NationMaster - Encyclopedia: History of artificial intelligence

Artificial Intelligence was founded in the early 1950s by an eclectic group of visionaries who claimed to be on the verge of changing the world and man's place in it. They believed that they could create a machine with a mind as intelligent as (or more intelligent than) a human being and predicted it would happen soon, in no more than a few decades.^[1] The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and modern computing technology and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper or for chalk and slate, with or without the aid of tables. ... Computing hardware has been an important component of the process of calculation and data storage since it became useful for numerical values to be processed and shared. ... The history of computing hardware starting in the 1960s begins with the development of the integrated circuit (IC), which formed the basis of the first computer kits and home computers in the 1970s, notable examples being the MITS Altair, Apple II and Commodore PET; and which eventually powered personal and... The history of computing hardware in former Soviet Bloc is somewhat different from that of Western countries. ... The history of computer operating systems recapitulates to a degree, the recent history of computing. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... It has been suggested that the section History from the article Programming language be merged into this article or section. ... The graphical user interface, or GUI (IPA: ), is a computer interface that uses graphic icons and controls in addition to text. ... Today, the Web and the Internet allow connectivity from literally everywhere on earthâ€”even ships at sea and in outer space. ... Home video-game systems became popular during the 1970s and 80s. ... This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the history of computing. ... This article presents a timeline of events in the history of computing from Prehistory until 1949. ... This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the history of computing from 1950 to 1979. ... This article presents a timeline of events in the history of computing from 1980 to 1989. ... This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the history of computing from 1990 to the present. ... See also: History of artificial intelligence This section does not cite any references or sources. ... Garry Kasparov playing against Deep Blue, the first machine to win a chess game against a reigning world champion. ... Year 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

They were given enormous sums of money and when their predictions failed to come true, the money was impolitely taken away again. When a new generation of researchers appeared with new tools and ideas, they also made extraordinary predictions and again the money came and again the investors were disappointed and the money dried up again. The cycle of boom and bust, of AI winters and summers, continues to the present day.^[2] Undaunted, there are those that make extraordinary predictions even now.^[3] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

But, despite the rise and fall of AI in the perceptions of venture capitalists and government bureaucrats, AI has made continuous advances in all areas regardless of the climate, overcoming unexpected obstacles, reorienting priorities in light of new discoveries and riding the crest of the wave of increasing computer power. Progress has been slower than was predicted but progress has continued nonetheless. Artificial intelligence problems that had begun to seem impossible in 1970 have been solved and are now successful commercial products, for example: machine translation, optical character recognition, industrial robotics, speech recognition, data mining, and Google's search engine, to name a few.^[4] In other areas, such as robotics, tremendous progress has been made, for example, in 1970 the robot Shakey couldn't always make it across the room in 8 hours,^[5] but by 2007, the robots of the DARPA Grand Challenge were crossing hundreds of miles of desert. Gordon Moores original graph from 1965 Growth of transistor counts for Intel processors (dots) and Moores Law (upper line=18 months; lower line=24 months) For the observation regarding information retrieval, see Mooers Law. ... Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the acronym MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. ... Optical character recognition, usually abbreviated to OCR, is a type of computer software designed to translate images of handwritten or typewritten text (usually captured by a scanner) into machine-editable text, or to translate pictures of characters into a standard encoding scheme representing them (e. ... An industrial robot is officially defined by ISO (Standard 8373:1994, Manipulating Industrial Robots – Vocabulary) as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes. ... Speech recognition (in many contexts also known as automatic speech recognition, computer speech recognition or erroneously as Voice Recognition) is the process of converting a speech signal to a sequence of words, by means of an algorithm implemented as a computer program. ... Data mining has been defined as the nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from data [1] and the science of extracting useful information from large data sets or databases [2]. Data mining involves sorting through large amounts of data and picking out relevant information. ... This article is about the corporation. ... Robotics is the science and technology of robots, their design, manufacture, and application. ... Shakey was the first mobile robot to be able to reason about its own actions. ... Darpa Grand Challenge The DARPA Grand Challenge is a prize competition for driverless cars, sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the central research organization of the United States Department of Defense. ...

It remains to be seen when or if AI will eventually build a system with human level intelligence. If the history of AI is any guide, it will take far longer than optimists have predicted but, nevertheless, AI will continue to move steadily closer to its elusive goal.

Precursors

Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1024 Ã— 768 pixel, file size: 52 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1024 Ã— 768 pixel, file size: 52 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... HAL 9000 (Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic computer) is a fictional character in Arthur C. Clarkes Space Odyssey saga. ... â€œKubrickâ€ redirects here. ... A movie poster from the original release of 2001 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) is an immensely popular and influential science fiction film and book; the film directed by Stanley Kubrick and the book written by Arthur C. Clarke. ...

Intelligent machines in myth and fiction

The dream of creating an artificial mind has been a part of human culture for thousands of years. Often they are portrayed as useful or beautiful, as were the golden robots of Hephaestus, Daedalus's Talos and Pygmalion's Galatea. Often they are monsters, as in the legend of Rabbi Judah Loew's Golem or Karel Čapek's R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots).^[6] This is a sub-article of Artificial intelligence (AI), describing the different futuristic portrayals of fictional artificial intelligence. ... Hephaestus, Greek god of forging, riding a Donkey; Greek drinking cup (skyphos) made in the 5th century BC Hephaestus (IPA pronunciation: or ; Greek HÃªphaistos) was the Greek god whose Roman equivalent was Vulcan; he was the god of technology including, specifically blacksmiths, craftsmen, artisans, sculptors, metals and metallurgy, and... Daedalus and Icarus, by Charles Paul Landon, 1799 (MusÃ©e des Beaux-Arts et de la Dentelle, AlenÃ§on) In Greek mythology, Daedalus (Latin, also Hellenized Latin Daedalos, Greek Daidalos (Î”Î±Î¯Î´Î±Î»Î¿Ï‚) meaning cunning worker, and Etruscan Taitle) was a most skillful artificer, so skillful that he was said to have invented... Winged Talos armed with a stone. ... Ã‰tienne Maurice Falconet: Pygmalion & Galatee (1763) Pygmalion is a fictional character from the Roman poet Ovid, found in the tenth book of his Metamorphoses. ... Galatea (she who is milk-white) was the name of two figures in Greek mythology. ... Judah Low ben Bezalel (1525 — 1609) was a Jewish scholar and rabbi, most of his life in Prague. ... For other uses, see Golem (disambiguation). ... Karel ÄŒapek (pronounced ; IPA: ) (January 9, 1890 - December 25, 1938) was one of the most important Czech writers of the 20th century. ... R.U.R. (Rossums Universal Robots) is a science fiction play by Karel ÄŒapek. ...

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Ibn Ismail Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (1206 AD) wrote notable books about engineering that are consulted in the history of engineering even today. ...

Automatons and early robotics

Machines that acted like thinking human beings were built as early as 800 BCE, when there was a statue of Amun in the ancient Egyptian city of Napata that could raise its arm and speak.^[8] Perhaps the most legendary was the Turk, built 1769, which appeared to play chess intelligently (but, as it turned out, it needed the help of a small chess master hidden in a cabinet below).^[9] An automaton (plural: automata) is a self-operating machine. ... For other uses, see robot (disambiguation). ... Hondas ASIMO, an example of a humanoid robot A humanoid robot is a robot with its overall appearance based on that of the human body. ... Amun (also spelled Amon, Amoun, Amen, and rarely Imen, Greek á¼ŒÎ¼Î¼Ï‰Î½ Ammon, and á¼Î¼Î¼Ï‰Î½ Hammon, Egyptian Yamanu) was the name of a deity, in Egyptian mythology, who gradually rose to become one of the most important deities in Ancient Egypt, before fading into obscurity. ... Khafres Pyramid (4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c. ... Napata was a city on the west bank of the Nile river, some 400 km north of the present capital of Sudan. ...

Automatons like the Turk were not "intelligent" in any sense and had little to no effect at all on the development of modern AI. However, they were designed to appear intelligent and (like the mechanical men of myth and fiction) this indicates a very ancient and pervasive fascination with the idea of a machine that thinks like a human being.^[10]

Image File history File links Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz. ... Image File history File links Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz. ... â€œLeibnizâ€ redirects here. ...

Formal reasoning and logic

Chinese, Indian and Greek philosophers all developed structured systems of thought in the first millennium BCE. The Greek method of Logos inspired a tradition of formal reasoning that travelled from Athens to Alexandria to Baghdad to Cordoba to Oxford. Among those who made advances were Greeks like Aristotle (who formalized the syllogism), Hellenes like Euclid (whose Elements was a model of formal reasoning), muslims like Ibn Sina and al-Khwārizmī (who invented algebra and gave his name to "algorithm") and European Scholastic philosophers like William of Ockham and Duns Scotus. This is the tradition that continues to inspire AI research today. The history of logic documents the development of logic as it occurs in various rival cultures and traditions in history. ... The history of philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. ... Logic (from Classical Greek Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ logos; meaning word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle) is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. ... Athens is the largest and the capital city of Greece, located in the Attica periphery. ... Nickname: Alexandria on the map of Egypt Map of Alexandria Coordinates: , Country Egypt Founded 334 BC Government - Governor Adel Labib Population (2001) - City 3,500,000 Time zone EET (UTC+2) - Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3) Twin Cities - Baltimore United States - Cleveland United States - ConstanÅ£a Romania - Durban South Africa... Baghdad (Arabic: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... Location Coordinates : , , Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name CÃ³rdoba (Spanish) Spanish name CÃ³rdoba Founded 8th century BC Postal code 140xx Website http://www. ... Oxford is a city and local government district in Oxfordshire, England, with a population of 134,248 (2001 census). ... Aristotle (Greek: AristotÃ©lÄ“s) (384 BC â€“ 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... A syllogism (Greek: â€” conclusion, inference), usually the categorical syllogism, is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred from two others (the premises) of a certain form. ... The term Hellenistic (derived from HÃ©llÄ“n, the Greeks traditional self-described ethnic name) was established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to refer to the spreading of Greek culture over the non-Greek people that were conquered by Alexander the Great. ... Euclid (Greek: ), also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician of the Hellenistic period who flourished in Alexandria, Egypt, almost certainly during the reign of Ptolemy I (323 BC-283 BC). ... The frontispiece of Sir Henry Billingsleys first English version of Euclids Elements, 1570 Euclids Elements (Greek: ) is a mathematical and geometric treatise, consisting of 13 books, written by the Hellenistic mathematician Euclid in Alexandria circa 300 BC. It comprises a collection of definitions, postulates (axioms), propositions (theorems... Islamic philosophy (Ø§Ù„ÙÙ„Ø³ÙØ© Ø§Ù„Ø¥Ø³Ù„Ø§Ù…ÙŠØ©) is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between philosophy (reason) and the religious teachings of Islam (faith). ... This article needs cleanup. ... A stamp issued September 6, 1983 in the Soviet Union, commemorating al-KhwÄrizmÄ«s (approximate) 1200th anniversary. ... This article is about the branch of mathematics. ... In mathematics, computing, linguistics, and related disciplines, an algorithm is a finite list of well-defined instructions for accomplishing some task that, given an initial state, will terminate in a defined end-state. ... Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus, which means that [which] belongs to the school, and is the school of philosophy taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100â€“1500. ... William of Ockham (also Occam or any of several other spellings, IPA: ) (c. ... Blessed John Duns Scotus (c. ...

