Nadu region has been estimated to span the period from about 500,000 BCE until around 3000 BCE.^[3] For most part of the lower Palaeolithic stage, humans lived close to river valleys with sparse forest cover or in grassland environments. The population density was very low and so far only two localities of this lower Palaeolithic culture have been found in south India. One of these is in Attirampakkam valley in the northwest of Chennai in Tamil Nadu.^[4] Archaeological research has uncovered evidence of fossil remains of animals and primitive stone implements around the northern Tamil Nadu that could be dated to belong to around 300,000 BCE.^[5] Humans in South India, belonging to the species of Homo erectus, lived in this primitive 'old stone age' (Palaeolithic) for quite a long time, using only crude implements such as hand axes and choppers and subsisting on food he hunted and gathered instead of actively growing it according to his needs.^[6] BCE is a TLA that may stand for: Before the Common Era, date notation equivalent to BC (e. ... South India is a linguistic-cultural region of India that comprises the four Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Pondicherry, whose inhabitants are collectively referred to as South Indians. ... â€œMadrasâ€ redirects here. ... Binomial name â€ Homo erectus (Dubois, 1892) Synonyms â€ Pithecanthropus erectus â€ Sinanthropus pekinensis â€ Javanthropus soloensis â€ Meganthropus paleojavanicus Homo erectus (Latin: upright man) is an extinct species of the genus Homo. ... A hand axe is a bifacial Paleolithic core tool. ...

The ancestor of modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) who appeared around 50,000 years ago was more developed and could make thinner flake tools and blade-like tools using a variety of stones. From about 10,000 years ago, humans made still smaller tools called Microlithic tools. The material used by the early humans to make these tools were jasper, agate, flint, quartz, etc. In 1949, researchers found such microliths in Tirunelveli district.^[7] Archaeological evidence suggests that the microlithic period lasted between 6000–3000 BCE.^[8] In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE. Humans of the Neolithic period made their stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing. A Neolithic axe head with ancient writing on it has been found in Tamil Nadu.^[9] The Neolithic humans lived mostly on small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for periodical migration for grazing purposes. They gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits. They were also starting to use copper for making certain tools or weapons. Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ... Flint tools were made by stone age peoples worldwide. ... A microlith is a small stone tool, typically knapped of flint or chert, usually about three centimetres long or less. ... Polished jasper pebble, one inch (2. ... Agate is a term applied not to a distinct mineral species, but to an aggregate of various forms of silica, chiefly chalcedony. ... A flint nodule from the Onondaga limestone layer, Buffalo, New York. ... Quartz is one of the most common minerals in the Earths continental crust. ... Tirunelveli District is a district of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. ... An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Standard atomic weight 63. ...

Humans started using iron for making tools and weapons. The Iron Age culture in peninsular India is marked by Megalithic burial sites, which are found in several hundreds of places.^[10] On the bases of both some excavations and the typology of the burial monuments, it has been suggested that there was a gradual spread of the Iron Age sites from the north to the south.^[11] The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1000 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at Adichanallur.^[12] General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... Megalithic tomb, Mane Braz, Brittany A megalith is a large stone which has been used to construct a structure or monument either alone or with other stones. ...

Early history (300 BCE – 300 CE)

Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called Ventar and several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or Velir.^[13] Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called kizar or mannar.^[14] During the third century BCE, the Deccan was part of the Mauryan kingdom, and from the middle of the first century BCE to second century CE the same area was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty. The Tamil area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over property. The royal courts were mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for distribution of resources. Gradually the rulers came under the spell of north Indian influence and Vedic ideology, which encouraged performance of sacrifices to enhance the status of the ruler.^[15] Early Tamil History has few authentic sources. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Hathigumpha on Udayagiri Hills, Bhubaneswar Hathigumpha inscription of King KhÄravela at Udayagiri Hills Khandagiri caves Kharavela (IAST: KhÄravela, Devanagari: à¤–à¤¾à¤°à¤µà¥‡à¤²) (?209 - after 170 BCE), was the king of Kalinga, in Orissa state of India. ... Velirs were tribal chieftains who ruled in the Tamil country during the early historic period. ... The Deccan Plateau is a vast plateau in India, encompassing most of Central and Southern India. ... Chandragupta Maurya (ruled 322–298 BC), known to the Greeks as Sandracottus, was the first emperor of the Mauryan empire. ... The SÄtavÄhanas (Marathi:à¤¸à¤¾à¤¤à¤µà¤¾à¤¹à¤¨ Telugu:à°¸à°¾à°¤à°µà°¾à°¹à°¨à±à°²à±), also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled from Junnar, Pune over Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted... The religion of the Vedic civilization is the predecessor of classical Hinduism, usually included in the term. ...

The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Keralaputras or Cheras are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms, which though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.^[16]^[17] The king of Kalinga, Kharavela, who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.^[18] The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by the Mauryan king Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. SAlMAN Ashish Many of the pillars are carved with proclamations reflecting Buddhist teachings: the Edicts of Ashoka. ... Allegiance: Magadhan Empire Rank: Emperor Succeeded by: Dasaratha Maurya Reign: 273 BC-232 BC Place of birth: Pataliputra, India Battles/Wars Kalinga War Emperor Ashoka the Great (Devanagari: à¤…à¤¶à¥‹à¤•(:); IAST transliteration: , pronunciation: ) (304 BCâ€“232 BC) (Imperial Title:Devanampiya Piyadassi ie He who is the beloved of the Gods who, in... Kalinga in 265 B.C. Kalinga was an ancient Indo-Aryan kingdom of central-eastern India, in the province of Orissa. ...

Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the Sangam poetry.^[19] In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the Cilappatikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks of the river Kaveri with the aid of his feudatories.^[20] These legends however are conspicuous by their absence in the Sangam poetry. Kocengannan was another famous early Chola king who has been extolled in a number of poems of the Sangam period. He was even made a Saiva saint during the medieval period.^[21] Karikala Chola was the greatest among the Chola kings of the Sangam age in South India. ... The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period (100 C.E. â€“ 200 C.E.) were only the three main kingdoms of the ancient Tamil country. ... Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years 200 BCE and 300 CE.[1][2] This collection contains 2381 poems written by 473 poets, some 102 of whom are anonymous authors[3]. The period during which these poems were written is commonly referred to... Cilappatikaram (Tamil: à®šà®¿à®²à®ªà¯à®ªà®¤à®¿à®•à®¾à®°à®®à¯ IPA tÊƒÉªlÊŒppÊŒÎ¸ÉªkÉ‘ËÉ¹ÊŒm),[1] is one of the five great epics of ancient Tamil Literature. ... The Cauvery (sometimes written as Kaveri) is one of the major rivers of southern India. ... Kocengannan was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. ... This article is about the Hindu God Åšiva. ...

Pandyas ruled initially from Korkai, a sea port on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyas are also mentioned in Sangam Literature, as well as by Greek and Roman sources during this period. Megasthenes in his Indika mentions the Pandyan kingdom.^[22] The Pandyas controlled the present districts of Madurai, Tirunelveli, and parts of south Kerala. They had trading contacts with Greece and Rome.^[23] Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam literature. Among them Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam', yet another Nedunjeliyan 'the conqueror of the Aryan army' and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi 'of several sacrifices' deserve special mention. Besides several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two major works—Mathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) that give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam age. The early Pandyas went into obscurity at the end of the third century CE during the incursion of the Kalabhras. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... South India is a linguistic-cultural region of India that comprises the four Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Pondicherry, whose inhabitants are collectively referred to as South Indians. ... A medieval artists rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: ; ca. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Megasthenes (c. ... Tirunelveli(Tamil: à®¤à®¿à®°à¯à®¨à¯†à®²à¯à®µà¯‡à®²à®¿) is a 2000 year old city[1] located on the west bank of the perennial Thamirabarani River in the state of Tamil Nadu in Southern India. ... Roman commerce was the engine that drove the growth of the Roman Empire. ... Akananuru (à®…à®•à®¨à®¾à®©à¯à®±à¯) is the seventh book in the Sangam literature anthology Ettuthokai. ... Mathuraikkanci, is a Tamil poetic work in the Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology of Tamil literature, belonging to the Sangam period corresponding to between 100 BCE â€“ 100 CE. Mathuraikkanci contains 583 lines of poetry in the Achiriyappa meter. ... Netunalvatai, is a Tamil poetic work in the Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology of Tamil literature, belonging to the Sangam period corresponding to between 100 BCE â€“ 100 CE. Netunalvatai is part of the Pattupattu collection, which is the oldest available collection of long poems in Tamil literature. ... Pattupattu (à®ªà®¤à¯à®¤à¯à®ªà¯à®ªà®¾à®Ÿà¯à®Ÿà¯) â€“ The ten Idylls, is an anthology of ten mind length books and is one of the oldest surviving Tamil Poetry. ...

The kingdom of the Cheras comprised of the modern state of Kerala, along the western or Malabar Coast of southern India. Their proximity to the sea favoured trade with Africa.^[24]^[25] The people of the current Indian state of Kerala, which constitutes the ancient territories of the Cheras spoke the same language and had extensive interaction with the rest of the Tamil country. It was only towards the ninth or the tenth centuries CE, their individual identity and language began to evolve.^[26] The Cheras were one of the three ancient Tamil dynasties who ruled the southern tip of the peninsula of India for most of its early history. ... Kerala ( ; Malayalam: à´•àµ‡à´°à´³à´‚; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of southwestern India. ... Malabar Coast, Kerala Bekal Fort Beach, Kerala The Malabar Coast also known as the Malabarian Coast, is a long and narrow south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. ...

These early kingdoms sponsored the growth of some of the oldest extant literature in Tamil. The classical Tamil literature, referred to as Sangam literature is attributed to the period between 200 BCE and 300 CE.^[27]^[28] The poems of Sangam literature, which deal with emotional and material topics, were categorised and collected into various anthologies during the medieval period. These Sangam poems paint the picture of a fertile land and of a people who were organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to the established order (dharma).^[29] The people were loyal to their kings and roving bards and musicians and danseuse gathered at the royal courts of the generous kings. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed and popular. Musical instruments of various types find mention in the Sangam poems. The amalgamation of the southern and the northern styles of dancing started during this period and is reflected fully in the epic Cilappatikaram.^[30] Tamil literature is literature in the Tamil language which most prominently includes the contributions of the Tamil country (or Tamizhagam) history, a large part of which constitutes the modern state of Tamil Nadu and Kerala as well as some parts of Karnataka and Andra pradesh. ... (Sanskrit) or Dhamma (Pali) is the underlying order in nature and human life and behaviour considered to be in accord with that order. ... The ancient Tamil music was the music of the ancient Tamil people. ...

