The history of poisons (poison being defined as a "substance that causes death or injury when swallowed or absorbed")^[1] stretches over a period from before 4500 BC to the present day. Poisons have been used for many purposes across the span of human existence, including as both weapons and anti-venoms and medicines, and have allowed much progress in the branches of medicine, toxicology, science, technology, among others. Poison affected every era it passed through, with the use of poisons for painting weapons in deadly substances in the early ages, and later, its use as a tool of both assassination and medicine. Used for both devious purposes such as political implosion and self-gain through homicide, but also as the catalyst for many medical miracles, poison has been used all over the world for centuries, its development varying from nation to nation and civilization to civilization. The skull and crossbones symbol traditionally used to label a poisonous substance. ... (6th millennium BC – 5th millennium BC – 4th millennium BC – other millennia) Events 4860 BC - Mount Mazama in Oregon collapses, forming a caldera that later fills with water and becomes Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. ... In many works of fiction, events may simply be described as taking place in the Present Day. This can mean one of three things: The events depicted take place at the time the media is viewed or read; The events depicted take place at the exact date in history when... The bayonet is used as both knife and spear. ... Antivenin (or antivenom, or antivenene) is a biological product used in the treatment of venomous bites or stings. ... medicines, see medication and pharmacology. ... Toxicology (from the Greek words toxicos and logos [1]) is the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms [2]. It is the study of symptoms, mechanisms, treatments and detection of poisoning, especially the poisoning of people. ... Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the Earth for the first time and explore space. ... It has been suggested that Extrajudicial Executions and Assasinations be merged into this article or section. ...

Ancient times

Strychnos toxifera, a plant used for the making of dart and arrow poisons

An example of a flint sword and spear, weapons used for hunting in ancient times.

Archaeological findings provide proof that, while primitive mankind used conventional weapons such as axes and clubs, and later swords, they probably sought more subtle, destructive means of causing death--something that could be achieved through poison.^[2] In this search, early humans discovered poisons of varying potency, and applied them to their weapons.^[2] This theory is supported by archaeological evidence, because grooves for storing or holding poisons such as tubocurarine were found in their hunting weapons and tools.^[2] Some speculate that this use and existence of these strange and noxious substances would have been kept within the more important and higher-ranked members of a tribe or clan, and were seen as emblems of a greater power. This may have also given birth to the stereotypical 'medicine man' or 'witch doctor'.^[2] Strychnos Toxifera (Curare) from Koehlers Medicinal-Plants 1887 Source: List of Koehler Images. ... Strychnos Toxifera (Curare) from Koehlers Medicinal-Plants 1887 Source: List of Koehler Images. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (800x1396, 179 KB) Сл. 66 Прва слика представља мач од кремена а друга овршак за копље. Оба су предмета изванредно лепо израђена и указују на велики ступањ каменодељске вештине. File links The following pages link to this file: Technology Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (800x1396, 179 KB) Сл. 66 Прва слика представља мач од кремена а друга овршак за копље. Оба су предмета изванредно лепо израђена и указују на велики ступањ каменодељске вештине. File links The following pages link to this file: Technology Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Tubocurarine chloride is a competitive neuromuscular blocker, used to paralyse patients undergoing anaesthesia. ... http://www. ... A clan is a group of people united by kinship and descent, which is defined by perceived descent from a common ancestor. ...

In ancient mythology

References to poison or poison-like substances are present in the mythological canon of many ancient civilizations and up to the almost-universal 'death' of mythological beliefs. For instance, in Greek mythology, Medea, one of the children of the sun, tried to poison Theseus with a poisoned goblet.^[2] Some of the first mythological depictions of the use of poisons come from translations of ancient, Mesopotamian Sumerian texts, in which a being named 'Gula' is mentioned as 'the mistress of spells and witchcraft'. These texts have been dated to c.4500BC.^[2] An example of a translated piece of text is as follows. // For the Derek Sherinian album, see Mythology (Derek Sherinian album). ... Look up canon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The bust of Zeus found at Otricoli (Sala Rotonda, Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican) Greek mythology is the telling of stories created by the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world and their own cult and ritual practices. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Russian chalice A chalice (from Latin calix, cup) is a goblet, intended to hold just drink. ...