In the 17th century, Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes and Gottfried Leibniz explored the possibility that all rational thought could be made as systematic as algebra or geometry.^[11] Hobbes famously wrote in Leviathan: "reason is nothing but reckoning".^[12] Leibniz envisioned a universal language of reasoning (his characteristica universalis) which would reduce argumentation to calculation, so that "there would be no more need of disputation between two philosophers than between two accountants. For it would suffice to take their pencils in hand, down to their slates, and to say each other (with a friend as witness, if they liked): Let us calculate."^[13] These philosophers had begun to articulate the physical symbol system hypothesis that would become the guiding faith of AI research. â€œHobbesâ€ redirects here. ... RenÃ© Descartes (French IPA: ) (March 31, 1596 â€“ February 11, 1650), also known as Renatus Cartesius (latinized form), was a highly influential French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer. ... â€œLeibnizâ€ redirects here. ... This article is about the philosopher Thomas Hobbes. ... Frontispiece of Leviathan, etching by Abraham Bosse, with input from Hobbes For other uses, see Leviathan (disambiguation). ... â€œLeibnizâ€ redirects here. ... Characteristica Universalis from Latin is commonly interpreted as Universal Character in English. ... The physical symbol system hypothesis was formulated by Newell and Simon (1963) as the result of success of GPS (General Problem Solver) and subsequent programs as models of cognition. ...

The foundations of modern mathematical logic were set by such works as Boole's The Laws of Thought and Frege's Begriffsschrift. Frege's system was adopted by Russell and Whitehead to produce their masterpiece, the Principia Mathematica in 1913. Inspired by Russell's success, the mathematical community at large began a major project called Hilbert's program to place logic at the foundations of all mathematics. In the 1930's the limits of this program were revealed by Godel's incompleteness proof, Turing's machine and Church's Lambda calculus.^[14] Mathematical logic would be an inspiration for many important projects in AI (such as Prolog and Soar). The Lambda calculus was especially important to AI, since it was an inspiration for Lisp (the most important programming language used in AI)^[15] Mathematical logic is a major area of mathematics, which grew out of symbolic logic. ... George Boole [], (November 2, 1815 â€“ December 8, 1864) was a British mathematician and philosopher. ... The Laws of Thought, more precisely, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities, is a very influential 19th century book on logic by George Boole, the second of his two monographs on algebraic logic. ... Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege (November 8, 1848 - July 26, 1925) was a German mathematician, logician, and philosopher who is regarded as a founder of both modern mathematical logic and analytic philosophy. ... Begriffsschrift is the title of a short book on logic by Gottlob Frege, published in 1879, and is also the name of the formal system set out in that book. ... Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege (November 8, 1848 - July 26, 1925) was a German mathematician, logician, and philosopher who is regarded as a founder of both modern mathematical logic and analytic philosophy. ... Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS, (18 May 1872 â€“ 2 February 1970), was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, advocate for social reform, and pacifist. ... Alfred North Whitehead, OM (February 15, 1861 Ramsgate, Kent, England â€“ December 30, 1947 Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA) was an English-born mathematician who became a philosopher. ... The Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics, written by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell and published in 1910-1913. ... Russell is a Scottish or French name derived from the colour red or from the fox animal: // Spanish - Quesada French - Roussel Italian - Rufino Latin - Rufus Notable people with the surname Russell include: William Russell (disambiguation page) Members of this family have held the title of Earl of Bedford since the... David Hilbert David Hilbert (January 23, 1862 – February 14, 1943) was a German mathematician born in Wehlau, near Königsberg, Prussia (now Znamensk, near Kaliningrad, Russia) who is recognized as one of the most influential mathematicians of the 19th and early 20th centuries. ... Hilberts program, formulated by German mathematician David Hilbert in the 1920s, was to formalize all existing theories to a finite, complete set of axioms, and provide a proof that these axioms were consistent. ... Kurt Gödel Kurt Gödel [ kurt gøːdl ], (April 28, 1906 – January 14, 1978) was a logician, mathematician, and philosopher of mathematics, whose biography lists quite a few nations, although he is usually associated with Austria. ... In mathematical logic, GÃ¶dels incompleteness theorems are two theorems about the limits of formal systems, proved by Kurt GÃ¶del in 1931. ... Alan Mathison Turing, FRS,OBE (23 June 1912 â€“ 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, logician, and cryptographer. ... An artistic representation of a Turing Machine . ... â€¹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ... The lambda calculus is a formal system designed to investigate function definition, function application, and recursion. ... Prolog is a logic programming language. ... Soar (also known as SOAR) is a symbolic cognitive architecture, created by John Laird, Allen Newell, and Paul Rosenbloom at Carnegie Mellon University. ... The lambda calculus is a formal system designed to investigate function definition, function application, and recursion. ... Lisp is a family of computer programming languages with a long history and a distinctive fully-parenthesized syntax. ...

PD image of ENIAC Image from [1] Copyright info at [2] Of note, this is PD, provided the phrase U. S. Army Photo is along with the photo. ... PD image of ENIAC Image from [1] Copyright info at [2] Of note, this is PD, provided the phrase U. S. Army Photo is along with the photo. ...

Computer science

Artificial intelligence would be impossible without the work that led to the modern programmable digital computer. Calculating machines were built in antiquity and improved throughout history by many mathematicians, including, once again, philosopher Gottfried Leibniz. The first modern computers were the massive code breaking machines of the Second World War (Z3, ENIAC and Colossus, to name three).^[16] These could not have been built without the help and theoretical insight of mathematicians like Alan Turing and John Von Neumann. Computing hardware has been an important component of the process of calculation and data storage since it became useful for numerical values to be processed and shared. ... The history of computer science began long before the modern discipline of computer science that emerged in the twentieth century. ... This article is about the machine. ... â€œLeibnizâ€ redirects here. ... Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ... Konrad Zuses Z3 was the first working programmable, fully automatic machine, whose attributes, with the addition of conditional branching, have often been the ones used as criteria in defining a computer. ... ENIAC ENIAC, short for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer,[1] was the first large-scale, electronic, digital computer capable of being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems,[2] although earlier computers had been built with some of these properties. ... A Colossus Mark II computer. ... Alan Mathison Turing, FRS,OBE (23 June 1912 â€“ 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, logician, and cryptographer. ... For other persons named John Neumann, see John Neumann (disambiguation). ...

The birth of artificial intelligence 1943-1956

A note on the sections in this article.^[17] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Arthur L. Samuel (b. ...

The first computers cost millions of dollars, filled entire rooms and had less computing power than a modern clock or toaster. A number of researchers from many fields (mathematics, psychology, engineering and even political science) instinctively recognized that a machine that could manipulate numbers could also manipulate symbols, and that the manipulation of symbols could well be the essence of human thought. In 1956, at a conference on the Dartmouth campus, the field of artificial intelligence was born.^[18]

Cybernetics and early neural networks

In the early forties, two Princeton scientists attempted create a mathematical description of the human brain. Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch analyze networks of idealized artificial neurons and showed how they might perform simple logical functions. They were the first to describe what later researchers would call a neural network. ^[19] Pitts and McCulloch were part of a research program called "cybernetics" that lasted from the 1940s (when Norbert Weiner defined the term) till the 1960s. Researchers developed robots, like W. Grey Walter's turtles and the Johns Hopkins Beast, that displayed rudimentary intelligence. These machines did not use computers or digital electronics; they were controlled entirely by analog circuitry.^[20] Cybernetics is the study of feedback and derived concepts such as communication and control in living organisms, machines and organisations. ... Princeton University is a private coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. ... Walter Pitts (1923? - 1969) was a logician who worked in the field of cognitive psychology. ... One or more images would improve this articles quality. ... Neurons (also called nerve cells) are the primary cells of the nervous system. ... // See also Artificial neural network. ... Walter Pitts (1923? - 1969) was a logician who worked in the field of cognitive psychology. ... One or more images would improve this articles quality. ... Cybernetics is the study of feedback and derived concepts such as communication and control in living organisms, machines and organisations. ... Norbert Wiener (November 26, 1894 - March 18, 1964) was an American mathematician, known as the founder of cybernetics. ... W. Grey Walter (February 19, 1910 - May 6, 1977) was a neurophysiologist and robotician. ... Turtles are a class of educational robots designed originally in the late 1940s (largely under the auspices of Anglo-American researcher William Grey Walter) and used in computer science and mechanical engineering training. ...

One of the students inspired by Pitts and McCulloch's work was a young Marvin Minsky, then a 24 year old graduate student. In 1951 (with Dean Edmonds) he built the first neural net machine, the SNARC. Minsky was to become one of the most important leaders and innovators in AI for the next 50 years.^[21] Walter Pitts (1923? - 1969) was a logician who worked in the field of cognitive psychology. ... One or more images would improve this articles quality. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... SNARC (Stochastic Neural Analog Reinforcement Calculator) is a neural net machine designed by Marvin Lee Minsky. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ...

Turing's test

In 1950 Alan Turing published a landmark paper in which he speculated about the possibility of creating machines with true intelligence. He noted that "intelligence" is difficult to define and devised his famous Turing Test. If a machine could carry on a conversation (over a teletype) that was indistinguishable from a conversation with a human being, then the machine could be called "intelligent." This measure of intelligence has often been criticized but never improved upon: no universally accepted definition of intelligence has ever been put forward. The most electrifying aspect of the paper was that it clearly showed that intelligent machines were at least plausible; the concept can not be dismissed as simply ridiculous. The Turing Test was the first serious proposal in the philosophy of artificial intelligence.^[22] Doctor Who novel named after the test, see The Turing Test. ... Year 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Alan Mathison Turing, FRS,OBE (23 June 1912 â€“ 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, logician, and cryptographer. ... Computing machinery and intelligence, written by Alan Turing and published in 1950, is a seminal paper on the topic of artificial intelligence in which the concept of what is now known as the Turing test was introduced. ... Doctor Who novel named after the test, see The Turing Test. ... A teleprinter (teletypewriter, teletype or TTY) is a now largely obsolete electro-mechanical typewriter which can be used to communicate typed messages from point to point through a simple electrical communications channel, often just a pair of wires. ... Doctor Who novel named after the test, see The Turing Test. ... ...