Internal and external trade was well organised and active. Evidence from both archaeology and literature speaks of a flourishing foreign trade with the yavanas. The port city of Puhar on the east coast and Muziris on the west coast of south India were emporia of foreign trade, where huge ships moored, offloading precious merchandise.^[31] This trade started to decline after the second century CE and the direct contact between the Roman empire and the ancient Tamil country was replaced by trade with the Arabs and the Auxumites of East Africa. Internal trade was also brisk and goods were sold and bartered. Agriculture was the main profession of a vast majority of the populace and Vellalars, the hereditary agriculturalists, owned the bulk of the land.^[32] Yona (also sometimes Yonaka) is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate ancient Greek people. ... Poompuhar is a town in Thanjavur district in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. ... Muziris is a lost port city in the southern Indian state of Kerala which was a major center of trade, especially pepper and other spices, with the Roman Empire from the 1st or 2nd century BCE to probably as late as 6th century CE. Large hordes of coins and innumerable... The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from ca. ... Eastern Africa (UN subregion) East African Community Central African Federation (defunct) geographic, including above East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easternmost region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. ... Vellalars are a dominant caste of agriculturalists of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Sri Lanka. ...

Interregnum (300–600)

After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there is an almost total lack of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE, the whole region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described in later literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a strangle hold of the country.^[33] Information about their origin and details about their reign is scarce. They did not leave many artefacts or monuments. The only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in Buddhist and Jain literature.^[34] Kalabhras were the South Indian dynasty who between the 3rd and the 6th century C.E. ruled over entire Tamil country, displacing the ancient Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, SiddhÄrtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by...

Historians speculate that these people followed Buddhist or Jain faiths and were antagonistic towards the Hindu and Brahminical religions adhered by the majority of inhabitants of the Tamil region during the early centuries C.E.^[35] As a result Hindu scholars and authors who followed their decline in the 7th and 8th century may have expunged any mention of them in their texts and generally tended to paint their rule in a negative light. It is perhaps due to this reason, the period of their rule is known as a 'Dark Age'—an interregnum. Some of the ruling families migrated northwards and found enclaves for themselves away from the Kalabhras.^[36] Jainism and Buddhism, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethical poetry. Jainism (pronounced in English as IPA ), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (à¤œà¥ˆà¤¨ à¤§à¤°à¥à¤®), is a dharmic religion and philosophy originating in Ancient India. ... Buddhism is a dharmic, non-theistic religion and a philosophy. ...

Writing became very widespread and vatteluttu evolved from the Tamil-Brahmi became a mature script for writing Tamil.^[37] While several anthologies were compiled by collecting bardic poems of earlier centuries, some of the epic poems such as the Cilappatikaram and didactic works such as the Tirukkural were also written during this period.^[38] The patronage of the Jain and Buddhist scholars by the Kalabhra kings influenced the nature of the literature of the period, and most of the works that can be attributed to this period were written by the Jain and Buddhist authors. In the field of dance and music, the elite started patronising new polished styles, partly influenced by northern ideas, in the place of the folk styles. A few of the earliest rock-cut temples belong to this period. Brick temples (known as kottam, devakulam, and palli) dedicated to various deities are referred to in literary works. Kalabhras were displaced around the 7th century by the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.^[39] An example of the Vatteluttu script from an inscription by Rajaraja Chola I at the Brihadisvara temple in Thanjavur. ... The Tamil Brahmi script, unlike standard Asokan Brahmi, distinguished between pure consonants and consonants with an inherent vowel marker Tamil-Brahmi was an early script used to write Tamil characters. ... Manimegalai, Seevaga Sindhamani, Valayaapathi, Kundalakesi and Silapadhigaaram constitute the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature. ... Tiruvalluvar statue at Kanyakumari Tirukural (திருக்குறள் in Tamil) is an important work of Tamil literature by Tiruvalluvar written in the form of couplets expounding various aspects of life. ...

Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, the Jain and Buddhist influence still remained in Tamil Nadu. The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction to this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of the seventh century.^[40] There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body of Saiva and Vaishnava literature was created. Many Saiva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alvars provided a great stimulus to the growth of popular devotional literature. Karaikkal Ammaiyar who lived in the sixth century CE was the earliest of these Nayanmars. The celebrated Saiva hymnists Sundaramurthi, Thirugnana Sambanthar and Thirunavukkarasar were of this period. Vaishnava Alvars such as Poigai Alvar, Bhoothathalvar and Peyalvar produced devotional hymns for their faith and their songs were collected later into the four thousand poems of Naalayira Divyap Prabhandham.^[41] Vaishnavism is the branch of Hinduism in which Vishnu or one of his avatars (i. ... The Nayanars were the sincere and ardent devotees of Lord Siva. ... The Alvars are Hindu saints, followers of Lord Vishnu. ... Sundaramurti Nayanmar(8th century C.E.), shortly known as Sundarar, was one of the four most prominent Nayanmars. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Thirunavukkarasar (Tamil: à®¤à®¿à®°à¯à®¨à®¾à®µà¯à®•à¯à®•à®°à®šà®°à¯), literally Lord of Speech , also spelt as Tirunavukarasar, and popularly known as Appar, meaning father-figure, or a high one in Tamil is a Shaivite saint who lived in Tamil Nadu. ... Poigai Alvar was one of the twelve Alvars and was a Hindu saint. ... Bhoothathalvar was one of the twelve Alvars and was a Hindu saint. ... Payalvar was one of the twelve Alvars and was a Hindu saint. ... The Naalayira Divyap Prabhandham is one of the most sacred texts in Hinduism, especially in South India. ...

Age of empires (600–1300)

The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas. The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the first few centuries.^[42] The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on to becoming a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best.^[43]

The Hindu sects Saivism and Vaishnavism became dominant, replacing the prevalence of Jainism and Buddhism of the previous era. Saivism was patronised more by the Chola kings and became more or less a state religion.^[44] Some of the earliest temples that are still standing were built during this period by the Pallavas. The rock-cut temples in Mamallapuram and the majestic Kylasanatha and Vaikuntaperumal temples of Kanchipuram stand testament to the Pallava art. The Cholas, utilising their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests, built long-lasting stone temples including the great Brihadisvara temple of Thanjavur and exquisite bronze sculptures. Temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu received liberal donations of money, jewels, animals, and land, and thereby became powerful economic institutions.^[45] This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ... Shaivism, also Saivism, is a branch of Hinduism that worships Siva as the Supreme God. ... Temple dedicated to the worship of Vishnu as Venkateswara. ... Shore Temple, rescued from the sea Mahabalipuram (after the demon king Mahabali) or Mamallapuram (after the Pallava king Mamalla) is a 7th century port city of the South Indian dynasty of the Pallavas around 60 km south from the city of Chennai in Tamil Nadu. ... Kanchipuram temple, engraved in 1811. ... The Brihadisvara temple (also spelled Brahadeeswarar temple) is an ancient Hindu temple located at Thanjavur in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. ... â€œTanjoreâ€ redirects here. ...

Tamil script replaced the vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing Tamil. Both secular and religious literature flourished during the period. The Tamil epic, Kamban's Ramavatharam, was written in the 13th century. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poetess Auvaiyar who found great happiness in writing for young children. The secular literature was mostly court poetry devoted to the eulogy of the rulers. The religious poems of the previous period and the classical literature of the Sangam period were collected and systematised into several anthologies. Sanskrit was patronised by the priestly groups for religious rituals and other ceremonial purposes. Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a contemporary of Rajaraja Chola I, collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books called Tirumurais. The hagiology of Saivism was standardised in Periyapuranam by Sekkilar, who lived during the reign of Kulothunga Chola II (1133–1150 CE). Jayamkondar's Kalingattupparani, a semi-historical account on the two invasions of Kalinga by Kulothunga Chola I was an early example of a biographical work.^[46] Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... Tamil ( ; IPA ) is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamils in India and Sri Lanka, with smaller communities of speakers in many other countries. ... Kambar is one of the greatest Tamil poets. ... The RÄmÄyana (Sanskrit: à¤°à¤¾à¤®à¤¾à¤¯à¤£, march or journey (Ä€yana) of RÄma) is part of the Hindu smriti, written by Valmiki. ... Auvaiyar is a female icon of Tamil literature. ... Detail of a statue of Rajaraja at Brihadisvara Temple Rajaraja Chola I was the king of the Chola dynasty, who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE. Rajaraja, the greatest of all the Chola rulers of the Vijayalaya dynasty, laid the foundation for the growth of the Chola kingdom into an... Kulothunga Chola II succeeded his father Vikrama Chola to the Chola throne in 1135 C.E. Vikrama Chola made his heir apparent and coregent in 1133 C.E and so the inscriptions of Kulothunga II count his reign from 1133 C.E. Kulothunga II reigned over a period of general... Kulothunga Chola was the offspring of two rival dynasties - the Cholas of Thanjavoor and the Chalukyas of Vengi when he came to the throne in 1070 A.D. The Cholas and the Chalukyas had always existed in constant warfare, spaced by periods of uneasy peace, for decades, due to differences...

Pallavas

The seventh century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the second century.^[47] It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under the Satavahana kings.^[48] After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. The Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I and Pallavamalla Nandivarman II. The Pallavas were hereditary Hindu rulers who dominated southeastern India between the 4th and 9th centuries. ... The rock-cut temples at Mamallapuram. ... Narasimhavarman I was one of the most famous Pallava kings who ruled from A.D. 630 - 668. ... Nandivarman II (Pallavamalla) (732 - 796 CE) was a Pallava ruler who ruled in South India. ...

During the sixth and the seventh centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of the Chalukyas based in Vatapi. Pulakesi II (c.610–642) invaded the Pallava kingdom in the reign of Mahendravarman I. Narasimhavarman who succeeded Mahendravarman mounted a counter invasion of the Chalukya country and took Vatapi. The rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for another 100 years until the demise of the Chalukyas around 750. The Chalukyas and Pallavas fought numerous battles and the Pallava capital Kanchipuram was occupied by Vikramaditya II during the reign of Nandivarman II.^[49] Nandivarman II had a very long reign (732–796). He led an expedition to the Ganga kingdom (south Mysore) in 760. Pallavas were also in constant conflict with the Pandyas and their frontier shifted along the river Kaveri. The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two fronts—against the Pandyas as wells as the Chalukyas. The Chalukya Dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled parts of southern India between 550 and 750, and again between 973 and 1190. ... Badami Cave Temple No 3. ... PULAKESI II (C.610-642 A.D.): Pulakesi II ascended the throne in C.610 A. D., and he has been rightly regarded as the ablest monarch in the Chalukyan line. ... Vikaramaditya II was a son of Vijayaditya. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Mysore or MaisÅ«ru (Kannada: ) is the second largest city in the Indian state of Karnataka. ...