Egyptian knowledge and uses

Unlike many civilizations, records of Egyptian knowledge and use of poisons can only be dated back to approx. 300 BCE. However, it is believed that the earliest known Egyptian pharaoh, Menes, studied the properties of poisonous plants and venoms, according to early records.^[2] The Egyptians are also thought to have come into knowledge about elements such as antimony, copper, crude arsenic, lead, opium, and mandrake (among others). Other such secrets were revealed in papyri. Egyptians are now thought to be the first to properly master distillation, and to manipulate the poison that can be retrieved from peach kernels.^[2] Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC - 300s BC - 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC Years: 305 BC 304 BC 303 BC 302 BC 301 BC - 300 BC - 299 BC 298 BC... Pharaoh was the ancient Egyptian name for the office of kingship. ... Menes was an Egyptian pharaoh of the First dynasty, to some authors the founder of this dynasty, to others the Second. ... General Name, Symbol, Number antimony, Sb, 51 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous grey Atomic mass 121. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Standard atomic weight 63. ... General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Atomic mass 74. ... For Pb as an abbreviation, see Pb. ... Opium is a narcotic produced from opium poppies. ... Mandrake may refer to: The plant Mandrake The Harry Potter mandrake plant. ... Papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus at Kew Gardens, London Papyrus is an early form of paper made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt. ... Laboratory distillation set-up using, without a fractionating column 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed...

Effect

The discovery of poisons had both advantages and disadvantages in probably every civilisation in which it was discovered. The use of poisons for homicide and assassination also caused the need for antidotes for these poisons, and soon after the potential of the poison was realised, the search for ways to detract from or reverse its power began. Homicide (Latin homicidium, homo human being + caedere to cut, kill) refers to the act of killing another human being. ... It has been suggested that Extrajudicial Executions and Assasinations be merged into this article or section. ...

Homicide and assassination

The head of a statue of the Roman Emperor Nero, who used cyanide to dispose of unwanted family members

In Roman times, poisoning carried out at the dinner table or common eating or drinking area was not unheard of, or probably even uncommon, and was happening as early as 331 BC.^[2] These poisonings would have been used for self-advantageous reasons in every class of the social order. The writer Livy describes the poisoning of members of the upper class and nobles of Rome, and Roman emperor Nero is known to have favored the use of poisons on his relatives, even hiring a personal poisoner. His preferred poison was, according to Livy, cyanide.^[2] Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC - 330s BC - 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC Years: 336 BC 335 BC 334 BC 333 BC 332 BC - 331 BC - 330 BC 329 BC... A portrait of Titus Livius made long after his death. ... Nickname: The Eternal City Motto: SPQR: Senatus PopulusQue Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area    - City 1285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban... Nero[1] Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (December 15, AD 37 – June 9, AD 68), born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. ... The cyanide ion, CN−. From the top: 1. ...

Search for antidotes

Once the use and danger of poison was realized, it became apparent that something had to be done. Mithridates, King of Pontos (Turkey) from around 114-63 BC, lived in constant fear of be assassinated by the use of poison, and so became a hard-working pioneer in the search for a cure for poisons.^[2] In his position of power, he was able to test poisons on criminals facing execution, and then to test if there was a possible antidote. So afraid was he that he administered daily amounts of poisons in an attempt to make himself immune to as many poisons as he could.^[2] The name Mithridates (more accurately, Mithradates) is helenized form of a Indo-Aryan Mithra-Datt, which means One given by Mithra. Mithra is the Indo-Aryan sun-god and Datt (Given by) derives from the Indo-European root da, to give. That name was borne by a large number of... Pontus was a name applied in ancient times to extensive tracts of country in the northeast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) bordering on the Euxine (Black Sea), which was often called simply Pontos (the Main), by the Greeks. ... Cure can be: successful treatment of disease preserve (meat, for example), as by salting, smoking, or aging (see curing) prepare, preserve, or finish (a substance) by a chemical or physical process (one example is the curing, or seasoning, of a cast iron pan; another is the curing of an adhesive... A request has been made on Wikipedia for this article to be deleted in accordance with the deletion policy. ...

