Democracy is a political system in which all the members of the society have equal access to power. The history of democracy traces back from its origins in ancient world to its re-emergence and rise from the 17th century to the present day. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000-5,500 years, with cuneiform possibly being the oldest form of writing. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ...

[edit] Antiquity

[edit] Pre-historic origins

Although it is tempting to assume that democracy was created in one particular place and time —identified as Ancient Athens about the year 508 BC^[1][2]— evidence suggests that democratic government, in a broad sense, existed in several areas of the world well before the turn of the 5th century.^[3] A view of the Acropolis of Athens during the Ottoman period, showing the buildings which were removed at the time of independence The history of Athens is the longest of any city in Europe: Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least 3,000 years. ...

Within this broad sense it is plausible to assume that democracy in one form or another arises naturally in any well-bounded group, such as a tribe. The scholars name this as tribalism or primitive democracy. The primitive democracy is identified in small communities or villages when the following take place: face-to-face discussion in the village council or a headman whose decisions are supported by village elders or other cooperative modes of government.^[4] http://www. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Nevertheless, on larger scale sharper contrasts arise when the village and the city are examined as political communities. In urban governments all other forms of rule namely monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, and oligarchy have flourished.^[3] For the documentary series, see Monarchy (TV series). ... This page is about the religious concept of Tyranny. ... Aristocrat redirects here. ... Look up Oligarchy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

[edit] Ancient Sparta

For more details on this topic, see Sparta.

Bas-relief of Lycurgus, one of 23 great lawgivers depicted in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives.

Ancient Greece in its early period was a loose collection of independent city states, called poleis. Many of these poleis were oligarchies.^[5] The most prominent Greek oligarchy, and the state with which democratic Athens is most often and most fruitfully compared, was Sparta. Yet Sparta, in its rejection of private wealth as a primary social differentiator, was a peculiar kind of oligarchy,^[6] and some scholars note its resemblance with democracy.^[1][7][8] In Spartan government, the share of political power was divided between four bodies: two Spartan Kings (monarchy), gerousia (Counsil of Gerontes (Elders), including the two kings), the ephors (representatives to oversee the Kings) and finally the apella (assembly of Spartans). For modern day Sparta, see Sparti (municipality). ... Image File history File links Lycurgus_bas-relief_in_the_U.S._House_of_Representatives_chamber. ... Image File history File links Lycurgus_bas-relief_in_the_U.S._House_of_Representatives_chamber. ... The House of Representatives is the larger of two houses that make up the U.S. Congress, the other being the United States Senate. ... A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... A polis (πολις) — plural: poleis (πολεις) — is a city, or a city-state. ... Look up Oligarchy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Sparta was an important Greek city-state in the Peloponnesus. ... The Gerousia was the Spartan senate. ... An ephor was an official of ancient Sparta. ... The Apella was the name of the popular assembly in the Ancient Greek city-state of Sparta. ...

The two Kings served as the head of the government and they were ruling simultaneously. They were coming from two separate lines, but the dual kingship was diluting the accessible power of the executive office. The kings shared their judicial functions with other members of gerousia. The members of gerousia, had to be over the age of 60 and were elected for life. In theory any Spartan over that age could stand, however in practice they were selected from wealthy, aristocratic families. The gerousia possessed the crucial of legislating initiative. Apella, the most democratic element, was the assembly, where Spartans, above the age of 30, were electing the members of gerousia, the ephors and accepting or rejecting gerousia's proposals. Finally, the five ephors were Spartans chosen in apella from the poorest social layers for overseeing the actions of the Kings and if necessary disposing them.^[9][10]

The creator of the Spartan system of rule was the legendary lawgiver, Lycurgus. He is associated with the drastic reforms that were instituted in Sparta after the revolt of the helots in the second half of the 7th century BC. In order to prevent another helot revolt, Lycurgus devised the highly militarized communal system that made Sparta unique among the city-states of Greece. All his reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military fitness and austerity. It is also probable that Lycurgus also delineated the powers of the two traditional organs of the Spartan government, the gerousia and the apella.^[11] // Lycurgus Lycurgus (Greek: , Lukoûrgos; 700 BC?–630 BC) was the legendary lawgiver of Sparta, who established the military-oriented reformation of Spartan society in accordance with the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi. ... The Helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were the serfs of Sparta. ... The Gerousia was the Spartan senate. ... The Apella was the name of the popular assembly in the Ancient Greek city-state of Sparta. ...