Pandyas

Pandya Kadungon (560–590) is credited with the overthrow of the Kalabhras in the south.^[50] Kadungon and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani revived the Pandya power. Pandya Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c. 650–700) had a long and prosperous rule. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya power. The Pandyan kingdom was an ancient state at the tip of South India, founded around the 6th century BCE. It was part of the Dravidian cultural area, which also comprised other kingdoms such as that of the Pallava, the Chera, the Chola, the Chalukya and the Vijayanagara. ...

After some decades of expansion, the Pandya kingdom was large enough to pose a serious threat to the Pallava power. Pandya Maravarman Rajasimha aligned with the Chalukya Vikramaditya II and attacked the Pallava king Nandivarman II.^[51] Varagunan I defeated the Pallavas in a battle on the banks of the Kaveri. The Pallava king Nandivarman sought to restrain the growing power of the Pandyas and went into an alliance with some minor chieftains of Kongu and Chera countries. The armies met in several battles and the Pandya forces scored decisive victories in them. Pandyas under Srimara Srivallaba also invaded Sri Lanka and devastated the northern provinces in 840.^[52] The Chalukya dynasty (Kannada: à²šà²¾à²²à³à²•à³à²¯à²°à³) was a powerful Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th century C.E. They began to assert their independence at the decline of the Satavahana empire and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of...

The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories. The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of the Rashtrakutas who had replaced the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. However the Pallavas found an able monarch in Nandivarman III, who with the help of his Ganga and the Chola allies defeated Srimara at the battle of Tellaru. The Pallava kingdom again extended up to the river Vaigai. The Pandyas suffered further defeats in the hands of the Pallava Nripatunga at Arisil (c 848). From then the Pandyas had to accept the overlordship of the Pallavas.^[53] The Rashtrakutas were a dynasty which ruled the Deccan during the 8th-10th centuries. ... The Vaigai is a river in Tamil Nadu state of southern India. ...

Cholas

Around 850, out of obscurity rose Vijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 and killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign.^[54] The Chola kingdom under Parantaka I expanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However towards the end of his reign he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into the Chola kingdom. The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: , IPA: ) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. ... Vijayalaya was the Chola king of South India who captured Thanjavur during c. ... Aditya I (870-906) was an Indian ruler. ... Parantaka Chola I (907 c. ...

The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts the Pandya country could not be completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However, the Chola revival began with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I in 985. Cholas rose as a notable military, economic and cultural power in Asia under Rajaraja and his son Rajendra Chola I. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the river Ganges in Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the Srivijaya kingdom.^[55] He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bihar and Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram (the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). At its peak the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.^[56] Chola armies exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia.^[57] During the reign of Rajaraja and Rajendra, the administration of the Chola empire matured considerably. The empire was divided into a number of self-governing local government units, and the officials were selected through a system of popular elections.^[58] Image File history File links Rajendra_territories_cl. ... Image File history File links Rajendra_territories_cl. ... Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I, the great Chola king of South India. ... World map showing the location of Asia. ... Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I, the great Chola king of South India. ... Early morning on the Ganges The River Ganges (Ganga in Indian languages) (Devanagiri गंगा) is a major river in northern India. ... South India is a linguistic-cultural region of India that comprises the four Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Pondicherry, whose inhabitants are collectively referred to as South Indians. ... Map of Southeast Asia at end of 12th century. ... Mahipala I (c. ... Bihar (Hindi: à¤¬à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤°, Urdu: Ø¨ÛØ§Ø±, IPA: , ) is a state of the Indian union situated in the eastern part of the country. ... Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram Gangaikonda Cholapuram is a village in the inland Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu, India. ... The Godavari River is a major waterway in India, next to the Ganges and Indus rivers. ... Khmer can refer to, the: Khmer people, the ethnic group to which the great majority of Cambodians belong to Khmer language Khmer script Khmer Empire, which ruled much of Indochina from the 9th to the 13th centuries. ...

Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever resilient Sinhalas trying to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, Pandya princes trying to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. The history of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit acceptance of the Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom. The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were exhausted by the endless battles and a stalemate existed. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (587x900, 70 KB) Summary Detail of the main Vimanam (Tower) of the Great Temple at Thanjavur Licensing The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (587x900, 70 KB) Summary Detail of the main Vimanam (Tower) of the Great Temple at Thanjavur Licensing The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with... The Sinhalese are the main ethnic group of Sri Lanka. ... Lanka is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the evil king Ravana in the epic Ramayana. ... The Tungabhadra is a river of southern India. ... // Vengi dynasties Vengi kingdom extended from River Godavari in the north to Mount MahendraGiri in the southeast and to just below the southern banks of River Krishna in the south. ...

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings based around Vengi located on the south banks of the river Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070 and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting the Chalukya Chola dynasty. Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra. The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola, however the eventual decline of the Chola power practically started during this period. The Cholas lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.^[59] Around 1118 they also lost the control of Vengi to Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a Chalukya feudatory. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration caused a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. During the last century of the Chola existence, a permanent Hoysala army was stationed in Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the Pandyas. Rajendra Chola III was the last Chola king. The Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I even captured Rajendra and held him prisoner. At the close of Rajendra’s reign (1279), the Pandyan Empire was at the height of prosperity and had completely absorbed the Chola kingdom.^[60] Eastern Chalukyas were a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day Andhra Pradesh. ... The Godavari River is a major waterway in India, next to the Ganges and Indus rivers. ... Virarajendra Chola (1063 â€“ 1070 C.E.) became the Chola king succeeding his brother Rajendra Chola II. Rajamahendra, Rajendraâ€™s son and heir apparent died before his father and Rajendra made his younger brother Virarajendra his heir. ... Athirajendra Chola ( 1070 C.E.) reigned for a very short period of few months as the Chola king succeeding his brother Virarajendra Chola. ... The Chalukya Chola dynasty ruled the Chola Empire from 1070 C.E. until the demise of the empire in the second half of the 13th century. ... Rajaraja Narendra (1018 â€“ 1061 CE) was the Eastern Chalukya king of the Vengi kingdom in South India. ... Vikrama Chola succeeded his father the famous Kulothunga Chola I to the Chola throne in 1120 C.E. He inherited an empire that had been severely confined to the Tamil country and a few out-lying areas of the Telugu country. ... Vikramaditya VI was a king of the Kalyani Chalukya clan. ... The Hoysala Empire ruled part of southern India from 1000 to 1346. ... Rajendra Chola III was the son of Rajaraja Chola III who came to the Chola throne in 1246 CE. Although his father Rajaraja III was still alive, Rajendra began to take effective control over the administration. ... Kadava was the name of a South Indian ruling dynasty who ruled parts of the Tamil country during the thirteenth and the fourteenth century CE. Kadavas were related to the Pallava dynasty and ruled from Kudalur near Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu. ... Kopperunchinga I (reigned c. ...

Pandya revival

After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan briefly revived the Pandya glory in 1251 and the Pandya power extended from the Telugu countries on banks of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. When Maaravaramban Kulasekara Pandyan I died in 1308, a conflict stemming from succession disputes arose amongst his sons. Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya fought each other for the throne. Soon Madurai fell into the hands of the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate. Malik Kafur, a general of the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khilji invaded and sacked Madurai in 1311.^[61] Pandyas and their descendants where confined to a small region around Thirunelveli for a few more years. Ravivarman Kulasekara (1299–1314), a Chera feudatory of Kulasekara Pandya, staked his claim to the Pandya throne. Ravivarman Kulasekhara, utilising the unsettled nature of the country, quickly overran the southern Tamil Nadu and brought the entire region from Kanyakumari to Kanchipuram, under the Chera kingdom. His inscription was found in Punaamalli, a suburb of Madras.^[62] The tone of this article is inappropriate for an encyclopedia article. ... The Delhi Sultanate (Ø¯Ù„ÛŒ Ø³Ù„Ø·Ù†Øª), or Sulthanath-e-Hind (Ø³Ù„Ø·Ù†ØªÙ ÛÙ†Ø¯) / Sulthanath-e-Dilli (Ø³Ù„Ø·Ù†ØªÙ Ø¯Ù„ÛŒ) refers to the various Muslim dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526. ... Malik Kafur ( - 1318 C.E.) was a eunuch general who conquered Tamil Nadu around 1310 C.E. Malik Kafur was a slave, who was purchased by Nusrat Khan. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Chera dynasty. ... Kanyakumari is a town in Kanyakumari district in Tamil Nadu state, India. ... Madras refers to: the Indian city of Chennai, formerly known as Madras, the former Indian state, now known as Tamil Nadu (Plural of Madra): Ancient people of Iranian affinites, who lived in northwest Panjab in the Uttarapatha division of ancient India. ...

Vijayanagar and Nayak period (1300–1650)

The fourteenth century invasion by the Delhi Sultans caused a retaliatory reaction from the Hindus, who rallied to build a new kingdom, called the Vijayanagara Empire. Bukka, with his brother Harihara founded the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire based in the city of Vijayanagara in Karnataka.^[63] Under Bukka the empire prospered and continued to expand towards the south. Bukka and his son Kampana conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India. In 1371 the Vijayanagar empire defeated the short lived Madurai Sultanate, which had been established by the remnants of the invading Khilji army.^[64] Eventually the empire covered the entire south India. Vijayangara empire established local governors called Nayaks to rule in the various territories of the empire. The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... The Madurai Nayaks were the rulers of the city and region of Madurai, in India, from 1559 until 1736. ... Thanjavur Nayaks were the rulers of Thanjavur principality of Tamil Nadu between the 16th to the 19th century C.E. Nayakas were subordinates of the imperial Vijayanagara emperors, and were appointed as provincial governors by the Vijaya Nagar Emperor. ... Download high resolution version (801x521, 103 KB) Source Nataraja-Shiva From fr: File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Download high resolution version (801x521, 103 KB) Source Nataraja-Shiva From fr: File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Meenakshi temple A different view of the Meenakshi temple The Meenakshi temple is a Hindu temple in the Tamil Nadu city of Madurai. ... The Madurai Nayaks were the rulers of the city and region of Madurai, in India, from 1559 until 1736. ... Vijayanagara (Kannada: à²µà²¿à²œà²¯à²¨à²—à²°, English: ) is in Bellary District, northern Karnataka. ... KarnÄtakÄ (Kannada: à²•à²¨à²¾à³¯à²Ÿà²•) (IPA: ) is one of the four southern states of India. ... Madurai Sultanate was a short lived kingdom based in the city of Madurai in Tamil Nadu, India during the 14th century CE. It lasted from 1323 until 1378. ... A Nayak (also Nayaka, Nayaker/Naicker (Tamil) or Nayadu/Naidu (Telegu) or Nair (Malayalam) Nayake/Naike (Sinhala) or Naik (Marathi) ) is the title of a government official, equivalent to a provincial governor or viceroy, in the Telugu kingdoms of southern India, including the Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal (11th-14th centuries...