Checkers and chess

From the first day that computers became available, people began to teach them intelligent behavior: in 1951, using the Ferranti Mark I machine of the University of Manchester: Christopher Strachey wrote a checkers programs and Dietrich Prinz wrote one for chess.^[23] Arthur Samuel's checkers program eventually achieved sufficient skill to challenge a world champion.^[24] The Ferranti Mark I was the second commercially available general-purpose computer (first being the Z4 computer), with the first machine delivered in February 1951, just beating the UNIVAC I. The machine was built by Ferranti of the United Kingdom. ... The University of Manchester is a university located in Manchester, England. ... Christopher Strachey (1916â€“1975) was a British computer scientist. ... Arthur L. Samuel (b. ...

Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist

In 1955 Allen Newell and (future Nobel Laureate) Herbert Simon created the "Logic Theorist" (with help from J. C. Shaw). The program would eventually prove 38 of the first 52 theorems in Russell and Whitehead's Principia Mathematica, and find new and more elegant proofs for some..^[25] Simon hubristically claimed that they had "solved the venerable mind/body problem, explaining how a system composed of matter can have the properties of mind."^[26] This was an early statement of the philosophical position now called "Strong AI": that machines can contain minds just as human bodies do.^[27] Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation and at Carnegie-Mellonâ€™s School of Computer Science. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ... Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS, (18 May 1872 â€“ 2 February 1970), was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, advocate for social reform, and pacifist. ... Alfred North Whitehead, OM (February 15, 1861 Ramsgate, Kent, England â€“ December 30, 1947 Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA) was an English-born mathematician who became a philosopher. ... The Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics, written by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell and published in 1910-1913. ... A phrenological mapping of the brain. ... In the philosophy of artificial intelligence, strong AI is the supposition that some forms of artificial intelligence can truly reason and solve problems; strong AI supposes that it is possible for machines to become sapient, or self-aware, but may or may not exhibit human-like thought processes. ...

Dartmouth Conference 1956: the birth of AI

The first Dartmouth Conference was organized in 1955 by Marvin Minsky, John McCarthy and two senior scientists: Claude Shannon and Nathaniel Rochester of IBM. Other participants in 1955 included Ray Solomonoff, Oliver Selfridge, Trenchant More, Arthur Samuel, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, all of whom would create important programs during the first decades of AI research.^[28] The Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on Artificial Intelligence was the name of a conference now considered the seminal event for artificial intelligence as a field. ... The Dartmouth Conference was the name of a conference organised by John McCarthy, in which he gathered together everyone who was interested in finding out about Artificial Intelligence (as it was then given its name). ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... Claude Shannon Claude Elwood Shannon (April 30, 1916 â€“ February 24, 2001), an American electrical engineer and mathematician, has been called the father of information theory,[1] and was the founder of practical digital circuit design theory. ... Col. ... IBM redirects here. ... Ray Solomonoff (born 1926) invented the concept of algorithmic probability around 1960. ... Oliver Selfridge, grandson of the founder of Selfridges department stores, has been called the Father of Machine Perception. ... Arthur L. Samuel (b. ... Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation and at Carnegie-Mellonâ€™s School of Computer Science. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ...

The following year another conference was held. The organizers proposed that "Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it" -- an early statement of the physical symbol system position.^[29] At the conference, Newell and Simon debuted the "Logic Theorist" and McCarthy convinced the majority of attendees to accept "Artificial Intelligence" as the name of the field.^[30] The 1956 Dartmouth conference was the moment that AI gained its name, its mission, its first success and its major players, and is widely considered "the birth of AI."^[31] The physical symbol system hypothesis was formulated by Newell and Simon (1963) as the result of success of GPS (General Problem Solver) and subsequent programs as models of cognition. ...

The golden years 1956-1974

The years after the Dartmouth conference were an era of discovery, of sprinting across new ground. The programs that were developed during this time were, to most people, simply "astonishing"^[32]: computers were solving algebra word problems, proving theorems in geometry and learning to speak English. Few at the time would have believe such "intelligent" behavior by machines was possible at all.^[33] Researchers expressed an intense optimism, in private and in print, predicting that a fully intelligent machine would be built in less than 20 years.^[34] Government agencies like ARPA poured money into the new field.^[35] The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ...

The work

See also: History of artificial intelligence This section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Lisp

The Lisp programming language was invented by John McCarthy at MIT in 1958. Although it was often too inefficient to be used by the computers of the 60s, after 1970, it became the preferred language for writing AI programs.^[36] Lisp is a family of computer programming languages with a long history and a distinctive fully-parenthesized syntax. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... MapÃºa Institute of Technology (MIT, MapÃºaTech or simply MapÃºa) is a private, non-sectarian, Filipino tertiary institute located in Intramuros, Manila. ...

Reasoning as search

Many AI programs used the same basic algorithm in the early years of AI research: to achieve some goal (like winning a game or proving a theorem) and they proceeded step by step towards it (by making a move or a deduction) as if searching through a maze, backtracking whenever they reached a dead end. This paradigm was called "reasoning as search".^[37] In mathematics, computing, linguistics, and related disciplines, an algorithm is a finite list of well-defined instructions for accomplishing some task that, given an initial state, will terminate in a defined end-state. ... Backtracking is a type of algorithm that is a refinement of brute force search. ... In computer science, a search algorithm, broadly speaking, is an algorithm that takes a problem as input and returns a solution to the problem, usually after evaluating a number of possible solutions. ...

The principle difficulty was that, for many problems, the number of possible paths through the "maze" was simply astronomical (this is called a "combinatorial explosion"). Researchers would reduce the search space by using heuristics or "rules of thumb" that would eliminate those paths that were unlikely to lead to a solution.^[38] In cryptanalysis, a brute force attack on a cipher is a brute-force search of the key space; that is, testing all possible keys, in an attempt to recover the plaintext used to produce a particular ciphertext. ... For heuristics in computer science, see heuristic (computer science) Heuristic is the art and science of discovery and invention. ...

Newell and Simon tried capture a general version of this algorithm in a program called (with some hubris) the "General Problem Solver". Other "searching" programs were able to accomplish impressive tasks like solving problems in geometry and algebra: Herbert Gelernter's Geometry Theorem Prover (1958) and SAINT written by Minsky's student James Slagle (1961).^[39] Other programs searched through goals and subgoals to plan actions, like the STRIPS system developed at Stanford to control the behavior of their robot Shakey.^[40] Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ... General Problem Solver (GPS) was a computer program created in 1957 by Herbert Simon and Allen Newell to build a universal problem solver machine. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... The term strips has various meanings: A financial option composed of one call option and two put options with the same strike price A treasury security acronym for Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal of Securities, which are the securities obtained when trading the coupons and principal of bonds... Stanford may refer: Stanford University Places: Stanford, Kentucky Stanford, California, home of Stanford University Stanford Shopping Center Stanford, New York, town in Dutchess County. ... Shakey was the first mobile robot to be able to reason about its own actions. ...

Image File history File links Semantic_Net. ... Image File history File links Semantic_Net. ...

Natural language and semantic nets

An important goal of AI research is to allow computers to communicate in natural languages like English. An early success was Daniel Bobrow's extraordinary program STUDENT, which could solve high school algebra word problems by recognizing key phrases like "the sum of".^[41] Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial intelligence and linguistics. ... Daniel G. Bobrow is a Research Fellow in the Intelligent Systems Laboratory of the Palo Alto Research Center, and is amongst other things known for creating an oft-cited artificial intelligence program STUDENT, with which he earned his PhD. He earned his BS from RPI in 1957, SM from Harvard... STUDENT is an early artificial intelligence program that solves algebra word problems. ...

In a semantic net, concepts (e.g. "dog","tail") are represented as nodes and relations between concepts (e.g. "has-a") are represented as links between the nodes. The first AI program to use a semantic net was written by Ross Quillian^[42] and the most successful (and controversial) version was Roger Schank's Conceptual Dependency.^[43] Lexical semantics is a subfield of computational linguistics and linguistics. ... Roger Schank is president and CEO of Socratic Arts, and a leading visionary in artificial intelligence. ...

Perhaps the most interesting English speaking computer program was Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA, the first chatterbot. ELIZA could carry out conversations that were so realistic that users occasionally were fooled into thinking they were communicating with a human being and not a program. But in fact, ELIZA had no idea what she was talking about. She simply repeated back what was said to her, rephrasing it using a few grammar rules and occasionally jumping back to earlier points in the conversation.^[44] Joseph Weizenbaum. ... ELIZA is a computer program by Joseph Weizenbaum, designed in 1966, which parodied a Rogerian therapist, largely by rephrasing many of the patients statements as questions and posing them to the patient. ... A chatterbot is a computer program designed to simulate an intelligent conversation with one or more human users via auditory or textual methods. ...

Micro-worlds

In the late 60s, Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert of the MIT AI Laboratory proposed that AI research should focus on artificially simple situations known as Micro-Worlds. They pointed out that in successful sciences like physics, basic principles were often best understood using simplified models like frictionless planes or perfectly rigid bodies. Much of the research focused on the so-called "blocks world," which consists of colored blocks of various shapes and sizes arrayed on a flat surface.^[45] Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Seymour Papert Seymour Papert (born March 1, 1928 Pretoria, South Africa) is an MIT mathematician, computer scientist, and prominent educator. ... MapÃºa Institute of Technology (MIT, MapÃºaTech or simply MapÃºa) is a private, non-sectarian, Filipino tertiary institute located in Intramuros, Manila. ...

This paradigm led to innovating work in machine vision by Gerald Sussman (who led the team), Adolfo Guzman, David Waltz (who invented "constraint propagation"), and especially Patrick Winston. At the same time, Minsky and Papert built a robot arm that could stack blocks, bringing the blocks world to life. The crowning achievement of the micro-world program was Terry Winograd's SHRDLU. It could communicate in ordinary English sentences, plan operations and execute them.^[46] Machine vision (MV) is the application of computer vision to industry and manufacturing. ... Gerald Jay Sussman is the Matsushita Professor of Electrical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT). ... In constraint satisfaction, local consistency conditions are properties of constraint satisfaction problems related to the consistency of subsets of variables or constraints. ... Patrick Henry Winston is a computer scientist. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Seymour Papert Seymour Papert (born March 1, 1928 Pretoria, South Africa) is an MIT mathematician, computer scientist, and prominent educator. ... Terry A. Winograd Terry Allen Winograd (born February 24, 1946) is a professor of computer science at Stanford University. ... // SHRDLU was an early natural language understanding computer program, developed by Terry Winograd at MIT from 1968-1970. ...