The reforms of Lycurgus, were written as a list of rules/laws, called Great Rhetra, making it the world's first written constitution.^[12] In the following centuries Sparta became, a military superpower, and its system of rule was admired throughout the Greek world for its political stability.^[10] In particular, the concept of equality played important role in the Spartan society. The Spartan referred to themselves as όμοιοι (Homoioi, men of equal status). This was also reflected on the Spartan public educational system, agoge, where all citizens irrespectively of wealth or status had the same education.^[8] This was admired almost universally by contemporaries, from historians such as Herodotus and Xenophon to philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. In addition the Spartan women, unlikely elsewhere, enjoyed "every kind of luxury and intemperance" with elementary rights such as the right to inheritance, property ownership and public education.^[9] Overall the Spartans were remarkably free in criticism of their Kings and they were able to depose and exile them. However, despite these democratic elements in the Spartan constitution there are two main criticisms, and thus classifying Sparta as an oligarchy. First, the individual freedom was restricted, since as Plutarch writes "no man was allowed to live as he wished", but as in a "military camp" all were engaged in the public service of their polis. And second, gerousia effectively maintained the biggest share of power between the different governmental bodies.^[12] The agoge was a rigorous education and training regime undergone by all Spartan citizens (with the exception of future kings [1]). It involved separation from the family, cultivation of loyalty to ones group, loving mentorship, military training, hunting, dance and social preparation. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: HÄ“ródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC (c. ... Xenophon, Greek historian Xenophon (In Greek , ca. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ...

The political stability of Sparta also meant that no significant changes in the constitution were made, but the oligarchic elements of Sparta became stronger, especially after the influx of gold and silver from the victories in the Persian Wars.^[12] In addition, Athens, after the Persian Wars, was becoming the hegemonic power in the Greek world and disagreements between Sparta and Athens over the supremacy emerged. These lead to a series of armed conflicts, known as the Peloponnesian War with Sparta prevailing at the end. The war greatly exhausted the two poleis and Sparta was in turn humbled by Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC. It was all brought to an end a few years later, when Philip II of Macedon conquered the rest of Greece. The Greco-Persian Wars or Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Greek world and the Persian Empire that started about 500 BC and lasted until 448 BC. The term can also refer to the continual warfare of the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire against the Parthians and... The Greco-Persian Wars or Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Greek world and the Persian Empire that started about 500 BC and lasted until 448 BC. The term can also refer to the continual warfare of the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire against the Parthians and... Athenian War redirects here. ... Two important places in antiquity were called Thebes: Thebes, Greece – Thebes of the Seven Gates; one-time capital of Boeotia. ... Combatants Thebes Sparta Commanders Epaminondas Cleombrotus I † Strength 6,000–7,000 10,000–11,000 Casualties Unknown About 2,000 The Battle of Leuctra is a battle fought between the Thebans and the Spartans and their allies in the neighbourhood of Leuctra, a village in Boeotia in the territory... Philip II of Macedon: victory medal (niketerion) struck in Tarsus, 2nd c. ...

[edit] Athenian Democracy

For more details on this topic, see Athenian democracy.

Athens, is the first recorded and the most important democracy of antiquity.^[1][12] Athens emerged in the 7th century BC, like many other poleis, with a dominating powerful aristocracy.^[9] However, this domination lead to exploitation causing significant economic, political, and social problems. These problems, were enhanced early in the sixth century, and as "the many were enslaved to few, the people rose against the notables".^[12] Many traditional aristocracies, at the same period in the Greek world, were disrupted by popular revolutions, like Sparta in the second half of the 7th century BC. Sparta's constitutional reforms by Lycurgus, introduced a hoplite state and showed how inherited governments can be changed and lead to military victory.^[12] After a period of unrest between the rich and the poor, the Athenians of all classes turned to Solon for acting as a mediator between rival factions, and reaching to a generally satisfactory solution of their problems.^[9][13] Athenian democracy (sometimes called Direct democracy) developed in the Greek city-state of Athens. ... A polis (πολις) — plural: poleis (πολεις) — is a city, or a city-state. ... The hoplite was a heavy infantryman that was the central focus of warfare in Ancient Greece. ... For other uses, see Solon (disambiguation). ...

[edit] Solon and the foundations of democracy

For more details on this topic, see Solon.

Bas-relief of Solon, one of 23 great lawgivers depicted in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives.

Solon, an Athenian of noble descent but moderate means, was a Lyric poet and later a lawmaker; Plutarch placed him as one of the Seven Sages of the ancient world.^[13] Solon attempted to satisfy all sides by alleviating the suffering of the poor majority without removing all the privileges of the rich minority.^[14] For other uses, see Solon (disambiguation). ... The House of Representatives is the larger of two houses that make up the U.S. Congress, the other being the United States Senate. ... The Seven Sages (of Greece) (c. ...