The Vijayanagar Empire declined in 1564 defeated by the Deccan sultans in the battle of Talikota.^[65] The local Nayak governors declared their independence and started their rule. The Nayaks of Madurai and Thanjavur were the most prominent of them. Ragunatha Nayak (1600–1645) was the greatest of the Tanjavur Nayaks.^[66] Raghunatha Nayak encouraged trade and permitted a Danish settlement in 1620 at Tarangambadi.^[67] This laid the foundation of future European involvement in the affairs of the country. The success of the Dutch inspired the English to seek trade with Thanjavur, which was to lead to far-reaching repercussions. Vijaya Raghava (1631–1675) was the last of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Nayaks reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country and their contributions can be seen even today. Nayaks expanded the existing temples with large pillared halls, and tall gateway towers, which is representative of the religious architecture of this period. Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Thanjavur, also known as Tanjore, is a city in Tamil Nadu, in southeastern India. ... The MarÄthÄs (Marathi: à¤®à¤°à¤¾à¤ à¤¾)is a collective term referring to an Indo Aryan group of Hindu warriors and peasants hailing mostly from the present-day state of Maharashtra, who created a substantial empire, covering a major part of India, in the late 17th and 18th centuries AD. The Marathas... A Tanjore Painting depicting Goddess Saraswati A rare Tanjore style painting from the late 19th century depicting the ten Sikh Gurus with Bhai Bala and Bhai Mardana. ... The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim-ruled kingdomsâ€“-Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Bidar, and Berar of south-central India. ... Battle of Talikota or Tellikota (January 26, 1565) fought between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan sultanates resulted in a rout for Vijayanagara and ended the last great Hindu kingdom in South India. ... The Madurai Nayaks were the rulers of the city and region of Madurai, in India, from 1559 until 1736. ... TANJORE NAYAK KINGS Tanjore Nayak kings started as viceroys of Vijaynagar dynasty lasted 1535 to 1675,a span of 140 years by only 4 kings each having a lengthy reign. ... Categories: India geography stubs ...

In Madurai, Thirumalai Nayak was the most famous Nayak ruler. He patronised art and architecture creating new structures and expanding the existing landmarks in and around Madurai. On Thirumalai Nayak's death in 1659, the Madurai Nayak kingdom began to break up. His successors were weak rulers and invasions of Madurai recommenced. Shivaji Bhonsle, the great Maratha Ruler, invaded the south, as did Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore and other Muslim Rulers, resulting in chaos and instability. Rani Mangammal, a local ruler, tried to resist these invasions showing great courage.^[68] Thirumalai nayakar is a king who ruled the south india ... Shivaji Bhonsle, also known as Chatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonsle (Marathi: à¤›à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¤à¥€ à¤¶à¤¿à¤µà¤¾à¤œà¥€ à¤°à¤¾à¤œà¥‡ à¤à¥‹à¤¸à¤²à¥‡) was the founder of Maratha empire in western India in 1674. ... Rani Mangammal (1689â€”1704) (Total Reign: 15 years) was the queen regent on behalf of her grandson, in the Madurai Nayak kingdom of India, towards the end of the 17th century. ...

European colonisation (1650–1850)

European settlements began to appear in the Tamil country during the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1605, the Dutch established trading posts in the Coromandel Coast near Gingee and in Pulicat. The British East India Company built a 'factory' (warehouse) at Armagaon (Durgarazpatnam), a village around 35 miles North of Pulicat, as the site in 1626. In 1639, Francis Day, one of the officers of the company, secured the rights over a three-mile long strip of land a fishing village called Madraspatnam from the Damarla Venkatadri Nayakudu, the Nayak of Vandavasi. The East India Company built Fort St George and castle on an approximate five square kilometre sand strip.^[69] This was the start of the town of Madras. The coromandel coast was ruled by the Vijayanagara King (Aravidu Dynasty), Peda Venkata Raya, based in Chandragiri and Vellore Fort. With his approval the English began to exercise sovereign rights over their strip of land.^[70] The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... The Coromandel Coast is the name given to the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula. ... Pulicat is a town which lies in the nellore District, in the state of andhra Pradesh, India. ... Vandavasi or Wandiwash is a city in Tamil Nadu state of India. ... Fort St George is the name of the first British fortress in India, built in 1644 at the coastal city of Madras (modern city of Chennai. ... Extent of Vijayanagara Empire, 1446, 1520 CE Capital Vijayanagara Language(s) Kannada, Telugu Religion Hindu Government Monarchy King - 1336 - 1356 Harihara Raya I - 1642 - 1646 Sriranga III History - Earliest Vijayanagara records 1343 - Established 1336 - Disestablished 1646 The Vijayanagara Empire (Kannada: à²µà²¿à²œà²¯à²¨à²—à²° à²¸à²¾à²®à³à²°à²¾à²œà³à²¯, Telugu: à°µà°¿à°œà°¯à°¨à°—à°° à°¸à°¾à°®à±à°°à°¾à°œà±à°¯à°®à±) (literally City of victory) was a South Indian empire... The Aravidu Dynasty is the fourth dynasty which ruled Vijayanagara Empire. ... Venkata III (a. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... // The fort is in the heart of the town Vellore. ...

In 1675, a column of Bijapur army came to Thanjavur to help Vijayaraghava and retrieved Vallam from the Madurai Nayak. However the same army subsequently killed Vijayaraghava Nayak and Ekoji managed to ascend the throne of Thanjavur kingdom. Thus began the Maratha rule of Thanjavur. After Ekoji, his three sons namely Shaji, Serfoji I, Thukkoji alias Thulaja I ruled Thanjavur. The greatest of the Maratha rulers was Serfoji II (1798–1832 ). Serfoji devoted his life to the pursuit of culture and Thanjavur became renowned as a seat of learning. Serfoji's patronised art and literature and built the Saraswati Mahal Library at his palace. The incursion of the Muslim armies from the north forced a southward migration of Hindus from the central Deccan and the Andhra countries to seek shelter under the Nayak and the Maratha kings. The famous Carnatic music composer Tyagaraja (1767–1847), along with the Trinity of Carnatic music flourished in the Thanjavur district during this time.^[71] Bijapur is a district in the Indian state of Karnataka. ... Champion Of Arts, Skills & Healthcare - Serfoji II Rajah Serfoji II (1777â€“1832) was the Maratha ruler of the Kingdom Of Tanjore (also known as Thanjavur). He was a descendant of Shivaji. ... Saraswathi Mahal Library, situated near the darbar of king contains rare manuscripts of books in variety of subjects that include literature, history, poems, etc. ... Carnatic music, also known as is one of the two styles of Indian classical music, the other being Hindustani music. ... Sri Tyagaraja (à°¶à±à°°à±€ à°¤à±à°¯à°¾à°—à°°à°¾à°œ) (17??-1848), an ardent devotee of Sri Ramachandra, was one of the most important composers of Carnatic music. ...

With the demise of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, his empire dissolved amidst numerous succession wars and the vassals of the empire began to assert their independence. The administration of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu was fragmented with hundreds of Poligars or Palayakkarars governing a few villages each. These local chieftains often fought amongst each other over territory. This turned the political situation in the Tamil country and in South India in general into confusion and chaos. The European traders found themselves in a situation where they could exploit the prevailing confusion to their own advantage.^[72] Image File history File links Fort_St. ... Image File history File links Fort_St. ... The Mughal Empire (alternative spelling Mogul, which is the origin of the word Mogul) of India was founded by Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat. ... Aurangzeb (Persian: , English: ) (November 3, 1618 â€“ March 3, 1707), also known as Alamgir I, was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1658 until 1707. ... A poligar or polygar is the title of a class of officials or chiefs who governed portions of southern India from the 16th to the 18th centuries. ...

Anglo-French Conflicts

The French were relative newcomers to India. The French East India Company was formed in 1664 and in 1666 the French representatives obtained Aurangzeb’s permission to trade in India. The French soon setup trading posts in Pondicherry on the Coromandel coast. They occupied Karaikal in 1739 and Joseph François Dupleix was appointed Governor of Pondicherry. In Europe the War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 and eventually the British and the French forces in India were caught up in the conflict. There were numerous naval battles between the two navies along the Coromandel coast. The French led by La Bourdonnais attacked the poorly defended Fort St. George in Madras in 1746 and occupied it. Robert Clive was one of the prisoners of war from this battle. The war in Europe ended in 1748 and with the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the British.^[73] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Nawabs of the Carnatic (also referred to as the Nawabs of Arcot), ruled the Carnatic region of South India between c. ... French and other European settlements in India. ... Map of Pondicherry Region, Union Territory of Pondicherry, India Pondicherry (Tamil:à®ªà¯à®¤à¯à®µà¯ˆ,Hindi: à¤ªà¥‰à¤£à¥à¤¡à¤¿à¤šà¥‡à¤°à¥€) is a Union Territory of India. ... Karaikal, also Karikal, is one of the four regions of the Union Territory of Pondicherry. ... Joseph FranÃ§ois Dupleix // Joseph FranÃ§ois Dupleix (January 1, 1697 â€” November 10, 1763) was governor general of the French establishment in India, and was the great rival of Robert Clive. ... Combatants Prussia Spain France Electorate of Bavaria Kingdom of Naples Austria Great Britain Dutch Republic Electorate of Saxony Sardinia Russian Empire Commanders Frederick II Leopold I Leopold II Maurice de Saxe FranÃ§ois-Marie de Broglie Charles VII Ludwig KhevenhÃ¼ller Charles Alexander George II Charles Emmanuel III Empress Maria... Bertrand-FranÃ§ois MahÃ© de La Bourdonnais (comte de La Bourdonnais) (Saint-Malo, 11 February 1699 â€“ Paris, 10 November 1753) was a French naval officer and administrator, in the service of the French East India Company. ... Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive of Plassey (September 29, 1725 - November 22, 1774) was the statesman and general who established the empire of British India. ... The second Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) of 1748 ended the War of the Austrian Succession. ...