The optimism

Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ... Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation and at Carnegie-Mellonâ€™s School of Computer Science. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... A cover of Life Magazine from 1911 Life has been the name of two notable magazines published in the United States. ...

The money

In June of 1963 MIT received a $2.2 million grant from the newly created Advanced Research Projects Agency (later known as DARPA). The money was used to fund project MAC which subsumed the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory founded by Minsky and McCarthy five years earlier. ARPA continued to provide three million dollars a year until the 70s.^[51] ARPA made similar grants to Newell and Simon's program at CMU and to the Stanford AI Project (founded by John McCarthy in 1963).^[52] These three institutions: MIT, CMU and Stanford continued to be the main centers of AI research (and funding) in academia for many years.^[53] The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ... Project MAC, later the MIT Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS), was a research laboratory at MIT. Project MAC would become famous for groundbreaking research in operating systems, artificial intelligence, and the theory of computation. ... The MIT Artificial intelligence Laboratory was an interdisciplinary research entity at MIT founded in 1959, and one of the most influential and accomplished in the field. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ... The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ... Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ... Carnegie Mellon University is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. ... The Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (commonly called the Stanford AI Lab, or SAIL), was one of the leading centres for artificial intelligence research from the 1960s through the 1980s. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... MapÃºa Institute of Technology (MIT, MapÃºaTech or simply MapÃºa) is a private, non-sectarian, Filipino tertiary institute located in Intramuros, Manila. ... Carnegie Mellon University is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. ... Stanford may refer: Stanford University Places: Stanford, Kentucky Stanford, California, home of Stanford University Stanford Shopping Center Stanford, New York, town in Dutchess County. ...

The money was proffered with few strings attached. J. C. R. Licklider, then the director of ARPA, believed they should "fund people, not projects!" This meant that research in AI was essentially unfettered.^[54] The freewheeling atmosphere at MIT gave birth to the hacker culture.^[55] This "hands off" approach would soon come to an end. J. C. R. Licklider Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider (March 11, 1915 â€“ June 26, 1990), known simply as J.C.R. or Lick was an American computer scientist, considered one of the most important figures in computer science and general computing history. ... The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ... MapÃºa Institute of Technology (MIT, MapÃºaTech or simply MapÃºa) is a private, non-sectarian, Filipino tertiary institute located in Intramuros, Manila. ... Hacker, as it relates to computers, has several common meanings. ...

The first AI winter 1974-1980

In the 70s, AI was subject to critiques and financial setbacks. AI researchers had failed to appreciate the difficulty of the problems they face. Their tremendous optimism had raised expectations impossibly high, and when the results they had promised failed to materialize, funding for AI disappeared. At the same time, the field of connectionism (or neural nets) was shut down almost completely for 10 years by Marvin Minsky's devastating criticism of perceptrons.^[56] Connectionism is an approach in the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive science, neuroscience, psychology and philosophy of mind. ... A neural network is an interconnected group of neurons. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... The perceptron is a type of artificial neural network invented in 1957 at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory by Frank Rosenblatt. ...

Despite the difficulties with public perception of AI in the late 70s, work continued, especially in logic programming, commonsense reasoning and computer vision.^[57] Logic programming (which might better be called logical programming by analogy with mathematical programming and linear programming) is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. ... Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. ... Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. ...

The problems

As the seventies began, the capabilities of AI programs were disturbingly limited. Even the most impressive could only handle trivial versions of the problems they were supposed to solve; all of the programs were, in some sense, "toys".^[58] AI researchers had begun to run into several fundamental limits that could not be overcome in the 1970s. Although some of these limits would be conquered in later decades, some still stymie the field to this day.^[59]

Hans Moravec (born November 30, 1948 in Austria) is a research professor at the Robotics Institute (Carnegie Mellon) of Carnegie Mellon University. ... Gordon Moores original graph from 1965 Growth of transistor counts for Intel processors (dots) and Moores Law (upper line=18 months; lower line=24 months) For the observation regarding information retrieval, see Mooers Law. ... As a branch of the theory of computation in computer science, computational complexity theory describes the scalability of algorithms, and the inherent difficulty in providing scalable algorithms for specific computational problems. ... In cryptanalysis, a brute force attack on a cipher is a brute-force search of the key space; that is, testing all possible keys, in an attempt to recover the plaintext used to produce a particular ciphertext. ... Richard M. Karp (born 1935) is a computer scientist, notable for research in the theory of algorithms, for which he received a Turing Award in 1985. ... Stephen A. Cook is a noted computer scientist. ... It has been suggested that Proof that Boolean satisfiability problem is NP-complete be merged into this article or section. ... One of the most important results of computational complexity theory was Stephen Cooks 1971 paper that demonstrated the first NP-complete problem, the boolean satisfiability problem. ... In complexity theory, exponential time is the computation time of a problem where the time to complete the computation, m(n), is bounded by an exponential function of the problem size, n (i. ... In cryptanalysis, a brute force attack on a cipher is a brute-force search of the key space; that is, testing all possible keys, in an attempt to recover the plaintext used to produce a particular ciphertext. ... Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. ... Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. ... The term natural language is used to distinguish languages spoken and signed (by hand signals and facial expressions) by humans for general-purpose communication from constructs such as writing, computer-programming languages or the languages used in the study of formal logic, especially mathematical logic. ... Computers are at their worst trying to do the things most natural to humans. ... Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. ... Robotics is the science and technology of robots, their design, manufacture, and application. ... In artificial intelligence, the frame problem has a number of possible formulations. ... In philosophy and AI, the qualification problem is concerned with the impossibility of listing all the preconditions required for a real-world action to have its intended effect. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... Logic (from Classical Greek Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ logos; meaning word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle) is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. ... Automated planning and scheduling is a branch of artificial intelligence that concerns the realisation of strategies or action sequences, typically for execution by intelligent agents, autonomous robots and unmanned vehicles. ... A non-monotonic logic is a formal logic whose consequence relation is not monotonic. ... In formal logic, a modal logic is any logic for handling modalities: concepts like possibility, existence, and necessity. ... A related article is titled uncertainty. ...

The end of funding

The agencies that supported AI research became frustrated with the lack of progress and eventually cut off all funding. The pattern began as early 1966 when the ALPAC report appeared criticizing machine translation efforts. After spending some 20 million dollars, the National Research Council ended all support.^[66] In 1973, the Lighthill report on the state of AI research in England criticized the utter failure of AI to achieve its "grandiose objectives" and led to the dismantling of AI research in that country.^[67] (The report specifically mentioned the combinatorial explosion problem as a reason for AI's failings.)^[68] DARPA was deeply disappointed with researchers working on the Speech Understanding Research program at CMU and cancelled a three million dollar a year grant. By 1974, funding for AI projects was hard to find.^[69] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... ALPAC (Automatic Language Processing Advisory Commitee) was a commitee of seven scientists led by John R. Pierce, established in 1964 by the U. S. Government in order to evaluate the progress in computational linguistics in general and machine translation in particular. ... The National Research Council (NRC) of the USA is the working arm of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the United States National Academy of Engineering, carrying out most of the studies done in their names. ... The Lighthill report (1973) formed the basis for the decision by the British government to end support for AI research in all but two universities [from AIAMA]. The report stated that AI researchers had failed to address the issue of combinatorial explosion when solving problems within real world domains. ... In cryptanalysis, a brute force attack on a cipher is a brute-force search of the key space; that is, testing all possible keys, in an attempt to recover the plaintext used to produce a particular ciphertext. ... The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ... Speech recognition (in many contexts also known as automatic speech recognition, computer speech recognition or erroneously as Voice Recognition) is the process of converting a speech signal to a sequence of words, by means of an algorithm implemented as a computer program. ... CMU is an acronym for three different universities: Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Central Michigan University in Mount Pleasant, Michigan Chiang Mai University in Chiangmai, Thailand Central Michigan University claims CMU as a trademark: [1]. A search through the United States Patent and Trademark Offices trademark database will...

Hans Moravec believed that "it was literally phrased at DARPA that 'some of these people were going to be taught a lesson [by] having their two-million-dollar-a-year contracts cut to almost nothing!'"^[70] and he blamed the crisis on the unrealistic predictions of his colleagues: "Many researchers were caught up in a web of increasing exaggeration. Their initial promises to DARPA had been much too optimistic. Of course, what they delivered stopped considerably short of that. But they felt they couldn't in their next proposal promise less than in the first one, so they promised more."^[71] Hans Moravec (born November 30, 1948 in Austria) is a research professor at the Robotics Institute (Carnegie Mellon) of Carnegie Mellon University. ... The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ...

However, there was another issue: since the passage of Mansfield Amendment in 1969, DARPA had been under increasing pressure to fund "mission-oriented direct research, rather than basic undirected research." The creative, freewheeling exploration that had gone on in the 60s would not be funded by DARPA. The money was directed to specific projects with clear objectives, like autonomous tanks and battle management systems.^[72] Michael Joseph Mansfield (March 16, 1903–October 5, 2001) was an American politician from Montana. ... The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ... The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ...

Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Hubert Dreyfus (born 1929) is a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. ... Book cover of the 1979 paperback edition What Computers Cant Do: The Limits of Artificial Intelligence (ISBN 0-06-090613-8) is a controversial work on artificial intelligence, authored by Hubert Dreyfus, a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. ...

Critiques from across campus

A number of philosophers had strong objections to the claims being made by AI researchers. One of the earliest was John Lucas, who argued that Gödel's incompleteness theorem showed that there were statements that a physical symbol system (such as a computer program) could never see the truth of.^[73] Hubert Dreyfus ridiculed the broken promises of the 60s and critiqued the assumptions of AI, arguing that human reasoning actually involved very little "symbol processing" and a great of deal embodied, instinctive, unconscious "know how".^[74] John Searle's Chinese Room argument, presented in 1980, attempted to show that a program (or any physical symbol system) could not be said to "understand" the symbols that it uses; that the symbols have no meaning for the machine, and so the machine can never be truly intelligent.^[75] ... John Randolph Lucas (born 18 June 1929) is a British philosopher. ... Kurt Gödel Kurt Gödel [ kurt gøːdl ], (April 28, 1906 – January 14, 1978) was a logician, mathematician, and philosopher of mathematics, whose biography lists quite a few nations, although he is usually associated with Austria. ... In mathematical logic, GÃ¶dels incompleteness theorems are two celebrated theorems proved by Kurt GÃ¶del in 1931. ... The physical symbol system hypothesis was formulated by Newell and Simon (1963) as the result of success of GPS (General Problem Solver) and subsequent programs as models of cognition. ... Hubert Dreyfus (born 1929) is a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. ... John Rogers Searle (born July 31, 1932 in Denver, Colorado) is the Slusser Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, and is noted for contributions to the philosophy of language, philosophy of mind and consciousness, on the characteristics of socially constructed versus physical realities, and on practical reason. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The physical symbol system hypothesis was formulated by Newell and Simon (1963) as the result of success of GPS (General Problem Solver) and subsequent programs as models of cognition. ...