Solon divided the Athenians, into four property classes, with different rights and duties for each. As the Rhetra did in the Lycurgian Sparta, Solon formalized the composition and functions of the governmental bodies. Now, all citizens were entitled to attend the Ecclesia (Assembly) and vote. Ecclesia became, in principle, the sovereign body, entitled to pass laws and decrees, elect officials, and hear appeals from the most important decisions of the courts.^[13] All but those in the poorest group might serve, a year at a time, on a new Boule of 400, which was to prepare business for Ecclesia. The higher governmental posts, archons (magistrates), were reserved for citizens of the top two income groups. The retired archons were becoming members of Areopagus (Council of the Hill of Ares), and like Gerousia in Sparta, it was able to check improper actions of the newly powerful Ecclesia. Solon created a mixed timocratic and democratic system of institutions.^[9][12] The ecclesia or ekklesia (Greek έκκλησία) was the principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens. ... In the cities (Gr. ... For other uses, see Archon (disambiguation). ... This article concerns the Classical judicial body. ... Constitutional theory defines a timocracy as either: a state where only property owners may participate in government; or a government where rulers are selected and perpetuated based on the degree of honour they hold relative to others in their society, peers and the ruling class. ... For other uses, see Democracy (disambiguation) and Democratic Party. ...

Overall, the reforms of the lawgiver Solon in 594 BC, devised to avert the political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens and gave Athens its first comprehensive code of law. The constitutional reforms eliminated enslavement of Athenians by Athenians, established rules for legal redress against over-reaching aristocratic archons, and assigned political privileges on the basis of productive wealth rather than noble birth. Some of his reforms failed in the short term, yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy.^[14]

[edit] Democracy under Cleisthenes and Pericles

See also: Cleisthenes, Ephialtes, and Pericles

The speaker's platform in the Pnyx, in Athens, the meeting place of the People of Athens.

Even though the Solonian reorganization of the constitution improved the economic position of the Athenian lower classes, it did not eliminated the bitter aristocratic contentions for control of the archonship, the chief executive post. Peisistratus became tyrant of Athens for three times and remained in power until his death in 527 BC. His sons Hippias and Hipparchus succeeded him.^[15] Cleisthenes (also Clisthenes or Kleisthenes) was a noble Athenian of the accursed Alcmeonidate family. ... See the Aloadae article for information about the giant Ephialtes of Greek mythology For Ephialtes, the prominent Athenian politician see Ephialtes of Athens Ephialtes (Greek: ) was the son of Eurydemus of Malis. ... For the Shakespeare play, see Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ... The speakers platform at the Pnyx, with the Acropolis in the background. ... In Greek mythology, Pisistratus (also transliterated as Peisístratos) was a friend of Telemachus and a son of Nestor. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Hippias can also refer to a son of Pisistratus and a tyrant of Athens. ... For the Athenian tyrant, see Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus). ...

After the fall of tyranny and before the year 508–507 was over, Cleisthenes proposed a complete reform of the system of government, which later was approved by the popular Ecclesia.^[16] Cleisthenes reorganized the population into ten tribes, with the aim to change the basis of political organization from the family loyalties to political ones,^[9] and improve the army's organization.^[12] He also introduced the principle of equality of rights for all, isonomia^[16], by expanding the access to power to more citizens.^[12] During this period where, the word "democracy" (Greek: δημοκρατία - "rule by the people") was first used by the Athenians to define their new system of government.^[17] Cleisthenes (also Clisthenes or Kleisthenes) was a noble Athenian of the accursed Alcmeonidate family. ... Isonomia (equal political rights[1][2]) from the Greek ισο iso, equal, and νομος nomos, usage, custom[1] is said to be the historical and philosophical foundation of liberty, justice, and democracy. ...

In the next generation, Athens entered in its Golden Age by becoming a great center of literature and art. The victories in Persian Wars encouraged the poorest Athenians to demand a greater say in the running of their city. In the late 460s Ephialtes and Pericles presided over a radicalization of power that shifted the balance decisively to the poorest sections of society, by passing laws, which severely limiting the powers of the Council of the Areopagus and allow thetes (Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Pericles was distinguished as its greatest democratic leader, even though he has been accused of running a political machine. In the following passage, Thucydides recorded Pericles, in the funeral oration, describing the Athenian system of rule: The Age of Pericles is the term used to denote the historical period in Ancient Greece lasting roughly from the end of the Persian Wars to either the death of Pericles or the end of the Peloponnesian War. ... Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in the Greek language until the 4th century AD. // Wikisource has original text related to this article: an essay on the transition to written literature in Greece This period of Greek literature stretches from Homer until the 4th century BC and the rise... The Charioteer of Delphi, Delphi Archaeological Museum. ... The Greco-Persian Wars or Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Greek world and the Persian Empire that started about 500 BC and lasted until 448 BC. The term can also refer to the continual warfare of the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire against the Parthians and... For Ephialtes, the son of Eurydemus of Malis, see Ephialtes Ephialtes (Greek: ) was leader of the democratic movement and of the homonymous party in Athens. ... For the Shakespeare play, see Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ... This article concerns the Classical judicial body. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      Constitutional theory defines a timocracy as either: a state where only property owners may participate in government; or a government where rulers are selected and perpetuated based on the degree of honour they hold relative to others in... For the Shakespeare play, see Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ... In this 1899 cartoon from Puck, all of New York City politics revolves around boss Richard Croker A political machine is an unofficial system of a political organization based on patronage, the spoils system, behind-the-scenes control, and longstanding political ties within the structure of a representative democracy. ...