The conflict between the British and the French continued, this time in political rather than military terms. Both the Nawab of the Carnatic and Nizam of Hyderabad positions were taken by rulers who were strongly sympathetic to the French. Chanda Sahib had been made Nawab of the Carnatic with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken up the cause of the previous incumbent, Mohammed Ali Khan Walajah. In the resultant battle between the rivals, Clive assisted Mohammed Ali by attacking Chanda Sahib's fort in Arcot and took possession of it in 1751. The French assisted Chanda Sahib in his attempts to drive Clive out of Arcot. However the large Arcot army assisted by the French was defeated by the British. The Treaty of Paris (1763) formally confirmed Mahommed Ali as the Nawab of the Carnatic. It was a result of this action and the increased British influence that in 1765 the Emperor of Delhi issued a firman (decree) recognising the British possessions in southern India.^[74] Hyderabad and Berar, 1903 Hyderābād was an autonomous princely state of south-central India from 1724 until 1948, ruled by a hereditary Nizam, and an Indian state from 1948 to 1956. ... Mohamed Ali Khan Walajan (1717 â€“ 1795) was the Nawab of Arcot in India and an ally of the British East India Company. ... Chanda Shahib his original name is Husayn Dost Khan. ... Arcot (Tamil: ) is a city and a municipality in Vellore district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. ... The Treaty of Paris, often called the Peace of Paris, or the Treaty of 1763, was signed on February 10, 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. ... Firman refers to a royal mandate or decree issued from a sovereign in Western Asian countries such as Iran under the Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi or the Ottoman rulers. ...

British Government Control

Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. Opinion amongst the members of the British Parliament urged the government to control the activities of the Company. The Company's financial position was also bad and it had to apply for a loan from Parliament. Seizing this opportunity, the Parliament passed the Regulating Act (also known as East India Company Act) in 1773.^[75] The act set down regulations to control the Company Board and created the position of the Governor General. Warren Hastings was appointed the first Governor-General. In 1784 Pitt's India Act made the Company subordinate to the British Government. Download high resolution version (1000x1246, 429 KB)Southern portion of Madras Presidency, British India. ... Download high resolution version (1000x1246, 429 KB)Southern portion of Madras Presidency, British India. ... The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative institution in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories (it alone has parliamentary sovereignty). ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... A Governor-General (in Canada always, and frequently in India prior to the abolition of the last monarchy, Governor General) is most generally a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above ordinary governors [1]. The most common contemporary usage of the term is to refer to the... Warren Hastings (December 6, 1732 - August 22, 1818) was the first governor-general of British India, from 1773 to 1786. ... William Pitt the Younger (28 May 1759 â€“ 23 January 1806) was a British politician of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. ... Pitts India Act of 1784 was the enactment of the British Parliament to bring the administration of the British East India Company under the control of the British Government. ... The United Kingdom is a unitary state and a democratic constitutional monarchy. ...

The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the British. The Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1766 to 1799 and the Anglo-Maratha Wars of 1772 to 1818 put the Company in control of most of India.^[76] In a sign of the early resistance against the English control, the Palayakkarar chieftains of the old Madurai Kingdom, who had independent authority over their territories, ran into a conflict with the Company officials over tax collection. Kattabomman, a local Palayakkarar chieftain in the Tirunelveli district, rebelled against the taxes imposed by the Company administration in the 1790s. After the First Polygar War (1799–1802), he was captured and hanged in 1799. A year later, the Second Polygar War erupted and was put down by the Company after a long and expensive campaign. The end of the Polygar Wars gave the British complete control over a major portion of Tamil Nadu.^[77] The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of eighteenth-century wars fought in India between the Kingdom of Mysore (then a French ally) and the British East-India Company, represented chiefly by the Madras Presidency. ... The Anglo-Maratha Wars were three wars fought in India between the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company. ... Polygar War refers to the difficult and protracted jungle campaigns against the Polygars of Madera and Tuinevelly, extreme south of India, which was fought by British colonial forces from March 1801 to May 1802. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

In 1798 Lord Wellesley became the Governor-General. In the course of the next six years Wellesley made vast conquests and doubled the Company's territory. He shut out the French from further acquisitions in India, destroyed several ruling powers in the Deccan and the Carnatic, took the Mughal Emperor under the company's protection and compelled Serfoji, the king of Thanjavur to cede control of his kingdom. The Madras Presidency was established so that the territory under direct Company control could be administered effectively. The direct administration began to cause resentment among the people. In 1806 the soldiers of the Vellore cantonment rebelled when William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras decreed that the native soldiers should abandon all caste marks. Fearing this act to be an attempt of forceful conversion to Christianity, the soldiers mutinied. The rebellion was suppressed but 114 British officers were killed and several hundred mutineers executed. Bentinck was recalled in disgrace.^[78]^[79]^[80] Richard Wellesley ,1st Marquess Wellesley The Most Honourable Richard Colley Wesley, later Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley (20 June 1760 - 26 September 1842), was the eldest son of Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington, an Irish peer, and brother of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. ... Vellore (Tamil: à®µà¯‡à®²à¯‚à®°à¯), is a city and a municipality in Vellore district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. ... The Lord William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, known as Lord William Bentinck (14 September 1774 - 17 June 1839) was a British statesman who served as Governor-General of India from 1828 to 1835. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... Vellore Mutiny (May 10, 1806) was the first instance of a mutiny by the Indian sepoys against the British East India Company. ...

End of Company rule

The simmering discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into the Sepoy war. Although the rebellion had a huge impact on the state of the colonial power in India, Tamil Nadu was mostly unaffected by it. In consequence of the war, the British Government enacted the Act of 1858 to abolish the powers of the Company and transfer the government to the Crown. An engraving titled Sepoy Indian troops dividing the spoils after their mutiny against British rule gives a contemporary view of events from a British perspective. ... The United Kingdom is a unitary state and a democratic constitutional monarchy. ...

British rule (1850–1947)

In 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India. During the early years the government was autocratic in many ways. The opinion of Indians in their own affairs was not considered by Britain as important. However, in due course the British Raj began to allow Indians participation in local government. Viceroy Ripon passed a resolution in 1882, which gave a greater and more real share in local government to the people. Further legislation such as the 1892 Indian councils Act and the 1909 "Minto-Morley Reforms" eventually led to the establishment of the Madras Legislative Council.^[81] The non-cooperation movement started under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership led the British government to pass the Government of India Act (also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) of 1919. First elections were held for the local assemblies in 1921.^[81] The flag of British India British India, circa 1860 The British Raj (Raj in Hindi meaning Rule; from Sanskrit Rajya) was the British rule between 1858 and 1947 of the Indian Subcontinent, which included the present-day India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Burma (Myanmar), whereby these lands were under the colonial... 1858 (MDCCCLVIII) is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon (24 October 1827 - 9 July 1909) was a British politician who served in every Liberal cabinet from 1861 until his death forty-eight years later. ... Measures announced in 1909 to increase the participation of Indians in their country’s government. ... The Madras Legislative Council was the executive council established by the British colonial in 1921 under the Government of India Act 1919. ... ... Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Gujarati: , Hindi: , IAST: mohandÄs karamcand gÄndhÄ«, IPA: ) (October 2, 1869 â€“ January 30, 1948), was a major political and spiritual leader of India and the Indian independence movement. ... In order to hasten the participation of the natives of India in the government of India, the British passed the Government of India Act of 1919. ... The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms were reforms introduced by the British Government in India to introduce self-governing institutions gradually to India. ...

Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876–1877.^[82] The government and several charitable institutions organised relief work in the city and the suburbs. Funds were also raised from Europeans in India and overseas for the famine relief. Humanitarians such as William Digby wrote angrily about the woeful failure of the British administration to act promptly and adequately in response to the wholesale suffering caused by the famine.^[83] When the famine finally ended with the return of the monsoon in 1878, between three and five million people had perished.^[82] In response to the devastating effects of the famine, the government organised a Famine Commission in 1880 to define the principles of disaster relief. The government also instituted a famine insurance grant, setting aside 1.5 million Rupees. Other civic works such as canal building and improvements in roads and railway were also undertaken to minimise effects of any future famines. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 509 pixelsFull resolution (1314 Ã— 836 pixel, file size: 200 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Distribution of famine relief in the Madras Presidency. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 509 pixelsFull resolution (1314 Ã— 836 pixel, file size: 200 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Distribution of famine relief in the Madras Presidency. ... The Illustrated London News was a magazine founded by Herbert Ingram and his friend Mark Lemon, the editor of Punch magazine. ... Monsoon in the Vindhya mountain range, central India A monsoon is a heavy rainy season which lasts for several months and has lasting climatic effects. ... The ryotwari system was a method of direct settlement with the farmer associated with the name of Sir Thomas Munro. ... British author and humanitarian. ... The Buckingham Canal is a salt water navigation canal, running parallel to the Coromandel Coast of South India for 420 km, from Krishna District in Andhra Pradesh to Villupuram District in Tamil Nadu. ...

Independence struggle

The growing desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of volunteers to the fight against the British colonial power in the struggle for Independence. Notable amongst these are Tiruppur Kumaran, who was born in 1904 in a small village near Erode. Kumaran lost his life during a protest march against the British. The location of the French colony of Pondicherry, offered a place of refuge for the fugitives freedom fighters trying to flee the British Police. Aurobindo was one such living in Pondicherry in 1910. The poet Subramanya Bharathi was a contemporary of Aurobindo.^[84] Bharathi wrote numerous poems in Tamil extolling the revolutionary cause. He also published the journal India from Pondicherry. Both Aurobindo and Bharathi were associated with other Tamil revolutionaries such as V.V.S.Aiyar and V. O. Chidambaram Pillai.^[84] Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of the Indian National Army (INA), founded by Netaji to fight the British occupation in India.^[85]^[86] Lakshmi Sahgal from Tamil Nadu was a prominent leader in the INA. The Indian independence movement incorporated the efforts by Indians to liberate the region from British rule and form the nation-state of India. ... Tiruppur Kumaran (1904 - 1932) was a Indian revolutionary, who participated in the Indian independence movement. ... Śrī Aurobindo Śrī Aurobindo (August 15, 1872–December 5, 1950) was an Indian nationalist, scholar, poet, Hindu mystic, Evolutionary philosopher, yogi and guru. ... Subramanya Bharathi 1882 - 1921 Subramanya Bharathi (Tamil: ) (December 11, 1882 - September 11, 1921) was a Tamil poet from Tamil Nadu, India, freedom fighter and reformer. ... Varahaneri Venkatesa Subramaniam Aiyar (2 April 1881â€”3 June 1925), also known as V.V.S. Aiyar, was an Indian revolutionary from Tamil Nadu who fought against the British occupation of India. ... V.O. Chidambaram Pillai popularly known as VOC gets the credit of launching the first indigenous Indian shipping service between Tuticorin and Colombo with the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company, thus earning for himself the name - Kappalottiya Tamilan à®•à®ªà¯à®ªà®²à¯‹à®Ÿà¯à®Ÿà®¿à®¯ à®¤à®®à®¿à®´à®©à¯. He was born on 5 September 1872 in Ottapidaram, Tirunelveli district of Tamil... The Indian National Army (I.N.A) or Azad Hind Fauj was the army of the Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (The Provisional Government of Free India ) which fought along with the Japanese 15th Army during the Japanese Campaign in Burma, and in the Battle of Imphal, during the Second... Netaji poster in Thiruvananthapuram Subhas Chandra Bose (January 23, 1897 - August 18, 1945) also known as Netaji, was a Orissa born and Bengal based Indian leader of the movement to win independence from British rule. ... Captain Lakshmi Sahgal (or Sehgal) (born October 24, 1914) served in the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauz) led by noted freedom fighter Subhash Chandra Bose, during the Second World War against the British in the early and mid 20th century. ...