These critiques were not taken seriously by AI researchers, often because they seemed so far off the point: problems like intractability and commonsense knowledge seemed much more immediate and serious; it wasn't clear what difference "know how" or "intensionality" made to an actual program. Minsky said of Dreyfus and Searle "they misunderstand, and should be ignored."^[76] Dreyfus, who taught at MIT, was given a cold shoulder: he later said that AI researchers "dared not be seen having lunch with me."^[77] As a branch of the theory of computation in computer science, computational complexity theory describes the scalability of algorithms, and the inherent difficulty in providing scalable algorithms for specific computational problems. ... Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. ... Intension refers to the meanings or characteristics encompassed by a given word. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... MapÃºa Institute of Technology (MIT, MapÃºaTech or simply MapÃºa) is a private, non-sectarian, Filipino tertiary institute located in Intramuros, Manila. ...

One of the only people to have lunch with Dreyfus was Joseph Weizenbaum, the author of ELIZA.^[78] He began to have serious ethical doubts about AI when Kenneth Colby wrote DOCTOR, a chatterbot therapist. Weizenbaum was disturbed that Colby saw his mindless program as a serious therapeutic tool. A feud began, and the situation was not helped when Colby did not credit Weizenbaum for his contribution to the program. Eventually Weizenbaum would publish a thoughtful moral critique of AI.^[79] Joseph Weizenbaum. ... ELIZA is a computer program by Joseph Weizenbaum, designed in 1966, which parodied a Rogerian therapist, largely by rephrasing many of the patients statements as questions and posing them to the patient. ... A chatterbot is a computer program designed to simulate an intelligent conversation with one or more human users via auditory or textual methods. ... Joseph Weizenbaum. ...

Image File history File links Perceptron. ... Image File history File links Perceptron. ... The perceptron is a type of artificial neural network invented in 1957 at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory by Frank Rosenblatt. ...

Perceptrons and the dark age of connectionism

A perceptron was a form of neural network introduced in 1958 by Frank Rosenblatt, who had been a schoolmate of Marvin Minsky at the Bronx Technical High School. Like most AI researchers, he made optimistic claims about their power, predicting that "perceptron may eventually be able to learn, make decisions, and translate languages." An active research program into the paradigm was carried out throughout the 60s but came to a sudden halt with the publication Minsky and Papert's 1969 book Perceptrons. They showed that there were severe limitations to what perceptrons could do and that Frank Rosenblatt's claims had been grossly exaggerated. The effect of the book was devastating: virtually no research at all was done in connectionism for 10 years. Eventually, the work of Hopfield and others would revive the field and thereafter it would become a vital and useful part of artificial intelligence. Rosenblatt would not live to see this, as he died in a boating accident shortly after the book was published.^[80] The perceptron is a type of artificial neural network invented in 1957 at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory by Frank Rosenblatt. ... Frank Rosenblatt (1928â€“1969) was a New York City born computer scientist who completed the Perceptron, or MARK 1, computer at Cornell University in 1960. ... The perceptron is a type of artificial neural network invented in 1957 at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory by Frank Rosenblatt. ... // See also Artificial neural network. ... Frank Rosenblatt (1928â€“1969) was a New York City born computer scientist who completed the Perceptron, or MARK 1, computer at Cornell University in 1960. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Seymour Papert Seymour Papert (born March 1, 1928 Pretoria, South Africa) is an MIT mathematician, computer scientist, and prominent educator. ... The perceptron is a type of artificial neural network invented in 1957 at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory by Frank Rosenblatt. ... Frank Rosenblatt (1928â€“1969) was a New York City born computer scientist who completed the Perceptron, or MARK 1, computer at Cornell University in 1960. ... Connectionism is an approach in the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive science, neuroscience, psychology and philosophy of mind. ... John J. Hopfield is an American scientist most widely known for his invention of associative neural network in 1982. ... Frank Rosenblatt (1928â€“1969) was a New York City born computer scientist who completed the Perceptron, or MARK 1, computer at Cornell University in 1960. ...

Undaunted and moving in different directions

The neats: logic, Prolog and expert systems

Several researchers continued to focus on logic as a basis of artificial intelligence. Many were inspired by logician J. Alan Robinson's resolution algorithm. However, straight forward implementations, like those attempted by John McCarthy and his students in the late 60s, were especially intractable: the programs required astronomical numbers of steps to prove simple theorems.^[81] A more fruitful approach to logic was accomplished by Robert Kowalski at the University of Edinburgh, and soon this led to the collaboration with French researchers Alain Colmerauer and Phillipe Roussel that created the successful logic programming language Prolog.^[82] Prolog simplified logic to Horn clauses (also called "rules" or "production rules"). Rules would continue to be influential, providing a foundation for Edward Feigenbaum's expert systems and the continuing work by Alan Newell and Herbert Simon that would lead to Soar and their unified theories of cognition.^[83] Logic programming (which might better be called logical programming by analogy with mathematical programming and linear programming) is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. ... J. Alan Robinson is a philosopher (by training), mathematician and computer scientist. ... In mathematical logic and automated theorem proving, resolution is a rule of inference leading to a refutation theorem-proving technique for sentences in propositional logic and first-order logic. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... Robert Anthony Kowalski (Bob Kowalski, born May 15, 1941 in Bridgeport, Connecticut, USA) is an American logician and computer scientist, who has spent much of his career in the UK. He was educated at the University of Chicago, University of Bridgeport (BA in mathematics, 1963), Stanford University (MSc in mathematics... The University of Edinburgh (Scottish Gaelic: ), founded in 1582,[4] is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland. ... Professor Alain Colmerauer is the creator of the logic programming language Prolog for computers. ... Prolog is a logic programming language. ... In logic, and in particular in propositional calculus, a Horn clause is a proposition of the general type (p and q and . ... A production system consists of a collection of productions (rules), a working memory of facts and an algorithm, known as forward chaining, for producing new facts from old. ... Edward Albert Feigenbaum (born January 20, 1936) is a computer scientist working in the field of artificial intelligence. ... An expert system is a class of computer programs developed by researchers in artificial intelligence during the 1970s and applied commercially throughout the 1980s. ... Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ... SOAR (also spelled Soar) is a symbolic cognitive architecture, created by John Laird, Allen Newell, and Paul Rosenbloom at Carnegie Mellon University. ... Unified theories of cognition is a book written by Allen Newell in 1987. ...

Critics of the logical approach noted, as Dreyfus had, that human beings rarely used logic when they solved problems. Experiments by psychologists like Eleanor Rosch, Amos Tversky, Daniel Kahneman and others provided proof.^[84] McCarthy responded that what people do is irrelevant and pointed out that we don't need machines that think as people do, we need machines that can solve problems that people normally solve by thinking.^[85] Hubert Dreyfus (born 1929) is a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. ... Eleanor Rosch is a professor of psychology at The University of California, Berkeley. ... Amos Tversky (March 16, 1937 - June 2, 1996) was a pioneer of cognitive science, a longtime collaborator of Daniel Kahneman, and a key figure in the discovery of systematic human cognitive bias and handling of risk. ... Daniel Kahneman Daniel Kahneman (born March 5, 1934 in Tel Aviv, in the then British Mandate of Palestine, now in Israel), is a key pioneer and theorist of behavioral finance, which integrates economics and cognitive science to explain seemingly irrational risk management behavior in human beings. ...

The scruffies: frames and scripts

Among the critics of McCarthy's approach were his colleagues across the country at MIT. Marvin Minsky, Seymour Papert and Roger Schank were trying to solve problems like "story understanding" and "object recognition" that required a machine to think like person; in order to use ordinary concepts like "chair" or "restaurant" they had to make all the same illogical assumptions that people normally made. Unfortunately, imprecise concepts like these are hard to represent in logic. As Gerald Sussman said, "using precise language to describe essentially imprecise concepts doesn't make them any more precise."^[86] Schank described their "anti-logic" approaches as "scruffy", as opposed to the "neat" paradigms used by McCarthy, Kowalski, Feigenbaum, Newell and Simon.^[87] John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... MapÃºa Institute of Technology (MIT, MapÃºaTech or simply MapÃºa) is a private, non-sectarian, Filipino tertiary institute located in Intramuros, Manila. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Seymour Papert Seymour Papert (born March 1, 1928 Pretoria, South Africa) is an MIT mathematician, computer scientist, and prominent educator. ... Roger Schank is president and CEO of Socratic Arts, and a leading visionary in artificial intelligence. ... Gerald Jay Sussman is the Matsushita Professor of Electrical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT). ... Roger Schank is president and CEO of Socratic Arts, and a leading visionary in artificial intelligence. ... In artificial intelligence, the labels neats and scruffies are used to refer to one of the continuing holy wars in artificial intelligence research. ... In artificial intelligence, the labels neats and scruffies are used to refer to one of the continuing holy wars in artificial intelligence research. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... Robert Anthony Kowalski (Bob Kowalski, born May 15, 1941 in Bridgeport, Connecticut, USA) is an American logician and computer scientist, who has spent much of his career in the UK. He was educated at the University of Chicago, University of Bridgeport (BA in mathematics, 1963), Stanford University (MSc in mathematics... Edward Albert Feigenbaum (born January 20, 1936) is a computer scientist working in the field of artificial intelligence. ... Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ...