The Athenian democracy of Cleisthenes and Pericles, was based on freedom, through the reforms of Solon, and isonomia, introduced by Cleisthenes and later expanded by Ephialtes and Pericles. To preserve these principles the Athenians used lot for selecting officials. Lot's rationale was to ensure all citizens were "equally" qualified for office, and to avoid any corruption allotment machines were used.^[19] Moreover, in most positions chosen by lot, Athenian citizens could not be selected more than once; this rotation in office meant that no-one could built up power base through staying in a particular position.^[20] The courts operated with large number of juries, with no judges and they were selected by lot on a daily basis from an annual pool, which was also selected by lot. Participation by the citizens selected was mandatory,^[21] and a modest financial compensation was given to citizens whose livelihood was affected by being "drafted" to office. The only officials chosen by elections, one from each tribe, were the strategoi (generals), where military knowledge was required, and the treasurers, who had to be wealthy, since any funds revealed to have been embezzled were recovered from a treasurer's private fortune. Debate was open to all present and decisions in all matters of policy were taken by majority vote in Ecclesia (compare direct democracy), in which all male citizens could participate (in some cases with a quorum of 6000). The decisions taken in Ecclesia were executed by Boule of 500, which had already approved the agenda for Ecclesia.^[22] The Athenian Boule was elected by lot every year^[23] and its no citizen could serve more than twice.^[22] Overall, the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government, but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person.^[17] For Ephialtes, the son of Eurydemus of Malis, see Ephialtes Ephialtes (Greek: ) was leader of the democratic movement and of the homonymous party in Athens. ... For the Shakespeare play, see Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ... Sortition, also known as allotment, is a fair method of selection by some form of lottery such as drawing coloured pebbles from a bag. ... A majority is a subset of a group that is more than half of the entire group. ... Direct democracy, classically termed pure democracy,[1] comprises a form of democracy and theory of civics wherein sovereignty is lodged in the assembly of all citizens who choose to participate. ... In the cities (Gr. ...

[edit] The decline and its critics

The Athenian democracy, in its two centuries of life-time, twice voted against its democratic constitution, both during the crisis at the end of the Pelopponesian War; Four Hundred (in 411 BC) and Sparta's installment of the Thirty Tyrants (in 404 BC). Both votes were under manipulation and pressure, but democracy was recovered in less than a year in both cases. Athens restored again its democratic constitution, after the unification by force of Greece from Phillip II of Macedon and later Alexander the Great, but it was politically shadowed by the Hellenistic empires. Finally after the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC, Athens was restricted to matters of local administration. Combatants Delian League led by Athens Peloponnesian League led by Sparta Commanders Pericles Cleon Nicias Alcibiades Archidamus II Brasidas Lysander The Peloponnesian War (431 BC–404 BC) was an Ancient Greek military conflict fought by Athens and its League of Attica and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. ... The Four Hundred was a short-lived oligarchic body that held power in Athens during the Peloponnesian War from June to September of 411 BCE. The movement toward oligarchy was induced by Alcibiades promise in the summer of 412 to get Persian aid for the Athenians against Sparta if only... The Thirty Tyrants were a pro-Spartan oligarchy installed in Athens after Athens defeat in the Peloponnesian War in April 404 BC. Its two leading members were Tharamenes and Critias, a former acolyte of Socrates. ... Demagogy (from Greek demos, people, and agogos, leading) refers to a political strategy for obtaining and gaining political power by appealing to the popular prejudices, fears, and expectations of the public — typically via impassioned rhetoric and propaganda, and often using nationalistic or populist themes. ... Philip II - King of Macedon Philip II of Macedon (382 BC–336 BC; in Greek Φίλιππος, transliterated Philippos) was the King of Macedon from 359 BC until his death. ... For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... The term Hellenistic (established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen) in the history of the ancient world is used to refer to the shift from a culture dominated by ethnic Greeks, however scattered geographically, to a culture dominated by Greek-speakers of whatever ethnicity, and from the political dominance... Roman or Romans may refer to: A thing or person of or from the city of Rome. ...