In 1916 Dr. T.M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the Non-Brahmin Manifesto sowing the seeds for the Dravidian movements.^[87] During the 1920s, two movements focused mainly on regional politics began in Tamil Nadu. One was the Justice Party, which won the local legislative elections held in 1921. The Justice Party was not focused on the Indian independence movement, rather on the local issues such as affirmative action for socially backward groups. The other main movement was the anti-Hindu, reformist movement led by E.V. Ramasami Naicker.^[87] Further steps towards eventual self-rule were taken in 1935 when the British Government passed the All-India Federation Act of 1935. Fresh local elections were held and in Tamil Nadu the Congress party captured power defeating the Justice party. In 1938, Ramasami Naicker with C. N. Annadurai launched an agitation against the Congress ministry's decision to introduce the teaching of Hindi in schools.^[88] Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... E.V.Ramasami Naicker (September 17, 1879â€“December 24, 1973), also known as Periyar, EVR, Thanthai Periyar, or Periyar Ramasami, was a well-known rationalist, atheist,freedom-fighter, activist, founder of Dravidar Kazhagam and founder of the Self-respect Movement in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. ... 24. ... The Indian National Congress (also known as the Congress Party) is the largest subscription-based organisation in the world. ... C.N.Annadurai (1909 to 1969), popularly called Anna (which means elder brother in Tamil language) was the first non Congress Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, India. ... The new Indian Constitution went into effect on January 26, 1950. ...

Post Independence period

The trauma of the partition did not impact Tamil Nadu when India was granted Independence in 1947. There was no sectarian violence against various religions. There had always been an atmosphere of mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between all religions in Tamil Nadu. Congress formed the first ministry in the Madras Presidency. C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) was the first Chief Minister. Madras Presidency was eventually reconstituted as Madras State. Following agitations for a separate Andhra state comprising of the Telugu speaking regions of the Madras state by Potti Sriramalu and others, the Indian Government decided to partition the Madras state.^[89] In 1953 Rayalaseema and the coastal Andhra regions became the new state of Andhra Pradesh and the Bellary district became part of the Mysore state. In 1956 south Kanara district was transferred to Mysore, the Malabar coastal districts became part of the new state of Kerala, and the Madras state assumed its present shape. The Madras state was named Tamil Nadu (the land of the Tamils) in 1968. Image File history File links India_Tamil_Nadu_locator_map. ... Image File history File links India_Tamil_Nadu_locator_map. ... India under British Raj in 1922, prior to its partition and integration after independence. ... India is subdivided into twenty-eight states and seven union territories; the states and territories are themselves further subdivided. ... For the Stargate SG-1 episode, see 1969 (Stargate SG-1). ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... Caution! This Article Is Under Construction This article or section is currently in the middle of an expansion or major revamping. ... Rajaji Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari (December 1878 - December 25, 1972), known as or Rajaji or C.R., was an Indian lawyer, writer, statesman and a Hindu spiritualist. ... List of All Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu Footnote On September 21, 2002[1], a five-judge constitutional bench of the Supreme Court of India ruled in a unanimous verdict that a person who is convicted for a criminal offence and sentenced to imprisonment for a period of not less... Potti Sreeramulu (16 March 1901-16 December 1952 and transliterated as Potti Sriramulu and Potti Sri ramulu) was an Indian freedom fighter. ... the region marked in green Rayalaseema is an unofficial region of Indias Andhra Pradesh state. ... , Andhra Pradesh : (Telugu: à°†à°‚à°§à±à°° à°ªà±à°°à°¦à±‡à°¶à±, Urdu: Ø¢Ù†Ø¯Ú¾Ø±Ø§ Ù¾Ø±Ø¯ÛŒØ´, IPA: ), is a state in southern India. ... Bellary (Kannada: ;Telugu: ; pronunciation: in Kannada and in English) is a city in Bellary District in Karnataka state, India. ... The Kanara or Canara (called Kannada in Karnataka) districts comprise three districts of Karnataka - North Kanara (Uttara Kannada) whose administrative headquarters is Karwar, Udupi, and South Kanara (Dakshina Kannada), whose administrative headquarters is Mangalore. ... Malabar Coast, Kerala Bekal Fort Beach, Kerala The Malabar Coast also known as the Malabarian Coast, is a long and narrow south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. ...

Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka during the 1970s and the 80s saw large numbers of Sri Lankan Tamils fleeing to Tamil Nadu. The plight of Tamil refugees caused a surge of support from most of the Tamil political parties.^[90] They exerted pressure on the Indian government to intercede with the Sri Lankan government on behalf of the Sri Lankan Tamilians. However, LTTE lost much of its support from Tamil Nadu following the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991 by an operative from Sri Lanka for the former Prime Minister's role in sending Indian peacekeepers to Sri Lanka to disarm the LTTE.^[91]^[92] The ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka is an ongoing conflict between the Government of Sri Lanka and a minority terrorist group consisting of Ethnic Sri Lankan Tamils on the island-nation of Sri Lanka. ... Sri Lankan Tamils also known as Eelam Tamils, Ceylonese or Ceylon Tamils and Jaffna Tamils are today a trans-national minority, and are Tamil people from Sri Lanka. ... RÄjiv Ratna GÄndhÄ« (DevanÄgarÄ«: à¤°à¤¾à¤œà¥€à¤µ à¤°à¤¤à¥à¤¨ à¤—à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤§à¥€, IPA: ) (August 20, 1944 â€“ May 21, 1991), the eldest son of Indira and Feroze Gandhi, was the 9th Prime Minister of India (and the 3rd from the Gandhi family) from his mothers death on 31 October 1984 until his resignation on December... May 21 is the 141st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (142nd in leap years). ... 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), was the Indian military contingent performing a peacekeeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990. ...

The east coast of Tamil Nadu was one of the areas affected by the Indian Ocean earthquake of 2004, during which almost 8000 people died in the disaster.^[93] The sixth most populous state in the Indian Union, Tamil Nadu was the seventh largest economy in 2005 among the states of India.^[94] The growing demands for skilled labour has caused increased number of educational institutions in Tamil Nadu. The widespread application of caste based affirmative action caused the state to have 69% of all educational and employment vacancies to be reserved to the backward castes. Such caste-based reservations have huge public support in Tamil Nadu, with no popular protests organised against its implementation.^[95] Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. ... Reservation in Indian law is a term used to describe the governmental policy whereby a percentage of seats are reserved in the Parliament of India, State Legislative Assemblies, Central and State Civil Services, Public Sector Units, Central and State Governmental Departments and in all Public and Private Educational Institutions, except...

Evolution of regional politics

The politics of Tamil Nadu have gone through three distinct phases since independence. The domination of the Congress Party after 1947 gave way to the Dravidian populist mobilisation in the 1960s. This phase lasted until towards the end of the 1990s. The most recent phase saw the fragmentation of the Dravidian political parties and led to the advent of political alliances and coalition governments.^[96]

Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in 1949 after splitting from Dravidar Kazhagam.^[97] DMK also decided to oppose the 'expansion of the Hindi culture' in Tamil Nadu and started the demand for a separate homeland for the Dravidians in the South. The demand was for an Independent state called Dravida Nadu (country of Dravidians) comprising of Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra, Karnataka and Kerala.^[98] The increased involvement of the Congress Party in Madras during the late 1950s and the strong pan-Indian emotions whipped up by the Chinese invasion of India in 1962 led to the demand for Dravida Nadu losing some of its immediacy. Consequently in 1963, when the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution of India, precluded secessionist parties from contesting elections, the DMK chose to formally drop its demand for an independent Dravidistan, focusing instead on securing greater functional autonomy within the framework of the Indian Constitution.^[99] Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) is a regional political party in the Tamil Nadu state of India. ... Dravidar Kazhagam or Dravida Kazhagam (Dravidian Organization) was the first fully Dravidian party in India. ... Dravidistan was a proposed independent nation for the Dravida race in India, consisting of the four modern south Indian states, then forming the Madras Presidency. It was proposed by E.V. Ramaswami Periyar, the anti-Brahmin activist from Tamilnadu. ... Languages Dravidian languages Religions Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Atheism, Jainism Related ethnic groups Dravidian peoples Brahui people Kannadigas Malayalis Tamils Telugus Tuluvas Dravidian people, Dravidian race or Dravidians are terms that are some times given to people of mainly Southern India, Northeastern Sri Lanka, and parts of Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal... Andhra Pradesh (ఆంధర దేశం), a state in South India, lies between 12°41 and 22°N latitude and 77° and 84°40E longitude . ... The Indian National Congress (also known as the Congress Party) is the largest subscription-based organisation in the world. ... Combatants Peoples Republic of China India Commanders Zhang Guohua[4] B.M. Kaul Strength 80,000[5][6] Casualties Killed: 1460[7] None captured[8][9][10][11] Wounded 1,697[7] Killed 1,383 Missing 1,696 Captured 3,968[2] Wounded 1,047[12] The Sino-Indian... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

The Congress party, riding on the wave of public support stemming from the independence struggle, formed the first post-independence government in Tamil Nadu and continued to govern until 1967. In 1965 and 1968, DMK led widespread anti-Hindi agitations in the state against the plans of the Union Government to introduce Hindi in the state schools. Affirmative action in employment and educational institutions were pioneered in Tamil Nadu based on the demands of the Dravidian movement.^[100] The leadership of the Dravidian movement had very capable authors and literati in Annadurai and Karunanidhi, who assiduously utilised the popular media of stage plays and movies to spread its political messages.^[101] MG Ramachandran (MGR) who later became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, was one such stage and movie actor.^[102] Reservation in Indian law is a term used to describe the governmental policy whereby a percentage of seats are reserved in the Parliament of India, State Legislative Assemblies, Central and State Civil Services, Public Sector Units, Central and State Governmental Departments and in all Public and Private Educational Institutions, except... Self-Respect Movement is a movement that was called by Thanthai Periyar in Tamil Nadu state of India. ... Categories: Indian people stubs | Tamil people | Indian politicians ... Marudur Gopalamenon Ramachandran (January 17, 1917–December 24, 1987), popularly known as MGR, was a long time Tamil film actor and Chief Minister of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu from 1977 until his death. ...