In 1975, in a seminal paper, Minsky noted that many of his fellow "scruffy" researchers were using the same kind of tool: a framework that captures all our common sense assumptions about something. For example, if we use the concept of a bird, there is a constellation of facts that immediately come to mind: we might assume that it flies, eats worms and so on. We know these facts are not always true and that deductions using these facts will not be "logical," but these structured sets of assumptions are part of the context of everything we say and think. He called these structures "frames"^[88] Schank used a version of frames he called "scripts" to successfully answer questions about short stories in English.^[89] Many years later Object Oriented Programming would adopt the essential of idea "inheritance" from AI research on frames. Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. ... Frames were proposed by Marvin Minsky in his 1974 article A Framework for Representing Knowledge. ... Roger Schank is president and CEO of Socratic Arts, and a leading visionary in artificial intelligence. ... Scripts were developed in the early AI work by Roger Schank and his research group, and are a method of representing procedural knowledge. ... Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a computer programming paradigm in which a software system is modeled as a set of objects that interact with each other. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Working from the bottom up: David Marr and vision

An entirely different direction was championed by David Marr, who came to MIT from a successful background in neurology to lead the group studying vision. He rejected all symbolic approaches (both McCarthy's logic and Minsky's frames), arguing that we needed to understand the physical machinery of vision from the bottom up (focussing on how neural networks could identify the shapes and locations of surfaces) before any symbolic processing took place. While many of his individual ideas turned out be wrong, his non-symbolic, neurological approach would inspire later generations of researchers such as Hans Moravec and Rodney Brooks. Marr's work was cut short by leukemia in 1980.^[90] David Marr (January 19, 1945 - November 17, 1980) was a British neuroscientist and psychologist. ... MapÃºa Institute of Technology (MIT, MapÃºaTech or simply MapÃºa) is a private, non-sectarian, Filipino tertiary institute located in Intramuros, Manila. ... Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... [edit] People Marvin Minsky, robotics Hyman Minsky (1919-1996) American economist Terri Minsky, American television writer and producer Nikolai Minsky, Russian poet [edit] Things Minskys Burlesque [edit] See also Minsk Categories: | ... Hans Moravec (born November 30, 1948 in Austria) is a research professor at the Robotics Institute (Carnegie Mellon) of Carnegie Mellon University. ... Rodney Allen Brooks (b. ...

Boom 1980-1987

In the 1980s a form of AI program called "expert systems" was adopted by corporations around the world, and, in those same years, the Japanese government aggressively funded AI with its fifth generation computer project. Another encouraging event in the early 1980s was the revival of connectionism in the work of John Hopfield and David Rumelhart. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS) was an initiative by Japans Ministry of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a fifth generation computer (see history of computing hardware) which was supposed to perform much calculation utilizing massive parallelism. ... Connectionism is an approach in the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive science, neuroscience, psychology and philosophy of mind. ... John J. Hopfield is an American scientist most widely known for his invention of associative neural network in 1982. ... David E. Rumelhart (born 1942, Wessington Springs) has made many contributions to the formal analysis of human cognition, working primarily within the frameworks of mathematical psychology, symbolic artificial intelligence, and parallel distributed processing. ...

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

The revival of connectionism

In 1982, physicist John Hopfield was able to prove that a form of neural network (now called a "Hopfield net") could learn and process information in a completely new way. Around the same time, David Rumelhart began to work with a new method for training neural networks called "backpropagation" (it had actually been discovered years earlier by Paul Werbos but had been completely ignored at the time it was published.) These two discoveries revived the field of connectionism which had been abandoned since 1970.^[91] John J. Hopfield is an American scientist most widely known for his invention of associative neural network in 1982. ... A Hopfield net is a form of recurrent artificial neural network invented by John Hopfield. ... David E. Rumelhart (born 1942, Wessington Springs) has made many contributions to the formal analysis of human cognition, working primarily within the frameworks of mathematical psychology, symbolic artificial intelligence, and parallel distributed processing. ... Backpropagation is a supervised learning technique used for training artificial neural networks. ... Paul Werbos is an scientist best known for his 1974 Harvard University Ph. ... Connectionism is an approach in the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive science, neuroscience, psychology and philosophy of mind. ...

The new field was unified and inspired by the appearance of Parallel Distributed Processing in 1986 — a two volume collection of papers edited by Rumelhart and psychologist James McClelland. Neural networks would become commercially successful in the 1990s, when they began to be used as the engines driving programs like optical character recognition and speech recognition.^[92] David E. Rumelhart (born 1942, Wessington Springs) has made many contributions to the formal analysis of human cognition, working primarily within the frameworks of mathematical psychology, symbolic artificial intelligence, and parallel distributed processing. ... James L. (Jay) McClelland (born December 1, 1948) is a Professor of Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience at Carnegie Mellon University. ... Optical character recognition, usually abbreviated to OCR, is a type of computer software designed to translate images of handwritten or typewritten text (usually captured by a scanner) into machine-editable text, or to translate pictures of characters into a standard encoding scheme representing them (e. ... Speech recognition (in many contexts also known as automatic speech recognition, computer speech recognition or erroneously as Voice Recognition) is the process of converting a speech signal to a sequence of words, by means of an algorithm implemented as a computer program. ...

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (854x588, 55 KB)An array of Symbolics Lisp machines c. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (854x588, 55 KB)An array of Symbolics Lisp machines c. ...

The rise of expert systems

An expert system is a program that answers questions or solves problems about a specific domain of knowledge, using logical rules that are derived from the knowledge of experts. The earliest examples were developed by Edward Feigenbaum and his students. Dendral, begun in 1965, identified compounds from spectrometer readings. MYCIN, developed in 1972, diagnosed infectious blood diseases. They demonstrated the feasibility of the approach.^[93] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A production system consists of a collection of productions (rules), a working memory of facts and an algorithm, known as forward chaining, for producing new facts from old. ... Edward Albert Feigenbaum (born January 20, 1936) is a computer scientist working in the field of artificial intelligence. ... Dendral was one of the earliest expert systems. ... Mycin was an expert system developed over 5 or six years in the early 1970s at the Stanford University, written in Lisp, by Edward Shortliffe under Bruce Buchanan and others; it derived from Dendral, but considerably modified it. ...

Expert systems avoided many of the pitfalls of earlier AI programs by restricting themselves to a small domain of specific knowledge (and thus avoiding the commonsense knowledge problem). An expert system could do only one thing, but it did it well. Their simple design made it relatively easy to for programs to be built and then modified once they were in place. All in all, the programs proved to be useful: something that AI had not been able to achieve up to this point.^[94] Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. ...

In 1980, an expert system called XCON was completed at CMU for the Digital Equipment Corporation. It was an enormous success: it was estimated to have saved the company 40 million dollars over just six years of operation. Corporations around the world began to develop and deploy expert systems and by 1985 they were spending over a billion dollars on AI, most of it to in-house AI departments. An industry grew up to support them, including hardware companies like Symbolics and Lisp Machines and software companies such as Teknowledge and Intellicorp.^[95] The R1 (later called XCON, for eXpert CONfigurer) program was a production-rule-based system written in OPS5 by John P. McDermott of CMU in 1978 to assist in the ordering of DECs VAX computer systems by automatically selecting the computer system components based on the customers requirements. ... CMU is an acronym for three different universities: Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Central Michigan University in Mount Pleasant, Michigan Chiang Mai University in Chiangmai, Thailand Central Michigan University claims CMU as a trademark: [1]. A search through the United States Patent and Trademark Offices trademark database will... The DEC logo Digital Equipment Corporation was a pioneering American company in the computer industry. ... Lisp machines were general purpose computers designed (often with hardware support) to efficiently run Lisp as their main language. ...

The money returns: the fifth generation project

In 1981, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry set aside $850 million dollars for the Fifth generation computer project. Their objectives were to write programs and build machines that could carry on conversations, translate languages, interpret pictures, and reason like human beings.^[96] Much to the chagrin of scruffies, they chose Prolog as the primary computer language for the project.^[97] The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS) was an initiative by Japans Ministry of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a fifth generation computer (see history of computing hardware) which was supposed to perform much calculation utilizing massive parallelism. ... The Ministry of International Trade and Industry (通商産業省 Tsūsho-sangyō-shō or MITI) was the single most powerful agency in the Japanese government during the 1950s and 1960s. ... The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS) was an initiative by Japans Ministry of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a fifth generation computer (see history of computing hardware) which was supposed to perform much calculation utilizing massive parallelism. ... In artificial intelligence, the labels neats and scruffies are used to refer to one of the continuing holy wars in artificial intelligence research. ... Prolog is a logic programming language. ...

Other countries responded with new programs of their own: England began the ₤350 million Alvey project and a consortium of American companies formed the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (or "MCC") to fund large scale projects in AI and information technology.^[98] DARPA responded as well, tripling its investment in AI between 1984 and 1988.^[99] The Alvey Program was a British government sponsored research program in information technology that ran from 1983 to 1987. ... The MCC headquarters building in Austin, Texas Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC) was the first, and is now one of the largest, United States computer industry research and development consortia. ... The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. ...

Bust: the second AI winter 1987-2000

At the 1984 annual meeting of AAAI (The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence), a public debate was held on the topic of "AI Winter", a termed coined in that year to describe the chain reaction of pessimism in the AI community, followed by pessimism in the press, followed by a severe cutback in funding, followed by the end of serious research. Researchers who had survived the winter of the late 70s, such as Roger Schank and Marvin Minsky warned the business community that enthusiasm for expert systems had spiraled out of control, and that disappointment would certainly follow. They were right. As the 80's came to a close, once again AI had slipped into disrepute.^[100] The American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) is a United States organization dedicated to advancing understanding of artificial intelligence (AI). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Roger Schank is president and CEO of Socratic Arts, and a leading visionary in artificial intelligence. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ...

The collapse was in the perception of AI by government agencies and investors. The field continued to make advances despite the criticism. Douglas Lenat attempted began a multi-decade project to encode commonsense knowledge. Rodney Brooks and Hans Moravec, researchers from the related field of robotics, argued for an entirely new approach to artificial intelligence. Douglas B. Lenat (born in 1950) is the CEO of Cycorp, Inc. ... Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. ... Rodney Allen Brooks (b. ... Hans Moravec (born November 30, 1948 in Austria) is a research professor at the Robotics Institute (Carnegie Mellon) of Carnegie Mellon University. ... Robotics is the science and technology of robots, their design, manufacture, and application. ...

The fall of expert systems

The first indication of a change in weather was the sudden collapse of the market for specialized AI hardware in 1987. Desktop computers from Apple and IBM had been steadily gaining speed and power and in 1987 they became more powerful than the more expensive Lisp machines made by Symbolics and others. There was no longer a good reason to buy them. An entire industry worth half a billion dollars was demolished overnight.^[101] Apple Inc. ... IBM redirects here. ... Lisp machines were general purpose computers designed (often with hardware support) to efficiently run Lisp as their main language. ...