However, the decline of democracy was not only due to external powers, but from its citizens, such as Plato and Aristotle. Through their influential works, Sparta's political stability was praised,^[24][25][26] while the Periclean democracy was described as a system of rule, where either the less well-born, the mob (as a collective tyrant) or the poorer classes, were holding power.^[17] It was only after the publication of "A history of Greece" by George Grote in 1846, when the Athenian democracy of Pericles started to be viewed positively from the political thinkers.^[27] George Grote George Grote (November 17, 1794 - June 18, 1871) was an English classical historian. ...

[edit] Roman Republic

For more details on this topic, see Roman Republic and Democracy in Ancient Rome.

This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... girls rule boys drule The beginning of the end of the Republic came when the brothers Gracchus challenged the traditional constitutional order in the 130s and 120s BC. Though members of the aristocracy themselves, they sought to parcel out public land to the dispossessed Italian peasant farmers. ...

[edit] Birth of the Republic

In 13th century BC, the Etruscans, early Italian settlers built city-states throughout central Italy and ruled Rome for over a century; and in 510 BC the last king was deposed. The king was expelled by a group of aristocrats led by Lucius Junius Brutus. The founding of the new Republic did not mark the end for Roman troubles, since the new constitution was not flawless and there remained powerful external enemies. Internally, one serious threat was the feuding of the leading families. Another was the struggle between the ruling families(patricians) as a whole and the rest of the population, especially the plebeians. After years of conflicts the plebs forced the senate to pass a written series of laws (the Twelve Tables) which recognized certain rights and gave the plebs their own representatives, the tribunes. By the 4th Century BC, the plebs were given the right to stand for consulship and other major offices of the state. The Roman office of tribune of the people (tribunus plebis) was established in 494 BC, about 15 years after the foundation of the Roman Republic in 509. ...

Rome became the ruler of a great Mediterranean empire. The new provinces brought wealth to Italy, and fortunes were made through mineral concessions and enormous slave run estates. Slaves were imported to Italy and wealthy landowners soon began to buy up and displace the original peasant farmers. By the late 2nd Century this led to renewed conflict between the rich and poor and demands from the latter for reform of constitution. The background of social unease and the inability of the traditional republican constitutions to adapt to the needs of the growing empire led to the rise of a series of over-mighty generals, championing the cause of either the rich or the poor, in the last century BC. The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ...

[edit] Fall of the Republic

Over the next few hundred years, various generals would bypass or overthrow the Senate for various reasons, mostly to address perceived injustices, either against themselves or against poorer citizens or soldiers. After the dictatorship of Sulla, which was overthrown with the help of Pompey the Great and Marcus Licinius Crassus, the two men joined forces with Julius Caesar to form what is now known as the First Triumvirate, a then secret pact to rule Rome together. The pact did not last long as distrust between the three led to Caesar being charged with war crimes, and he in turn marched on Rome and took supreme power over the republic. Caesar's career was cut short by his assassination at Rome in 44 BC by a group of Senators including Marcus Junius Brutus, the descendant of the Brutus who expelled the Etruscan King four and half centuries before. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (Latin: L·CORNELIVS·L·F·P·N·SVLLA·FELIX) ¹ (ca. ... This article refers to the Roman General. ... Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1]) (c. ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Marcus Junius Brutus (85–42 BC), or Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. ...

In the power vacuum that followed Caesar's assassination, his friend and chief lieutenant, Marcus Antonius, and Caesar's grand-nephew Octavian who also was the adopted son of Caesar, rose to prominence. After some initial disagreements, Antony, Octavian, and Antony's ally Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, formed the Second Triumvirate. Their combined strength gave the triumvirs absolute power. Bust of Marcus Antonius Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N¹) (c. ... May refer to the persons: Augustus, Roman Emperor Pope John XIII nigger Category: ... Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (Latin: M·AEMILIVS·M·F·Q·N·LEPIDVS),[1] d. ... For other uses, see Second Triumvirate (disambiguation). ...

In 31 BC war between the two finally broke out. Approximately 200 senators, one-third of the Senate, abandoned Octavian to support Antony and Cleopatra. The final confrontation of the Roman Republic occurred on 2 September 31 BC, at the naval Battle of Actium where the fleet of Octavian under the command of Agrippa routed the combined fleet of Antony and Cleopatra; the two lovers fled to Egypt. After his victory, Octavian skillfully used propaganda, negotiation, and bribery to bring Antony's legions in Greece, Asia Minor, and Cyrenaica to his side. Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide to escape capture. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC... is the 245th day of the year (246th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC... Combatants Octavian Mark Antony, Cleopatra VII of Egypt Commanders Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Mark Antony Strength 260 warships, mostly liburnian vessels 220 warships, mostly quinqueremes and 60 egyptian warships Casualties Unknown Almost all of Antonys fleet The Battle of Actium was a naval battle of the Roman Civil War between... Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (c. ...