Eventually, he discovered a formula, which he named 'Mithridatum'.^[2] This was kept totally secret until the invasion of Pompey, who was able to take it back to Rome. Pliny the Younger describes over 50 different poisons. One he describes as: Pompey, Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir [1] (Classical Latin abbreviation: CN·POMPEIVS·CN·F·SEX·N·MAGNVS[2], Gnaeus or Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus) (September 29, 106 BC–September 29, 48 BC), was a distinguished military and political leader of the late Roman republic. ... Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (63-ca. ...

Medieval ages (Europe)

Later, in the Medieval Ages, when the nature of poisons was known better than simply magic and witchcraft, there were sellers and suppliers of potions and poisons, known as apothecaries.^[4] Despite the fact that it was now known the medicinal uses of poisons, it was no secret that people bought poisons for less useful and lawful reasons. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... Look up magic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... It has been suggested that Witch be merged into this article or section. ... A potion (from Latin potio, potionis, meaning beverage, potion, poison) is a drinkable medicine or poison. ... Apothecary (from the Latin apothecarius, a keeper of an otheca, a store) is a historical name for a medical practitioner who formulates and dispenses materia medica to physicians, surgeons and patients — a role now served by a pharmacist. ...

"Poisoning of Queen Bona", by Jan Matejko

An excerpt from Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, a text that existed sometime in the 14th century to the 15th century describes a killer buying poison from an apothecary to rid a rat infestation: Categories: People stubs | 1494 births | 1557 deaths | Polish queen consorts ... Jan Matejko , self-portrait. ... Chaucer: Illustration from Cassells History of England, circa 1902 Chanticleer the rooster from an outdoor production of Chanticleer and the Fox at Ashby_de_la_Zouch castle Geoffrey Chaucer (ca. ... Canterbury Tales Woodcut 1484 The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the rest in verse). ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... Species 50 species; see text *Several subfamilies of Muroids include animals called rats. ...

This literature about poison was only one of many, and poisons and potions were a very popular source of fictional writing material. There were also academic texts discussing the subject, and both non-fiction and fiction were written in the most part by monks, for they were respected in the ways of knowledge and wisdom, and as such held a large portion over the published works.^[4] Old book bindings at the Merton College library. ... Non-fiction is an account or representation of a subject which is presented as fact. ... Fiction (from the Latin fingere, to form, create) is storytelling of imagined events and stands in contrast to non-fiction, which makes factual claims about reality. ... Munichs city symbol celebrates its founding by Benedictine monks—and the origin of its name A monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, the conditioning of mind and body in favor of the spirit. ... Personification of knowledge (Greek Επιστημη, Episteme) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

One example of a non-fiction work is The Book of Venoms, a book describing the known poisons of the time, their effects and uses, written by Magister Santes de Ardoynis in 1424. It also recommended the best known treatments for a given poison. Despite this, it is considered probable that these factual works were not released to the public, and kept within appropriate learned circles for study and to find a better understanding.^[4] Public is of or pertaining to the people; belonging to the people; relating to, or affecting, a nation, state, or community; opposed to private; as, the public treasury, a road or lake. ...