Eventually the earliest successful expert systems, such as XCON, proved too expensive to maintain. They were difficult to update, they could not learn, they were "brittle" (i.e., they could made grotesque mistakes when given unusual inputs), and they fell prey to problems (such as the qualification problem) that had been identified years earlier. Expert systems proved useful, but only in a few special contexts.^[102] The R1 (later called XCON, for eXpert CONfigurer) program was a production-rule-based system written in OPS5 by John P. McDermott of CMU in 1978 to assist in the ordering of DECs VAX computer systems by automatically selecting the computer system components based on the customers requirements. ... In philosophy and AI, the qualification problem is concerned with the impossibility of listing all the preconditions required for a real-world action to have its intended effect. ...

The fizzle of the fifth generation

By 1991, the impressive list of goals penned in 1981 had not been met. Indeed, some of them, like "carry on a casual conversation" had not been met in 2001, and may not be met by 2011. As with other AI projects, expectations had run much higher than what was actually possible.^[103]

New directions in the late 80s

Cyc

In 1988, Doug Lenat made this announcement: "I would like to present a surprisingly compact, powerful, elegant set of reasoning methods that form a set of first principles which explain creativity, humor and common sense reasoning ... but, sadly, I don't believe they exist. So, instead, this paper will tell you about Cyc, the massive knowledge base project that we've been working on at MCC for the last four years."^[104] Lenat wanted to attack the commonsense knowledge problem directly, by creating a massive database that would contain all the mundane facts that the average person knows. He believed, as many others do, that there is no shortcut -- the only way for machines to know the meaning of the concepts we use is to teach them, one concept at a time, by hand. The project was originally expected to take only two person-centuries, but all indications are it will take much longer.^[105] Douglas B. Lenat (born in 1950) is the CEO of Cycorp, Inc. ... Cyc is an artificial intelligence project that attempts to assemble a comprehensive ontology and database of everyday common sense knowledge, with the goal of enabling AI applications to perform human-like reasoning. ... The MCC headquarters building in Austin, Texas Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC) was the first, and is now one of the largest, United States computer industry research and development consortia. ... Douglas B. Lenat (born in 1950) is the CEO of Cycorp, Inc. ... Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. ... A man-hour or person-hour[1], [2] is the amount of work performed by an average worker in one hour. ...

The importance of having a body

In the late 80s, a number of researchers advocated a completely new approach to artificial intelligence, based on robotics. They believed that, to show real intelligence, a machine needs to have a body — it needs to perceive, move, survive and deal with the world. They argued that these sensorimotor skills are essential to higher level skills like commonsense reasoning and that abstract reasoning was actually the least interesting or important human skill (see Moravec's paradox) . They advocated building intelligence "from the bottom up." Developed first by Jean Piaget, the theory of cognitive development is based on schemas, or schemes of how one perceives the world, in critical periods -- times during which one is particularly susceptible to certain information. ... Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. ... Computers are at their worst trying to do the things most natural to humans. ...

Hans Moravec wrote in 1988 "I am confident that this bottom-up route to artificial intelligence will one date meet the traditional top-down route more than half way, ready to provide the real world competence and the commonsense knowledge that has been so frustratingly elusive in reasoning programs. Fully intelligent machines will result when the metaphorical golden spike is driven uniting the two efforts."^[106] Hans Moravec (born November 30, 1948 in Austria) is a research professor at the Robotics Institute (Carnegie Mellon) of Carnegie Mellon University. ... Ex-Virginia and Truckee Railroad No. ...

In a 1990 paper Elephants Don't Play Chess, robotics researcher Rodney Brooks took direct aim at the physical symbol system hypothesis, arguing that symbols are not always necessary since "the world is it own best model. It is always exactly up to date. It always has every detail there is to be known. The trick is to sense it appropriately and often enough."^[107] His strategy was to build independent modules that deal directly with the world then add more modules above this layer to implement higher goals. He called this a subsumption architecture. Rodney Allen Brooks (b. ... The physical symbol system hypothesis was formulated by Newell and Simon (1963) as the result of success of GPS (General Problem Solver) and subsequent programs as models of cognition. ... Subsumption architecture is an AI concept originating from behavior based robotics. ...

AI 1993-Present

Image File history File links Garry Kasparov playing Deep Blue in 1997. ... Image File history File links Garry Kasparov playing Deep Blue in 1997. ... Garry Kimovich Kasparov (IPA: ; Russian: ) (born April 13, 1963, in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR) (now Azerbaijan) is a Russian chess grandmaster, and former World Chess Champion. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Milestones and Moore's Law

On 11 May 1997, Deep Blue became the first computer Chess-playing system to beat a reigning world Chess champion, Gary Kasparov. In 1995 the VaMP car of Ernst Dickmanns drove up to 158 km in fast traffic without human intervention, reaching speeds up to 180 km/h. At the turn of the millennium the first sophisticated walking humanoid robots were built. After many years of effort, such milestones were finally achieved. These successes were not due to some revolutionary new paradigm, but mostly on the tedious application of engineering skill and on the tremendous power of computers today. In fact, Deep Blue's computer was a 10 million times faster than the Ferranti Mark I that Christopher Strachey taught to play chess in 1951.^[108] Thanks to Moore's law, the fundamental problem of "raw computer power" was slowly being overcome. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Garry Kimovich Kasparov (Гарри Кимович Каспаров) (born April 13, 1963) is a chess grandmaster and the strongest chess player in the world. ... The word vamp, Vamp, or VAMP can mean any of the following: Vamp (music), a repeating figure. ... Ernst Dieter Dickmanns (born 1936), a former professor at the UniversitÃ¤t der Bundeswehr MÃ¼nchen in Munich (1975 - 2001), is the pioneer of dynamic machine vision and of Driverless cars. ... Hondas ASIMO, an example of a humanoid robot A humanoid robot is a robot with its overall appearance based on that of the human body. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Ferranti Mark I was the second commercially available general-purpose computer (first being the Z4 computer), with the first machine delivered in February 1951, just beating the UNIVAC I. The machine was built by Ferranti of the United Kingdom. ... Christopher Strachey (1916â€“1975) was a British computer scientist. ... Gordon Moores original graph from 1965 Growth of transistor counts for Intel processors (dots) and Moores Law (upper line=18 months; lower line=24 months) For the observation regarding information retrieval, see Mooers Law. ...

AI goes underground

As computer power increased, algorithms originally developed by AI researchers began to appear as parts of larger systems. Although AI research had not yet succeeded in giving a machine human equivalent intelligence, it had solved a lot of very difficult problems and their solutions proved to be useful throughout the technology industry^[109], such as machine translation, data mining, industrial robotics, speech recognition^[110], banking software^[111], medical diagnosis^[111] and Google's search engine^[112] to name a few. The field of AI receives little or no credit for these successes, because the are no longer considered a part of AI: they have been reduced to the status of just another item in the tool chest of computer science. Nick Rostrom explains "A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general applications, often without being called AI because once something becomes useful enough and common enough it's not labeled AI anymore."^[113] This is called the "AI effect" and is expressed most succinctly by Tesler's Theorem: "AI is whatever hasn't been done yet."^[114] Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the acronym MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. ... Data mining has been defined as the nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from data [1] and the science of extracting useful information from large data sets or databases [2]. Data mining involves sorting through large amounts of data and picking out relevant information. ... An industrial robot is officially defined by ISO (Standard 8373:1994, Manipulating Industrial Robots – Vocabulary) as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes. ... Speech recognition (in many contexts also known as automatic speech recognition, computer speech recognition or erroneously as Voice Recognition) is the process of converting a speech signal to a sequence of words, by means of an algorithm implemented as a computer program. ... This article is about the corporation. ... The AI effect is a term for the tendency for individuals to discount advances in artificial intelligence after the fact. ... The AI effect refers to peoples inclination to discount advances in artificial intelligence after theyve been accomplished, as an apparent consequence of coming to understand how that aspect of intelligence works. ...

In fact, many researchers in AI today deliberately call their work by other names, such as informatics, knowledge-based systems or computational intelligence. In part, this may be because they considered their field to be fundamentally different than AI, but, more often than many would like to admit, the new names help to procure funding. As the New York Times reports: "Computer scientists and software engineers avoided the term artificial intelligence for fear of being viewed as wild-eyed dreamers."^[115] In some circles, the name "artificial intelligence" now carries a stigma of empty promises and failed objectives. The AI winter continues to haunt AI research. Informatics includes the science of information, the practice of information processing, and the engineering of information systems. ... According to FOLDOC, a knowledge-based system is a program for extending and/or querying a knowledge base. ... Computational intelligence (CI) is a branch of artificial intelligence. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

By the 21st century, the AI effect and the legacy of AI winter had fragmented the field into a number of related disciplines, all pursuing goals that were once part of AI. Marvin Minsky complained in 2006 that the central problems, like commonsense reasoning, were being neglected, while the majority of researchers pursued things like commercial applications of neural nets or genetic algorithms.^[116] Others, such as Ray Kurzweil or Hans Moravec, counseled that researchers should be patient and that the central problems would become easy once the peripheral problems had been solved and the raw power of computers had soared far beyond human equivalence.^[117] The AI effect is a term for the tendency for individuals to discount advances in artificial intelligence after the fact. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. ... A neural network is an interconnected group of neurons. ... A genetic algorithm (GA) is an algorithm used to find approximate solutions to difficult-to-solve problems through application of the principles of evolutionary biology to computer science. ... Dr. Raymond Kurzweil (born February 12, 1948) is a pioneer in the fields of optical character recognition (OCR), text-to-speech synthesis, speech recognition technology, and electronic musical keyboards. ... Hans Moravec (born November 30, 1948 in Austria) is a research professor at the Robotics Institute (Carnegie Mellon) of Carnegie Mellon University. ...