Bronze statue of Octavian, Archaeological Museum, Athens

The period of civil wars were finally over. Thereafter, there was no one left in the Roman Republic who wanted, or could stand against Octavian, as the adopted son of Caesar moved to take absolute control. He designated governors loyal to him to the half dozen "frontier" provinces, where the majority of the legions were situated, thus, at a stroke, giving him command of enough legions to ensure that no single governor could try to overthrow him. He also reorganized the Senate, purging it of unreliable or dangerous members, and "refilled it" with his supporters from the provinces and outside the Roman aristocracy, men who could be counted on to follow his lead. However, he left the majority of Republican institutions apparently intact, albeit feeble. Consuls continued to be elected, tribunes of the plebeians continued to offer legislation, and debate still resounded through the Roman Curia. However it was Octavian who influenced everything and ultimately, controlled the final decisions, and had the legions to back it up, if necessary. Image File history File links Acaugustus. ... Image File history File links Acaugustus. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ... This article is about the capital of Greece. ... A Curia in early Roman times was a subdivision of the people, i. ...

The Roman Senate and the Roman citizens, tired of the never-ending civil wars and unrest, were willing to toss aside the incompetent and unstable rule of the Senate and the popular assemblies in exchange for the iron will of one man who might set Rome back in order. By 27 BC the transition, though subtle and disguised, was made complete. In that year, Octavian offered back all his extraordinary powers to the Senate, and in a carefully staged way, the Senate refused and in fact titled Octavian Augustus — "the revered one". He was always careful to avoid the title of rex — "king", and instead took on the titles of princeps — "first citizen" and imperator, a title given by Roman troops to their victorious commanders. The Roman Empire had been born. ojuooiuououoieerwerwerwerwerwwe Year 27 BC was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... Augustus (plural augusti) is Latin for majestic or venerable. The feminine form is Augusta. ... The Latin word imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ...

Once Octavian named Tiberius as his heir, it was clear to everyone that even the hope of a restored Republic was dead. Most likely, by the time Augustus died, no one was old enough to know a time before an Emperor ruled Rome. The Roman Republic had been changed into a despotic régime, which, underneath a competent and strong Emperor, could achieve military supremacy, economic prosperity, and a genuine peace, but under a weak or incompetent one saw its glory tarnished by cruelty, military defeats, revolts, and civil war. The Roman Empire was eventually divided between the Western Roman Empire which fell in 476 AD and the Eastern Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire) which lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ... Despotism is government by a singular authority, either a single person or tightly knit group, which rules with absolute power. ... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus The Western Roman Empire in 395. ... Events August - The usurper Basiliscus is deposed and Zeno is restored as Eastern Roman Emperor. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Byzantine Empire. ... Combatants  Byzantine Empire Ottoman Sultanate Commanders Constantine XI †, Loukas Notaras, Giovanni Giustiniani †[1] Mehmed II, ZaÄŸanos Pasha Strength 80,000[2] 80,000[1]-200,000[1][3] Casualties 4,000 dead[4] [5][6] unknown The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empires... April 2 - Mehmed II begins his siege of Constantinople (Ä°stanbul). ...

[edit] Local popular institutions

Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker is teaching the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung that the power resides with the people, 1018, Uppsala, by C. Krogh

Most of the procedures used by modern democracies are very old. Almost all cultures have at some time had their new leaders approved, or at least accepted, by the people; and have changed the laws only after consultation with the assembly of the people or their leaders. Such institutions existed since before the Iliad or the Odyssey, and modern democracies are often derived or inspired by them, or what remained of them. Nevertheless, the direct result of these institutions was not always a democracy. It was often a narrow oligarchy, as in Venice, or even an absolute monarchy, as in Florence. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (572x740, 184 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): History of democracy Lawspeaker Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (572x740, 184 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): History of democracy Lawspeaker Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker ... Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker (Old Icelandic: Þorgnýr lögmaðr, Swedish: Torgny Lagman) is the name of one of at least three generations of lawspeakers by the name Þorgnýr. ... Coin minted for Olof Skötkonung in Sigtuna Olof of Sweden or Olof Skötkonung/Skottkonung (the meaning of the cognomen is disputed) was the son of Eric the Victorious and Sigrid the Haughty. ... // Team# 1018 Pike High School Robotics Team Team #1018 FIRST Logo Check Out Our FIRST WIKI Page Events Bulgaria becomes part of the Byzantine Empire. ... Uppsala (older spelling Upsala) is a city in central Sweden, located about 70 km north of Stockholm. ... title page of the Rihel edition of ca. ... This article is about Homers epic poem. ... Look up Oligarchy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Borders of the Republic of Venice in 1796 Capital Venice Language(s) Venetian, Latin, Italian Religion Roman Catholicism Government Republic Doge  - 1789–97 Ludovico Manin History  - Established 697  - Treaty of Zara June 27, 1358  - Treaty of Leoben April 17, 1797 * Traditionally, the establishment of the Republic is dated to 697. ... For the documentary series, see Monarchy (TV series). ... The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was a state in central Italy which came into existence in 1569, replacing the Duchy of Florence, which had been created out of the old Republic of Florence in 1532, and which annexed the Republic of Siena in 1557. ...