Public reaction

If the truth was indeed kept from the public, it did not prevent the spawning of folk-lore and rumors about poisons, and those who used them for purposes that were distasteful to the public. This even caused a level of paranoia within some areas of the societies of England and indeed Europe.^[4] This wave of concern was only furthered by the availability of 'medicine' potent enough to cause fatality when secretly administered in an overly intense degree - it provided an easy way to kill, and one which was subtle, quiet, and generally allowed the criminal to remain undetected.^[4] Perhaps it was this terrible wave of paranoia that swept the streets, or the public need for answers about these strange toxins and the ways in which to prevent their effects, but many books that were, while wholly inaccurate, based on ways or means to stop poisons became sought for, and fed off the mounting anxiety.^[4] Folklore is the ethnographic concept of the tales, legends, or superstitions current among a particular ethnic population, a part of the oral history of a particular culture. ... Rumors is a farce by Neil Simon. ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: God Save the King/Queen Capital London (de facto) Largest city London Official language(s) English (de facto) Unification    - by Athelstan AD 927  Area    - Total 130,395 km² (1st in UK)   50,346 sq mi  Population    - 2006 est. ... This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ...

Naturally, seeing the marketing ploy, crafty book salesmen would have served to inflame the issue, and exaggerate the risk so that people would buy their books for a non-existent security. Other salesmen such as jewelry traders willing to sell a supposedly poison-weakening amulet, or a doctor selling a magical cure would have profited greatly in such times of doubt. The information the public so desperately craved was kept away from them, a treasure of only the highest ranked scholars and scientists, and so the public was really left to make their own panic-induced assumptions.^[4] Jewelry (the American spelling; spelled jewellery in Commonwealth English) consists of ornamental devices worn by persons, typically made with gems and precious metals. ... An amulet from the Black Pullet grimoire An amulet (from Latin amuletum, meaning A means of protection) or a talisman (from Arabic tilasm, ultimately from Greek telesma or from the Greek word talein wich means to initiate into the mysteries. ...

Renaissance

The use and knowledge of poisons was escalating, and by the Renaissance, the use of poisons for unlawful and reprehensible intentions had peaked, and it was arguably becoming any assassin or murderer's essential tool.^[6] This peaking of poison's popularity within crime syndicates and circles would probably have been due at least in part to the new discoveries that were then being made about poison.^[6] Italian alchemists for one were, in the 14th and 15th century, realizing the potential of the combining of poisonous substances to create even more potent brews than the ones that had been put together,^[6] and other new properties of poison were becoming clearer. A science of the study was forming, something today known as toxicology. So prominently used for homicide in society was poison that one would be fearful even to attend a dinner party for fear of having the food or drink poisoned by either the host or perhaps one of the guests.^[6] Raphael was famous for depicting illustrious figures of the Classical past with the features of his Renaissance contemporaries. ... Look up alchemist in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Borgia family

The very controversial Pope Alexander VI, also known at birth as Roderic Borja

Cesare Borgia was the son of Pope Alexander VI, perhaps one of the most disputed popes in regards to legitimacy, having used his power to promote his five sons to high titles.^[6] He was thought to be a hostile and ruthless man, and whether this descriptor was fabricated or not, he was avoided and feared. Borgia was notorious not only for being the son of a very controversial man, but also because he was thought to be a poison-wielding murderer.^[6] In the following quote, Apollinaire describes what he believes is a kind of 'Borgia Recipe' used for the disposing of victims: Image File history File links File links The following pages link to this file: Pope Alexander VI ... Image File history File links File links The following pages link to this file: Pope Alexander VI ... Pope Alexander VI (1 January 1431 – 18 August 1503), born Roderic Borja (Italian: Borgia), (reigned from 1492 to 1503), is the most controversial of the secular popes of the Renaissance and one whose surname became a byword for the debased standards of the papacy of that era. ... Guillaume Apollinaire (August 26, 1880 _ November 9, 1918) was a poet, writer, and art critic. ...