In 1967 DMK won the state election. DMK split into two in 1971, with MGR forming the splinter AIADMK. Since then these two parties have dominated the politics of Tamil Nadu.^[103] AIADMK, under MGR retained control of the State Government over three consecutive assembly elections in 1977, 1980 and 1984. After MGR's death AIADMK was split over the succession between various contenders. Eventually J. Jayalalithaa took over the leadership of AIADMK. All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) is a regional political party in India. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Several changes to the political balance in Tamil Nadu took place during the later half of the 1990s, eventually leading to the end of the duopoly of DMK and AIADMK in the politics of Tamil Nadu. In 1996, a split in the Congress party in Tamil Nadu eventuated in the formation of Tamil Maanila Congress (TMC). TMC aligned with the DMK, while another party MDMK, which split from DMK aligned with the AIADMK. These and several smaller political parties began to gain popular support. The first instance of a 'grand alliance' was during the 1996 elections for the National parliament, during which the AIADMK formed a large coalition of a number smaller parties to counter the electoral threat posed by the alliance between the DMK and TMC. Since then the formation of alliances of large number of political parties has become an electoral practice in Tamil Nadu.^[104] The electoral decline of Congress party at the national level, which started during the early 1990, forced the Congress to seek coalition partners from various states including Tamil Nadu. This paved the way for the Dravidian parties to be part of the Central Government.^[105] The Tamil Maanila Congress was a political party in Tamil Nadu. ... à®®à®±à¯à®®à®²à®°à¯à®šà¯à®šà®¿à®¤à¯ à®¤à®¿à®°à®¾à®µà®¿à®Ÿ à®®à¯à®©à¯à®©à¯‡à®±à¯à®±à®•à¯ à®•à®´à®•à®®à¯ (Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, abbreviated MDMK), a political party in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. ... Sansad Bhavan, The Parliament of India The Parliament of India (or Sansad) is bicameral. ... The Government of India (Hindi: à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤¤ à¤¸à¤°à¤•à¤¾à¤° BhÄrat SarkÄr), officially referred to as the Union Government, and commonly as Central Government, was established by the Constitution of India, and is the governing authority of a federal union of 28 states and 7 union territories, collectively called the Republic of India. ...

Timeline

Notes

^ Mentions of the political situation of Tamil Nadu before the common era are found in Asoka's edicts dated c300 BCE and, vaguely, in the Hathigumpha inscription dated c.150 BCE. The earliest epigraphical evidence in the Tamil country are that of the Pandya king Kadungon (c.560–590CE) who displaced the Kalabhras from the Pandyas country. —Nilakanta Sastri, A history of South India, pp 105, 137
^ Nilakanta Sastri, A history of South India, p 105
^ Historical Atlas of South India-Timeline. French Institute of Pondicherry. Institut Françoise de Pondichéry. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ Pappu et al, Antiquity vol 77 no 297, September 2003
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP, reprinted 2000, p 44.
^ Tools of the Madras Industry have been found in the Kaveri and Vaigai beds —K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari, Advanced History of India, p. 14.
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p. 45.
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p. 46.
^ Significance of Mayiladuthurai find. The Hindu May 1, 2006. The Hindu Group. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ One such was found at Krishnagiri in Tamil Nadu—Steps to preserve megalithic burial site. The Hindu, Oct 6, 2006. The Hindu Group. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli district and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture —K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, pp. 49–51
^ 'The most interesting pre-historic remains in Tamil India were discovered at Adichanallur.There is a series of urn burials.. seem to be related to the megalithic complex. - Zvelebil, K.A., Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature - pp21-22, Brill Academic Publishers.
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, pp 109–112
^ 'There were three levels of redistribution corresponding to the three categories of chieftains, namely: the Ventar, Velir and Kilar in descending order. Ventar were the chieftains of the three major lineages, viz Cera, Cola and Pandya. Velir were mostly hill chieftains, while Kilar were the headmen of settlements...' —Perspectives on Kerala History. P.J.Cherian (Ed),. Kerala Council for Historical Research. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p 129
^ 'Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni...' —Asoka's second minor rock edict. Colorado State University. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ K.A.N. Sastri, The CōĻas, 1935 p 20
^ Hathigumpha Inscription. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX (1929–1930). Delhi, 1933, pp 86–89. Missouri Southern State University. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ Pattinappaalai, Porunaraatruppadai and a number of individual poems in Akananuru and Purananuru have been the main source for the information we attribute now to Karikala. See also K.A.N. Sastri, The Colas, 1935
^ Cilappatikaram (c. sixth century C.E.) which attributes northern campaigns and conquests to all the three monarchs of the Tamil country, gives a glorious account of the northern expeditions of Karikala, which took him as far north as the Himalayas and gained for him the alliance and subjugation of the kings of Vajra, Magadha and Avanti countries. There is no contemporary evidence either in Sangam literature or from the north Indian source for such an expedition.
^ 63 Nayanmars. Tamilnation.org. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ In Megasthenes' account (350 BCE – 290 BCE), the Pandya kingdom is ruled by Pandaia, a daughter of Herakles —K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p 23
^ 'Roman Maps and the Concept of Indian Gems. The Bead Museum, Inc.. Retrieved on 2006-05-15.
^ 'Archaeologists from UCLA and the University of Delaware have unearthed the most extensive remains to date from sea trade between India and Egypt during the Roman Empire, adding to mounting evidence that spices and other exotic cargo travelled into Europe over sea as well as land.' Archaeologists Uncover Ancient Maritime Spice Route Between India, Egypt. Veluppillai, Prof. A.,. dickran.net. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ Archaeological evidence for the maritime contact between the Sangam age Cheras and the Roman empire has been found at Karur near Tiruchi. —R. Nagasami, Roman Karur
^ "Malayalam first appeared in writing in the vazhappalli inscription which dates from about 830 AD." Writing Systems and Languages of the world. Omniglot. Omniglot.com. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ Kamil Veith Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, p 12
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) p 105
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) pp 118, 119
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) p 124
^ 'The vast quantities of gold and silver coins struck by Roman emperors up to Nero (54–68CE) found all over Tamil Nadu testify the extent of the trade, the presence of Roman settlers in the Tamil country'. K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) pp 125–127
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) p 128
^ 'Kalabhraas were denounced as 'evil kings' (kaliararar) —K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p 130
^ Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, Routledge (UK), p 105
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 130
^ K.A.N. Sastri postulates that there was a live connection between the early Cholas and the Renandu Cholas of the Andhra country. The northward migration probably took place during the Pallava domination of Simhavishnu. Sastri also categorically rejects the claims that these were the descendants of Karikala Chola —K.A.N. Sastri, The CōĻas, 1935 p 107
^ South Asian Writing Systems. Lawrence K Lo. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ The identity of the author of Tirukkural is not known with any certainty. This work of 1330 distichs is attributed to Tiruvalluvar, who was probably a Jain with knowledge of the Sanskrit didactic works of the north.
^ Pandya Kadungon and Pallava Simhavishnu overthrew the Kalabhras. Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king —K.A.N. Sastri, The CōĻas, 1935 p 102
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 382
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 333–335
^ K.A.N. Sastri, The CoLas, pp 102
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 387
^ There is an inscription from 1160 that the custodians of Siva temples who had social intercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property. —K.A.N. Sastri, The CōĻas, 1935 pp 645
^ Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and contributed towards the integrity of the kingdom —John Keays, India a History, pp 217–218
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 342–344
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 91–92
^ Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D., pp 68
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 140
^ Pandya Dynasty. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 140
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 145
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 144–145
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 159
^ K.A.N. Sastri, The CoLas, 1935. pp 211–215
^ The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman —K.A.N. Sastri, The CoLas, 1935 pp 211–220
^ There is an inscription in the Chidambaram temple dated 1114 mentioning a peculiar stone presented by the king of Kambhoja (Kampuchea)to Rajendra Chola which the Chola king caused to be inserted into the wall of the Chidambaram shrine —K.A.N. Sastri, The CoLas, 1935 p 325
^ 'In the twelfth year of Parantaka I the [Uttaramerur] sabha passed a resolution [...] that the election of local government officials will be carried out through lots (kudavolai)' —K.A.N. Sastri, The Colas, p 496.
^ K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari, Advanced History of India, pp 294
^ K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari, Advanced History of India, pp 296–297
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 197
^ Chera Coins - Tamil Coins, a Study. R. Nagasamy. Tamil Arts Academy, Madras. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 214–217
^ Kampana's wife Ganga Devi wrote an account of this campaign in a Sanskrit poem Madhura Vijayam (Conquest of Madurai) —K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 241
^ Rama Raya fought Ali Adil Shah at Talikota on 15 September 1564 —K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p 266
^ K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari Advanced History of India p 428
^ K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari Advanced History of India p 427
^ K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari Advanced History of India p 553
^ John Keay, India, a History, p 370
^ K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari, Advanced History of India, p 583
^ Maratha Kings of Thanjavur. "Saraswathi Mahal Library. Retrieved on 2006-11-18.
^ John Keay, India, a History, pp 372–374
^ John Keay, India, a History, pp 393–394
^ John Keay, India, a History, p 379
^ Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India pp 245
^ John Keay, India, a History, pp 380
^ Nicholas Dirk, The Hollow Crown, pp 19–24
^ The first rebellion. The Hindu Jun 19, 2006. The Hindu Group. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ Mutiny at Vellore:1806. Cathy Day, Family History in India, Canberra Australia. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ Read, Anthony, The Proudest Day—India's Long Ride to Independence, pp 34–37
^ ^a ^b The State Legislature—Origin and Evolution. Retrieved on 2006-10-16.
^ ^a ^b Romesh Chunder Dutt, Open Letters to Lord Curzon on Famines and Land Assessments in India, p10
^ Victorian Values: Death and Dying in Victorian India. David Arnold. Fathom Knowledge Network. Retrieved on 2006-11-13.
^ ^a ^b Political situation in Pondicherry (1910–1915). Extract from diary of A.B. Purani (PT MS5 (1924), 86. Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ "Noting that the Tamils formed a large chunk of the strength of the INA, Prof. Pfaff, said it was always a moving experience to interact with the INA members from Tamil Nadu." Tamils' contribution to INA campaigns recalled. The Hindu Dec 22, 2005. The Hindu Group. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ "More than 75 per cent of the INA soldiers were Tamils" according to V. Vaidhyalingam, secretary and treasurer, Tamil Nadu Indian National Army League. The unsung heroes. The Hindu Aug 02, 2004. The Hindu Group. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ ^a ^b Subramaniyam Swami, Is the Dravidian movement dying?, Frontline, Vol.20, Iss. 12, June 2003
^ Sowing The Seeds Of A Policy For Free India and the Anti-Hindi Agitation in the South 1910–1915. M. S. Thirumalai, Ph.D.. languageinindia.com. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ The battle for Andhra. The Hindu, Mar 30, 2003. The Hindu Group. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
^ Rajesh Venugopal, The Global Dimensions of Conflict in Sri Lanka p 19
^ Chris McDowell, A Tamil Asylum Diaspora, p112
^ "Tamil Tiger 'regret' over Gandhi". BBC News. Retrieved on 2006-06-27.
^ Government of India Ministry of Home Affairs Situation Report. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ Ranking of states. India Today Group. India Today Group. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ With the highest rate of reservation already in place, TN stays calm. The Financial Express, May 28, 2006. The Financial Express, Mumbai. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ John Harriss and Andrew Wyatt, THE CHANGING POLITICS OF TAMIL NADU IN THE 1990s, Conference on State Politics in India in the 1990s: Political Mobilisation and Political Competition, December 2004. p1
^ The Justice Party was renamed the Dravidar Kazhagam (Dravidian Association) in September 1944 —Nambi Arooran, K., The Demand for Dravida Nadu
^ The geographical region of the proposed Dravida Nadu roughly corresponded to the then Madras Presidency, comprising of people speaking Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada. —S. Viswanathan, A history of agitational politics
^ Hargrave, R.L.: "The DMK and the Politics of Tamil Nationalism", Pacific Affairs, 37(4):396–411 at 396–397.
^ Cynthia Stephen, The History Of Reservations In India From The 1800S To The 1950s
^ S. Theodore Baskaran, The Roots of South Indian Cinema, Journal of the International Institute,
^ L. R., Jegatheesan. "ஆளும் அரிதாரம் (Reigning filmdom)", BBC. Retrieved on 2006-11-08. (in Tamil)
^ John Harriss and Andrew Wyatt, THE CHANGING POLITICS OF TAMIL NADU IN THE 1990s, Conference on State Politics in India in the 1990s: Political Mobilisation and Political Competition, December 2004. p2
^ The arithmetic of alliance and anti-incumbency. The Hindu, May 06, 2004. The Hindu Group. Retrieved on 2006-11-15.
^ John Harriss and Andrew Wyatt, THE CHANGING POLITICS OF TAMIL NADU IN THE 1990s, Conference on State Politics in India in the 1990s: Political Mobilisation and Political Competition, December 2004. p4