These early institutions include:

• The collegia of the Roman period: associations of various social, economic, religious, funerary and even sportive natures elected officers yearly, often directly modeled on the Senate of Rome.
• The Christian Church well into the 6th Century had its bishops elected by popular acclaim.
• The Rashidun caliphs were elected by a council (see Islamic democracy).
• Medieval guilds of economic, social and religious natures elected officers for yearly terms.
• The German tribal system described by Tacitus in his Germania.
• The Anglo-Saxon Witan councils of advisors to the Saxon kings.
• The Frankish custom of the Marzfeld or "March field".^[28]
• The Althing, the parliament of the Icelandic Commonwealth, was founded in 930. It consisted of the 39, later 55, goðar; each owner of a goðarð; and membership, which could in principle be lent or sold, was kept tight hold of by each hereditary goði. Thus, for example, when Burnt Njal's stepson wanted to enter it, Njal had to persuade the Althing to enlarge itself so a seat would be available. But as each independent farmer in the country could choose what goði represented him the system could be claimed as an early form of democracy. The Alþing has run nearly continuously to the present day. The Althing was preceded by less elaborate "things" (assemblies) all over Northern Europe.^[29]
• The Thing of all Swedes, which was held annually at Uppsala in the end of February or early March. Like in Iceland, the assemblies were presided by the lawspeaker, but the Swedish king functioned as a judge. A famous incident took place circa 1018, when King Olof Skötkonung wanted to pursue the war against Norway against the will of the people. Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker reminded the king in a long speech that the power resided with the Swedish people and not with the king. When the king heard the din of swords beating the shields in support of Þorgnýr's speech, he gave in. Adam of Bremen wrote that the people used to obey the king only when they thought his suggestions seemed better, although in war his power was absolute.
• The túatha system in early medieval Ireland. Landowners and the masters of a profession or craft were members of a local assembly, known as a túath. Each túath met in annual assembly which approved all common policies, declared war or peace on other tuatha, and accepted the election of a new "king"; normally during the old king's lifetime, as a tanist. The new king had to be descended within four generations from a previous king, so this usually became, in practice, a hereditary kingship; although some kingships alternated between lines of cousins. About 80 to 100 túatha coexisted at any time throughout Ireland. Each túath controlled a more or less compact area of land which it could pretty much defend from cattle-raids, and this was divided among its members.
• The city-states of medieval Italy, of which Venice and Florence were the most successful, and similar city-states in Switzerland, Flanders and the Hanseatic league. These were often closer to an oligarchy than a democracy in practice, and were, in any case, not nearly as democratic as the Athenian-influenced city-states of Ancient Greece (discussed in the above section), but they served as focal points for early modern democracy.
• Veche, Wiec - popular assemblies in Slavic countries. In Poland wiece have developed in 1182 into Sejm - Polish parliament. The veche was the highest legislature and judicial authority in the republics of Novgorod until 1478 and Pskov until 1510.
• The elizate system of the Basque Country in which farmholders of a rural area connected to a particular church would meet to reach decisions on issues affecting the community and to elect representatives to the provincial Batzar Nagusiak/Juntos Generales.^[30]
• Rise of parliamentary bodies in other European countries.