A large wave of circulating rumors came into being after the death of Cesare Borgia's father, with several theories pervading the mystery of the fatality, although most ended with the Pope having died in some horrible way involving murder, and then most were to do with poisoning. General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Atomic mass 74. ... General Name, Symbol, Number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ...

Apollinaire's idea was that the pope was poisoned by wine which was in fact intended for another at the dinner table, Cardinal de Corneto. Sanuto held a similar theory, except that it involved a box of sweetmeats, instead of wine.^[6] The death of the pope received little mourning, which was expected after the unsureness of his role as pope. Historical evidence points toward the fact that the pope was indeed poisoned in some way, and after the body had to be laid down for several days for some reason, the body became rotted, and, to stop suspicion, was only able to be seen at night by candlelight.^[6]

Ceasare Borgia's passing did not cause any sadness either, considering the reputation that he had forged for himself. However, one did mourn for this man who had been accused of so many crimes - his sister, Lucrezia, who was also considered a wrongdoer, despite the possibility that she in fact had been held responsible for some of Cesare's crimes.^[6]

The Council of Ten

By the 1600s, the use of poison had become an art of sorts, and, in several cities of Italy including Venice and Rome, there were actual schools teaching the ways of poison and the 'art' which had been born.^[7] Earlier, in the fifteenth century, a guild of alchemists and poisoners known as the Council of Ten was formed. This cult of poison-wielding assassins carried out contracts for people who paid them enough money, and usually anyone contracted for death ended up slain, killed by an undetected dose of lethal substances of varying description.^[7] Venice (Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venezsia) is the capital of region Veneto, and has a population of 271,663 (census estimate January 1, 2004). ...

Neopoliani Magioe Naturalis

Neopoliani Magioe Naturalis was a publication first printed just before 1590 that detailed the art of poisoning, and effective methods of using poison to commit homicide. The most effective way of killing someone with poison, according to the work, was by drugging someone's wine, a method that was very popular at the time.^[7] One 'very strong mixture' used in the book is the Veninum Lupinum, which consists of a mix of aconite, taxus baccata, caustic lime, arsenic, bitter almonds and powdered glass mixed with honey. The overall product is a pill approximately the size of a walnut.^[7] Bold text{| align=right cellpadding=3 id=toc style=margin-left: 15px; |- | align=center colspan=2 | Years: 1587 1588 1589 - 1590 - 1591 1592 1593 |-vdsf gno[gldw[pvkijxaiamknn csogfhbvdowkhbfkqhjkhrjkhwgfhbjkpnkfokfgok3pkpk9pjhkt9erktyujkip9kijker9thhrkg9hkitr9gtkih9t0ykltk[u0jo0iey9uhyit90ertyhige9rity9riyh9ujirtyuhjnh-4e9tyigh9thiuy0h8tyh34tu8uy8u8u8u8rtu5y8ru8thu0tru0ut0rhutuh0trhu0hseogtrhr8uyhju8t89er9te9r8fy8shit ass dick bitch fuck | align=center colspan=2 | Decades: 1560s 1570s 1580s - 1590s - 1600s 1610s 1620s |- | align=center | Centuries... Species About 60: see text Aconitum is a genus of plants belonging to the buttercup family Ranunculaceae. ... Binomial name Taxus baccata L. Taxus baccata is a conifer native to western, central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, northern Iran and southwest Asia. ... General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Atomic mass 74. ... This article refers to the plant. ... Glass can be made transparent and flat, or into other shapes and colors as shown in this sphere from the Verrerie of Brehat in Brittany. ... Look up Pill in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... “Walnut Tree” redirects here. ...