Hathigumpha inscription. ... South India is a linguistic-cultural region of India that comprises the four Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Pondicherry, whose inhabitants are collectively referred to as South Indians. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... Krishnagiri is a city and a municipality in Dharmapuri District in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... Pattinappaalai, is a Tamil poetic work in the Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology of Tamil literature, belonging to the Sangam period corresponding to between 100 BCE â€“ 100 CE. Pattinappaalai is part of the Pattupattu collection, which is the oldest available collection of long poems in Tamil literature. ... Porunaraatruppadai, is a Tamil poetic work in the Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology of Tamil literature, belonging to the Sangam period corresponding to between 100 BCE â€“ 100 CE. Porunaraatruppadai contains 250 lines of poems in the Achiriyappa meter. ... Pura Nanooru or Pura Nanuru is an ancient Tamil Sangam collection of poems, dating from 900 BCE to 220 CE. It is one of the oldest Tamil anthologies. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Magadha was an ancient kingdom of India, mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. ... The name may refer to one of the following. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 400s BC 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC - 350s BC - 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 355 BC 354 BC 353 BC 352 BC 351 BC - 350 BC - 349 BC 348 BC 347... (Redirected from 290 BCE) Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 295 BC 294 BC 293 BC 292 BC 291 BC 290 BC 289... For the son of Alexander the Great, see Heracles (Macedon). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 15 is the 135th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (136th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... Tiruchirapalli (also spelled Tiruchchirappalli, commonly known as Tiruchi or Trichy, formerly known as Trichinopoly under British rule) is a city situated on the banks of the Kaveri river, centrally located in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation). ... The Pallava kingdom (Tamil: à®ªà®²à¯à®²à®µà®°à¯) was an ancient South Indian kingdom. ... Simhavishnu portait along with his queens found in Adivaraha mandapam in Mahabalipuram. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... A couplet is a pair of lines of verse that form a unit. ... Tiruvalluvar was one of the greatest Tamil poets. ... The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is an old Indo-Aryan language from the Indian Subcontinent, the classical literary language of the Hindus of India[1], a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... Events Eric IX of Sweden is succeeded by Karl Sverkersson. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... This article is about the town in Cuddalore district. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... ... The Adil Shahi were a dynasty of Indian sultans, who ruled the Sultanate of Bijapur from the 1490 to 1686. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 18 is the 322nd day of the year (323rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 16 is the 289th day of the year (290th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 13 is the 317th day of the year (318th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 48 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... 17 November is also the name of a Marxist group in Greece, coinciding with the anniversary of the Athens Polytechnic uprising. ... The current BBC News logo BBC News and Current Affairs is a major arm of the BBC responsible for the corporations newsgathering and production of news programmes on BBC television, radio and online. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... June 27 is the 178th day of the year (179th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 187 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ... The British Broadcasting Corporation, usually known as the BBC (and also informally known as the Beeb or Auntie) is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world in terms of audience numbers, employing 26,000 staff in the United Kingdom alone and with a budget of more than GBÂ£4 billion... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 8 is the 312th day of the year (313th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 53 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 46 days remaining. ...

References

Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2000). A History of South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195660686-8.
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1984). The Colas. Madras: University of Madras.
Prasad, Durga (1988). History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D.. Guntur, India: P. G. Publishers.
Codrington, Humphrey William (1926). A Short History of Lanka. St Martin's Street, London: Macmillan and Co., Limited.
Nagasamy, R (1995). Roman Karur. Madras: Brahadish Publications.
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A.; Srinivasachari (2000). Advanced History of India. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd. ASIN: B0007ASWQW.
Read, Anthony (1997). The Proudest Day - India's Long Ride to Independence. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-393-31898-2.
Dutt, Romesh Chunder. Open Letters to Lord Curzon on Famines and Land Assessments in India. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1-4021-5115-2.
Keay, John (2000). India, a History. London: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-638784-5.
Dirks, Nicholas B. (2000). The Hollow Crown:Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom. USA: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08187-X.
Chandra, Bipin (1999). The India after Independence. New Delhi: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-027825-7.
Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge (UK). 0415329191.
McDowell, Chris. A Tamil Asylum Diaspora: Sri Lankan Migration, Settlement and Politics in Switzerland. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 1571819177.
Religious Traditions of the Tamils. Veluppillai, Prof. A.,. Retrieved on 2006-05-15.
63 Nayanmars. Sri Swami Sivananda, The Divine Life Trust Society. Retrieved on 2006-05-16.
Maratha Kings of Thanjavur. Saraswathi Mahal Library. Retrieved on 2006-11-18.
Shanti Pappu, Yanni Gunnell, Maurice Taieb, Jean-Philippe Brugal, K. Anupama, Raman Sukumar & Kumar Akhilesh. "Excavations at the Palaeolithic Site of Attirampakkam, South India". Antiquity 77 (297).
Archaeobotany of Early Historic sites in Southern Tamil Nadu. Retrieved on 2006-05-15.
Harappa And Tamil Culture. Retrieved on 2006-05-15.
Vellore Revolt 1806. Retrieved on 2006-05-15.
Historical Atlas of South India-Timeline. French Institute of Pondicherry. Retrieved on 2006-05-15.
Excavations at Arikamedu. Retrieved on 2006-05-16.
Roman Maps and the Concept of Indian Gems. Retrieved on 2006-05-16.
The State Legislature - Origin and Evolution. Retrieved on 2006-10-16.
The Changing Politics Of Tamil Nadu In The 1990s. John Harriss and Andrew Wyatt, Conference on State Politics in India in the 1990s: Political Mobilisation and Political Competition, December 2004. Retrieved on 2006-06-14.
The Roots of South Indian Cinema. By S. Theodore Baskaran, The Journal of the International Institute. Retrieved on 2006-06-14.
Passions of the Tongue - Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891–1970. Sumathi Ramaswamy University Of California Press. Retrieved on 2006-06-14.
Is the Dravidian movement dying?. Subramanian Swamy, Frontline, Vol 20, Issue 12, June 2003. Retrieved on 2006-06-14.
Tamil Coins- a study - Online Book. R. Nagaswamy. Retrieved on 2006-06-16.
The Political Situation In Pondicherry 1910-1915. Retrieved on 2006-10-12.
Sowing The Seeds Of A Policy For Free India and the Anti-Hindi Agitation in the South 1910-1915. M. S. Thirumalai, Ph.D.,. Retrieved on 2006-10-16.
The Demand for Dravida Nadu. Nambi Arooran, K. Retrieved on 2006-10-16.
A history of agitational politics. Viswanathan, S.. Retrieved on 2006-10-17.
Community, Class and Conservation:Development Politics on the Kanyakumari Coast. Ajantha Subramanian. Retrieved on 2006-10-17.
The History Of Reservations In India From The 1800s To The 1950s. Cynthia Stephen. Retrieved on 2006-10-17.
The Global Dimensions of Conflict in Sri Lanka. Rajesh Venugopal, Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford. Retrieved on 2006-10-17.
L. R., Jegatheesan. "ஆளும் அரிதாரம் (Reigning filmdom)", BBC. Retrieved on 2006-11-08. (in Tamil)

Categories: History of Tamil Nadu | Tamil history | Tamil Nadu Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Image File history File links Wikibooks-logo. ... Image File history File links Wikiquote-logo. ... Image File history File links Wikisource-logo. ... Image File history File links Commons-logo. ... Image File history File links WikiNews-Logo. ... Image File history File links Wikiversity-logo-Snorky. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 15 is the 135th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (136th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (137th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 18 is the 322nd day of the year (323rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 15 is the 135th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (136th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 15 is the 135th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (136th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 15 is the 135th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (136th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 15 is the 135th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (136th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (137th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (137th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 16 is the 289th day of the year (290th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... June 14 is the 165th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (166th in leap years), with 200 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... June 14 is the 165th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (166th in leap years), with 200 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... June 14 is the 165th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (166th in leap years), with 200 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... June 14 is the 165th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (166th in leap years), with 200 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... June 16 is the 167th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (168th in leap years), with 198 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 12 is the 285th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (286th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 16 is the 289th day of the year (290th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 16 is the 289th day of the year (290th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 17 is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 17 is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 17 is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 17 is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... November 8 is the 312th day of the year (313th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 53 days remaining. ...

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