The Roman Senate (Lat. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Athanasius · Augustine · Constantine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas Arminius · Calvin · Luther · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box... Diocesan College, or Bishops as it is commonly known, is a private school situated in the leafy suburb of Rondebosch in Cape Town, South Africa, at the foot of Table Mountain. ... The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( transliteration: ) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first four Caliphs. ... For main article see: Caliphate The Caliph (pronounced khaleef in Arabic) is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Sharia. ... Known as Islamic democracy, two kinds of democratic states can be recognized in the Islamic countries. ... A guild is an association of persons of the same trade or pursuits, formed to protect mutual interests and maintain standards of morality or conduct. ... The term Germanic tribes applies to the ancient Germanic peoples of Europe. ... http://www. ... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ... Map of the Roman Empire and the free Germania, Magna Germania, in the early 2nd century For other uses, see Germania (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Anglo-Saxon. ... The Witenagemot (or Witan) was a political institution in Anglo-Saxon England which operated between approximately the 7th century and 11th century. ... This article is about the Frankish people and society. ... The Alþing, commonly Anglicized as Althing (Modern Icelandic Alþingi; Old Norse Alþing) is the national parliament: literally, the all-thing of Iceland. ... The Icelandic Commonwealth or the Icelandic Free State (Icelandic: Þjóðveldisöld) was the state existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in 930 and the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king in 1262. ... Events With the establishment of the Icelandic Althing, now the worlds oldest parliament, the Icelandic Commonwealth is founded. ... Njáls saga (also known as The Story of Burnt Njál) is an epic of Icelandic literature from the 13th century that describes the progress of a 50-year blood feud. ... A thing or ting (Old Norse and Icelandic: þing; other modern Scandinavian: ting) was the governing assembly in Germanic societies, made up of the free men of the community and presided by lawspeakers. ... The Thing of all Swedes (or Disaþing[1]) was the thing (general assembly) which was held from pre-historic times to the Middle Ages, at the end of February or early March at Gamla Uppsala, Sweden[2]. It was held in conjuction with a great fair and a pagan... Uppsala (older spelling Upsala) is a city in central Sweden, located about 70 km north of Stockholm. ... A Lawspeaker (Old Swedish: laghmaþer or laghman, Norwegian: lagmand, Icelandic: lög(sögu)maðr) was a unique Scandinavian legal office. ... Coin minted for Olof Skötkonung in Sigtuna Olof of Sweden or Olof Skötkonung/Skottkonung (the meaning of the cognomen is disputed) was the son of Eric the Victorious and Sigrid the Haughty. ... Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker (Old Icelandic: Þorgnýr lögmaðr, Swedish: Torgny Lagman) is the name of one of at least three generations of lawspeakers by the name Þorgnýr. ... Adam of Bremen (also: Adam Bremensis) was one of the most important German medieval chroniclers. ... Túath (plural túatha) is an Old Irish word, often translated as people, tribe or nation. Túath referred to both the people who lived in a shared territory, and the territory they controlled. ... The History of Ireland began with the first known human settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC, when hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental Europe, probably via a land bridge. ... Tanistry (from Gaelic tana, lordship) was a custom among various Celtic tribes, by which the king or chief of the clan was chosen from among the heads of the septs and elected by them in full assembly. ... A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... This is the history of Italy during the Middle Ages. ... Borders of the Republic of Venice in 1796 Capital Venice Language(s) Venetian, Latin, Italian Religion Roman Catholicism Government Republic Doge  - 1789–97 Ludovico Manin History  - Established 697  - Treaty of Zara June 27, 1358  - Treaty of Leoben April 17, 1797 * Traditionally, the establishment of the Republic is dated to 697. ... Florence (or Firenze, Florentia and Fiorenza) is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany, and of the province of Florence. ... For other uses, see Flanders (disambiguation). ... Carta marina of the Baltic Sea region (1539). ... Removal of the veche bell from Novgorod to Moscow in 1478. ... Removal of the veche bell from Novgorod to Moscow in 1478. ... The Sejm building in Warsaw. ... A legislature is a governmental deliberative body with the power to adopt laws. ... Medieval walls of Novgorod City The Novgorod Feudal Republic (Новгородская феодальная республика or Novgorodskaya feodalnaya respublika in Russian) was a powerful medieval state which stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains between the 12th and 15th century. ... Pskov Feudal Republic (Псковская феодальная республика in Russian) was a Russian medieval state between the second half of the 13th century and early 16th century. ... This article covers the entire historic Basque County domain. ...

[edit] Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Historian Jack Weatherford argues that Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and others, got their ideas on democracy not from any Greek or Roman influence, but from the Iroquois and other indigenous peoples of the Americas, who practiced the type of democracy found in the United States Constitution, through self-governing territories that were part of a larger whole. This democracy was founded between the years 1000-1450, and lasted several hundred years. He also states that American democracy was continually changed and improved by the influence of Native Americans throughout North America. For example, the right of women to vote started on the American frontier, and moved eastward. In other words, Americans learned democracy from the indigenous peoples of the North America. |200px| ]] Born: Occupation: professor, ethnographer, anthropologist Nationality: American Jack Weatherford is a professor of Anthropology at Macalester College, specializing in Mongolia. ... For other uses, see Iroquois (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Native Americans (disambiguation). ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: The United States Constitution The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. ... In the United States and Canada the frontier was the term applied until the end of the 19th century to the zone of unsettled land outside the region of existing settlements of European immigrants and their descendants. ...

The Aztecs also practiced elections, and the elected officials elected a supreme speaker, but not a ruler.^[31] The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ...

[edit] Rise of democracy in modern national governments

[edit] Pre-Eighteenth century milestones

• Rise of democratic parliaments in England and Scotland: Magna Carta (1215) limiting the authority of powerholders, First elected parliament (1265), The Levellers political movement, English Civil War (1642-1651),