16th-18th centuries

By the end of the 16th century, the art and popularity of poison had moved from Italy to France, where criminal poisoning was becoming more and more frequent. It is estimated that in the 1570s that there would have been about thirty thousand people people in Paris alone using poison or having some connection to poison in an illegal or immoral way.^[8] It was becoming something of which was described as a 'plague' or 'epidemic'.^[8] And this epidemic, while obviously contributing greatly to the death toll, was also greatly affecting citizens who had no connection to poison. Many people, nobles especially, were becoming extremely afraid of poisoning. They would attend dinner parties of only the most trusted, and hired only hand-picked servants. Several instances very famous or high-born people who were very afraid of poisoning are both Henrietta Anne of England and Henry IV.^[8] The princess Henrietta Anne of England was so fearful and aware of poisoning that she instantly made the assumption that she had been poisoned when she was afflicted with a peritonitis due to a duodenal ulcer, while Henry IV, while making a visit to the Louvre, was recorded to have eaten only eggs that he had cooked himself, and drank only water that he had poured for himself!^[8] Later, in 1662, Louis XIV limited the sale of poisons within apothecaries, and certain poisons were not to be sold, except to people whom the shopkeeper knew well to be trustworthy.^[8] (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... City flag City coat of arms Motto: Fluctuat nec mergitur (Latin: Tossed by the waves, she does not sink) Paris Eiffel tower as seen from the esplanade du Trocadéro. ... Henry IV can refer to Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV of England Henry IV of France Henry IV of Castile Henry IV, Duke of Breslau or plays by William Shakespeare: Henry IV, part 1 Henry IV, part 2 This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which... This article is about the museum: for building history, see Palais du Louvre, for higher education, see École du Louvre. ...

Louis XIV

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (534x638, 221 KB) Beschreibung Louis XIV. 1661 Charles le Brun Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Louis XIV of France ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (534x638, 221 KB) Beschreibung Louis XIV. 1661 Charles le Brun Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Louis XIV of France ...

Chambre Ardente

At a similar time to the ban of poisons, priests in Notre Dame became so astounded with the number of poison-related confessions that they had listened to that they decided to inform the king about how bad the 'epidemic' of poison actually was. In response to this, the king organized an order in the investigation of poisonings called the Chambre Ardente. Notre Dame de Paris Western Facade For the novel by Victor Hugo, see The Hunchback of Notre Dame. ... Chambre Ardente (Fr. ...

Despite the fact that the inquisitors had been sponsored by the sovereign himself, they failed to catch many of the worst and most murderous poisoners, in whom probably had many connections in which were employed to evade punishment. However, in the life of the order, approximately 442 persons were caught and received punishment.^[8] The work of this order did cause a backfiring, or side effect that was a magnifying in the interest of poison and how to use them, and, inexplicably, many people actually became actively involved in poison after the birth of an order made to reduce poisonings.^[8]

Carlos II, or Charles II, of Spain

This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...

In Spain

While criminals based in Italy and England were the first to introduce poison as a means of murder or harm, during this period the use of poison truly was spreading all over Europe. Spain was notable for the fact that it had, by some means or another, committed several failed attempts at the disposal of Queen Elizabeth of England.^[8] One person named Dr. Lopus, a Jewish physician, was called on by Spain to kill the queen, but he was caught and then later hanged, drawn and quartered for the act. It is thought that some aspects, specifically a character, of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice may refer to or have been inspired by this Dr. Lopus. After this particular incident, the queens food had to be tasted for poisoning, and much more security was implanted. She was even known to have taken antidotes on a weekly basis for protection. Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen of England, Queen of France (in name only), and Queen of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. ... Shakespeare redirects here. ... Title page of the first quarto (1600) The Merchant of Venice is one of William Shakespeares best-known plays, written sometime between 1594 and 1597. ...

Conversely, Royal assassination attempts by poison were also domestic in Spain, with several people and groups wanting to kill the monarchs. One successful attempt at this (probable one of few in Europe) was the poisoning of Marie Louise, the wife of Carlos II, who died suddenly in the September 1689.^[8] Marie Louise (December 12, 1791 - December 17, 1847) was the second wife of Napoléon Bonaparte and Empress of the French. ... Charles II of Spain. ... Events Louis XIV of France passed the Code Noir, allowing the full use of slaves in the French colonies. ...