Notes

^ Crevier 1993, pp. 4-7 (the founders of AI) and Crevier 1993, pp. 108-109 (their predictions)
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 64-65,115-117,197-208
^ Kurzweil 2005
^ See below
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 95-96
^ Buchanan 2005, p. 50 (the Golem), Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 939 (Hephaestus, Čapek)
^ A Thirteenth Century Programmable Robot
^ Crevier 1993, p. 1
^ Levitt 2000
^ Buchanan 2005, p. 53
^ Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 6 and Buchanan 2005, p. 43
^ Hobbes 1651, chapter 5
^ Berlinski 2000, p. 12, Buchanan 2005, p. 43, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 6
^ Berlinski 2000
^ Crevier 1993, p. 190-196,61 and Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 7-8
^ Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 14-15
^ The starting and ending dates of the sections in this article are adopted from Crevier 1993 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 16-27. Themes, trends and projects are treated in the period that the most important work was done.
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 3-4,48-50 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 16-17
^ Crevier 1993, p. 30, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 15-16 and see also Pitts & McCullough 1943
^ Moravec 1988, p. 3, Crevier 1993, pp. 27-28 and Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 15,940
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 34-35 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 22-25
^ See "A Brief History of Computing" at AlanTuring.net.
^ Samuel 1959, Crevier 1993, p. 58, Moravec 1988, p. 8
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 44-46 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17
^ Crevier 1993, p. 46 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17
^ Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 947,952
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 39-41 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17
^ Crevier 1993, p. 48. The program proposal itself is at A Proposal for The Dartmouth Summer Conference on Artificial Intelligence. The physical symbol system position would later be named and popularized by Newell and Simon in their paper on GPS. (Newell & Simon 1963).
^ Crevier writes of McCarthy "He lays no claim to having coined the phrase and admits that it may have been used casually before." (Crevier 1993, p. 50) However, McCarthy states unequivocally "I came up with the term" in a c|net interview. (See Getting Machines to Think Like Us.)
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 49 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 25
^ Russell and Norvig write "it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything remotely clever." Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 18
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 52-107, Moravec 1988, p. 9 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 18-21.
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 108-109 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21.
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 52-107, Moravec 1988, p. 9
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 59-62 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 18
^ Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 59-61
^ Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 21-22
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 51-58,65-66 and Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 18-19
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 95-96, Moravec 1988, pp. 14-15
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 76-79 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 19.
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 79-83
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 164-172
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 134-139
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 83-102, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 19 and see also Micro-World AI
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 84-102 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 19
^ Simon & Newell 1958, p. 7-8 quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 108. See also Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21
^ Simon 1965, p. 96 quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 109
^ Minsky 1967, p. 2 quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 109
^ Minsky strongly believes he was misquoted. See Crevier 1993, p. 96 and Darrach 1970.
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 64-65
^ Crevier 1993, p. 94
^ Crevier 1993, p. 51
^ Crevier 1993, p. 65
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 68-71 and Turkle 1984
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 100-144 and Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 21-22
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 163-196
^ Crevier 1993, p. 146
^ Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 20-21
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 146-148, see also Buchanan 2005, p. 56: "Early programs were necessarily limited in scope by the size and speed of memory"
^ Moravec 1976. McCarthy has always disagreed with Moravec, back to their early days together at SAIL. He states "I would say that 50 years ago, the machine capability was much too small, but by 30 years ago, machine capability wasn't the real problem." in Getting machines to think like us
^ Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 9,21-22
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 113-114, Moravec 1988, p. 13, Lenat 1988 (Introduction) and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21
^ Moravec 1988, pp. 15-16
^ McCarthy & Hayes 1969, Crevier 1993, pp. 117-119
^ Crevier 1993, p. 110, NRC 1999 under "Success in Speech Recognition" and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21.
^ Crevier 1993, p. 117, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 22. and also see Howe, J. "Artificial Intelligence at Edinburgh University : a Perspective", November 1994, retrieved August 2007.
^ Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 22. John McCarthy wrote in response that "the combinatorial explosion problem has been recognized in AI from the beginning" in Review of Lighthill report
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 115-116
^ Crevier 1993, p. 117
^ Crevier 1993, p. 115
^ NRC 1999 under "Shift to Applied Research Increases Investment."
^ Lucas 1961, Hofstadter 1980, pp. 471-477, Crevier 1993, p. 22
^ Dreyfus 1972, Crevier 1993, pp. 120-132
^ Searle 1980, Crevier 1993, pp. 269-271
^ Crevier 1993, p. 143
^ Crevier 1993, p. 122
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 123
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 132-144 and Weizenbaum 1976
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 102-105 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 22
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 190-192
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 193-196
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 145-149,258-63
^ Lakoff 1987
^ An early example of McCathy's position was in the journal Science where he said "This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real" (see Science at Google Books), and he recently reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he said "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence" (see McCarthy's presentation at AI@50)
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 175
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 168
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 172-173, 246
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 170-172 and and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 24
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 183-190
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 214-215 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 25
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 215-216 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 25
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 148-159 and Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 22-23
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 158-159 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 23-24.
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 161-162,197-203 and and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 24
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 211, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 24 and see also Feigenbaum & McCorduck 1983
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 195
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 240 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 25
^ NRC 1999 under "Shift to Applied Research Increases Investment"
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 203
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 209-210
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 204-208
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 212
^ Lenat 1989, pp. xvii
^ Crevier 1993, pp. 239-243, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 363-365 and Lenat 1989
^ Moravec 1988, p. 20
^ Brooks 1990, p. 3
^ Cycle time of Ferranti Mark I was 1.2 milliseconds, which is arguably equivalent to about 833 flops. Deep Blue ran at 11.38 gigaflops (and this does not even take into account Deep Blue's special-purpose hardware for chess). Very approximately, these differ by a factor of 10^7.
^ NRC 1999 under "Artificial Intelligence in the 90s"
^ For the new state of the art in AI based speech recognition, see Are You Talking to Me?
^ ^a ^b "AI-inspired systems were already integral to many everyday technologies such as internet search engines, bank software for processing transactions and in medical diagnosis." Nick Rostrom, AI set to exceed human brain power CNN.com (July 26, 2006)
^ For the use of AI at Google, see Google's man behind the curtain, Google backs character recognition and Spying an intelligent search engine.
^ AI set to exceed human brain power CNN.com (July 26, 2006)
^ As quoted in Hofstadter 1979:601. Larry Tesler actually feels he was misquoted: see his note at the bottom of Larry Tesler's Resume
^ Markoff, John. "Behind Artificial Intelligence, a Squadron of Bright Real People", The New York Times, 2005-10-14. Retrieved on 2007-07-30.
^ Marvin Minsky, in It's 2001: "So the question is why we didn't get HAL in 2001? I think the answer is I believe we could have. I once went to an international conference on neural net[s]. There were 40 thousand registrants ... but ... if you had an international conference, for example, on using multiple representations for common sense reasoning, I've only been able to find 6 or 7 people in the whole world."
^ Kurzweill 2005 and Moravec 1976

The physical symbol system hypothesis was formulated by Newell and Simon (1963) as the result of success of GPS (General Problem Solver) and subsequent programs as models of cognition. ... Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation and at Carnegie-Mellonâ€™s School of Computer Science. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ... General Problem Solver (GPS) was a computer program created in 1957 by Herbert Simon and Allen Newell to build a universal problem solver machine. ... Daniel Crevier (born 1947) is a Canadian entrepreneur and artificial intelligence and image processing researcher. ... John McCarthy may be: Government: John McCarthy (1857â€“1943), American politician Science: John McCarthy (born 1927), American computer scientist John McCarthy (born 1953), American phonologist Sports: John McCarthy, Mixed martial arts referee Johnny McCarthy, a NBA player Johnny McCarthy, a MLB first baseman John McCarthy, a former Australian rules footballer... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... A gaff-rigged cutter flying a mainsail, staysail and genoa jib For other uses, see Sail (disambiguation). ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... Science is the journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). ... The 2006 AI@50 logo AI@50, which is formally known as the Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence Conference: The Next Fifty Years (July 13-15, 2006), commemorated the 50th anniversary of the Dartmouth Conference which effectively inaugurated the history of artificial intelligence. ... The Ferranti Mark I was the second commercially available general-purpose computer (first being the Z4 computer), with the first machine delivered in February 1951, just beating the UNIVAC I. The machine was built by Ferranti of the United Kingdom. ... In computing, FLOPS (or flops) is an acronym meaning FLoating point Operations Per Second. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... For commercial failures, see list of commercial failures. ... Lawrence G. (Larry) Tesler (born April 24, 1945) is a computer scientist working in the field of human-computer interaction. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 211th day of the year (212th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ...

References

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Daniel Crevier (born 1947) is a Canadian entrepreneur and artificial intelligence and image processing researcher. ...

Other sources

David Berlinski (born 1942 in New York City) is an educator and author of popular books on mathematics, and a notable proponent of intelligent design, author of numerous articles on the topic. ... Rodney Allen Brooks (b. ... Hubert Dreyfus (born 1929) is a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. ... Book cover of the 1979 paperback edition What Computers Cant Do: The Limits of Artificial Intelligence (ISBN 0-06-090613-8) is a controversial work on artificial intelligence, authored by Hubert Dreyfus, a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. ... Edward Albert Feigenbaum (born January 20, 1936) is a computer scientist working in the field of artificial intelligence. ... This article is about the philosopher Thomas Hobbes. ... Destruction of Leviathan. 1865 engraving by Gustave DorÃ©. Leviathan (Hebrew: , Standard Tiberian ; Twisted; coiled) was a Biblical sea monster referred to in the Old Testament (Psalm 74:13-14; Job 41; Isaiah 27:1). ... Douglas Richard Hofstadter (born February 15, 1945) is an American academic. ... GÃ¶del, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid: A metaphorical fugue on minds and machines in the spirit of Lewis Carroll (commonly GEB) is a Pulitzer Prize (1980)-winning book by Douglas Hofstadter, published in 1979 by Basic Books. ... Dr. Raymond Kurzweil (born February 12, 1948) is a pioneer in the fields of optical character recognition (OCR), text-to-speech synthesis, speech recognition technology, and electronic musical keyboards. ... Cover of the book The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology (Viking Penguin, ISBN 0-670-03384-7) is a 2005 update of Raymond Kurzweils 1999 book, The Age of Spiritual Machines and his 1987 book The Age of Intelligent Machines. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Douglas B. Lenat (born in 1950) is the CEO of Cycorp, Inc. ... Sir Michael James Lighthill FRS (23 January 1924 - 17 July 1998) was a British applied mathematician, known for his pioneering work in the field of Aeroacoustics. ... John Randolph Lucas (born 18 June 1929) is a British philosopher. ... John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, sometimes known affectionately as Uncle John McCarthy), is a prominent computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927), sometimes affectionately known as Old Man Minsky, is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MITs AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. ... The Society of Mind is a theory of human intelligence developed by Marvin Minsky. ... Hans Moravec (born November 30, 1948 in Austria) is a research professor at the Robotics Institute (Carnegie Mellon) of Carnegie Mellon University. ... Hans Moravec (born November 30, 1948 in Austria) is a research professor at the Robotics Institute (Carnegie Mellon) of Carnegie Mellon University. ... -1... Arthur L. Samuel (b. ... John Rogers Searle (born July 31, 1932 in Denver, Colorado) is the Slusser Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, and is noted for contributions to the philosophy of language, philosophy of mind and consciousness, on the characteristics of socially constructed versus physical realities, and on practical reason. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ... Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation and at Carnegie-Mellonâ€™s School of Computer Science. ... Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 â€“ February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, computer science, public administration, economics, management, and philosophy of science and a professor, most notably, at Carnegie Mellon University. ... Joseph Weizenbaum. ...

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