20th century

The same trend continued through the Victorian era, and was still labelled as an epidemic of sorts, and with poison still being considered one of the easiest and simplest ways to commit murder.^[9] However, several changes occurred in the Victorian era, such as the rise of the life insurance industry, made poisoning the 'fashionable' crime considering the guaranteed and lucrative profit in the killing of a life-ensured relative with a large price on their head.^[9] But as the move into the 1900s occurred, the technology of preventing poisoning became better and more efficient, and criminal poisoning become much harder than in previous centuries.^[10] Criminal poisoning had to be made cleaner and better planned to match the ever-advancing technologies employed against would-be poisoners.^[10] However, because of a wider range of educated people, more people were able to understand how to use poison and were intelligent or skilled enough to plan out a logical poison-induced murder, whereas in past times, usually only the select few knowledgeable people enough to conduct the homicide would be successful.^[10] Queen Victoria (shown here on the morning of her Ascension to the Throne, 20 June 1837) gave her name to the historic era The Victorian era of the United Kingdom marked the height of the British industrial revolution and the apex of the British Empire. ... Life insurance or life assurance is a contract between the policy owner and the insurer, where the insurer agrees to pay a sum of money upon the occurrence of the insureds death. ...

Goering in his cell after commiting suicide by taking a lethal dose of cyanide.

Image File history File links nuernberg war tribunal photo pub domain File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links nuernberg war tribunal photo pub domain File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

Old poisons

Poison used in the past were also present in 20th-century murders. In the early 20th century, arsenic was often used, but during the mid-century, cyanide became quite popular. It was used during World War II by captured agents of the Resistance as a means of suicide to escape the heinous torture of their enemies.^[10] Nazi war leader Herman Goering even used it to kill himself the night before he was supposed to be hanged during the Nuremberg Trials.^[11] Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Hermann Göring Hermann Wilhelm Göring (also spelled Hermann Goering in English) (January 12, 1893–October 15, 1946) was a prominent and early member of the Nazi party, founder of the Gestapo, and one of the main architects of Nazi Germany. ... The Süddeutsche Zeitung announces The Verdict in Nuremberg. ...

However, new poisons later became more used, so as to outmatch the knowledge of the current toxicology field of science. In this way, wielding a new and unknown poison, a poisoner could kill someone, and the death might be mistaken as an unfortunate case of a rare illness.^[10] This put a new strain on toxicology and other branches dealing with poison, and they were forced to work hard to keep up with the criminals who were using poisons that they had never previously encountered. This article needs more context around or a better explanation of technical details to make it more accessible to general readers and technical readers outside the specialty, without removing technical details. ...

Present day

In the late 20th century, an increasing number of products used for everyday life proved to be poisonous. The risk of being poisoned nowadays lies more in the accidental factor, where poison be induced or taken by accident. These problems occur more frequently in children, and poisoning is the 4th most common cause of death within young people. Accidental ingestions are most common in children less than 5 years old.^[12] A male Caucasian toddler child A child (plural: children) is a young human. ...

However, hospital and emergency facilities are much enhanced compared to the first half of the 20th century and before, and antidotes are more available. Antidotes have been found for many poisons, and the antidotes for some of the most commonly known poisons are shown in the table below: A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. ...

^[12] Paracetamol (INN) (IPA: ) or acetaminophen (USAN), is a common analgesic and antipyretic drug that is used for the relief of fever, headaches, and other minor aches and pains. ... N-acetylcysteine is a chemical, commonly called NAC, produced by the body that enhances the production of the co-enzyme glutathione, a powerful antioxidant. ... An anticoagulant is a substance that prevents coagulation; that is, it stops blood from clotting. ... Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone). ... An opioid is any agent that binds to opioid receptors found principally in the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. ... Naloxone is a drug used to counter the effects of opioid overdose, for example heroin and morphine overdose. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... Deferoxamine, otherwise known as desferrioxamine or desferal, is a chelating agent used to remove excess iron from the body. ... Alprazolam 2mg tablets The benzodiazepines (pronounced , or benzos for short) are a class of psychoactive drugs considered as minor tranquilizers with varying hypnotic, sedative, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant and amnesic properties, which are brought on by slowing down the central nervous system. ... Flumazenil (flumazepil, Anexate®, Lanexat®, Mazicon®, Romazicon®) is a benzodiazepine antagonist, used as an antidote in the treatment of benzodiazepine overdose. ... Ethylene glycol (monoethylene glycol (MEG), IUPAC name: ethane-1,2-diol) is an alcohol with two -OH groups (a diol), a chemical compound widely used as an automotive antifreeze. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, drinking alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless, slightly toxic chemical compound with a distinctive perfume-like odor, and is the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. ... Fomepizole or 4-Methylpyrazole is indicated for use as an antidote in confirmed or suspected methanol or ethylene glycol poisoning. ... Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol or wood spirits, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CH3OH. It is the simplest alcohol, and is a light, volatile, colourless, flammable, poisonous liquid with a distinctive odor that is somewhat milder and sweeter than ethanol (ethyl alcohol). ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, drinking alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless, slightly toxic chemical compound with a distinctive perfume-like odor, and is the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. ... Fomepizole or 4-Methylpyrazole is indicated for use as an antidote in confirmed or suspected methanol or ethylene glycol poisoning. ... The cyanide ion, CN−. From the top: 1. ... Amyl nitrite, also referred to as pentyl nitrite, is an alkyl nitrite that contains five carbons. ... Sodium nitrite, with chemical formula NaNO2, is used as a color fixative and preservative in meats and fish. ... Sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) is a colorless crystalline compound that is more familiar as the pentahydrate, Na2S2O3 · 5H2O, an efflorescent, monoclinic crystalline substance also called sodium hyposulfite or “hypo. ...

However, poison still exists as a murderous entity today, but, for a variety of reasons, it is not as popular form of conducting murder as it used to be in past times, probably because of the wider range of ways to kill people and other factors that must be taken into consideration.

A cropduster spreading pesticide.

Image File history File links Cropduster_spraying_pesticides. ... Image File history File links Cropduster_spraying_pesticides. ... An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that has been built or converted for agricultural use - usually aerial spraying of pesticides or fertiliser. ...

Uses in the modern day

Today, poison is used for a larger variety of purposes that it used to be. While it is still used for many medicines, and is just as effective at killing as it always was, other problems have been solved through poison. Quite often, poison can be used to rid an unwanted infestation by pests or to kill weeds and such, and provides perhaps the most effective way of destroying an infestation.^[13] These chemicals, known as pesticides, have been known to have been used in some form since about 2500 BC, but the use of pesticides has increased staggeringly from 1950, and presently approximately 2.5 million tons of industrial pesticides are used each year.^[13] This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... A cropduster spreading pesticide. ... (Redirected from 2500 BC) (26th century BC - 25th century BC - 24th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2900 - 2334 BC -- Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period 2494 BC -- End of Fourth Dynasty, start of Fifth Dynasty in Egypt. ... 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... Look up million in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Certain poisons can also be used to preserve foods and building material.^[12] For safety and health reasons, the poisons that are used for these purposes are usually found to be somewhat less poisonous than poisons used for weed killing and infestation ridding.^[12] Various preserved foods Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in such a way as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent foodborne illness while maintaining nutritional value, density, texture and flavor. ...

Notes

External links

• History of Poisons

References

• Colins Dictionaries, from the Bank of English (2001). Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers, 594. ISBN 0007666918. 

See also

• List of elements
• List of Extremely Hazardous Substances
• Toxicity
• List of poisonings
• Poison