History of surgery covers the development of invasive and non-invasive medical procedures from prehistoric to modern times. It includes the first surgery for which we have evidence - trepanning (Neolithic era) - through to the Ancient World, the Middle Ages, the development of scientific approaches to the "big three problems" - bleeding, infection and pain - in the 16th century onwards, and the development of modern surgery and surgical techniques thereafter. A cardiothoracic surgeon performs a mitral valve replacement at the Fitzsimons Army Medical Center. ... 18th century French illustration of trepanation (Larger Version) Trepanation, also known as trephinning or trepanning, is a form of surgery where a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, leaving the membrane around the brain intact. ... An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Blood from a finger Bleeding is the loss of blood from the body. ... An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. ... Look up Pain in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

The ancient world

Trepannation

The oldest surgery for which we have evidence is trepannation ^[1] (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole), in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intracranial pressure and other diseases. Evidence has been found in prehistoric human remains from Neolithic times, in cave paintings, and the procedure continued in use well into recorded history (being described by ancient Greek writers such as Hippocrates among others). Out of 120 prehistoric skulls found at one burial site in France dated to 6500 BC, 40 had trepanation holes.^[2] The remains suggest a belief that trepanning could cure epileptic seizures, migraines, and mental disorders.^[3] Surprisingly, many prehistoric and premodern patients had signs of their skull structure healing; suggesting that many of those that proceeded with the surgery survived their operation. 18th century French illustration of trepanation (Larger Version) Trepanation, also known as trephinning or trepanning, is a form of surgery where a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, leaving the membrane around the brain intact. ... A child using an electric drill with a screwdriver bit mounted in the chuck. ... It has been suggested that temporal fenestra be merged into this article or section. ... The dura mater (from the Latin hard mother), or pachymeninx, is the tough and inflexible outermost of the three layers of the meninges surrounding the brain. ... An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Temple to Athena, the Parthenon Ancient Greece is a period in Greek history that lasted for around three thousand years. ... Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos (ca. ... Epilepsy (often referred to as a seizure disorder) is a chronic neurological condition characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. ... The Scream, the famous painting commonly thought of as depicting the experience of mental illness. ...

Ancient India

In Mehrgarh, in modern day Pakistan, archeologists made the discovery that the people of Indus Valley Civilization, even from the early Harappan periods (c. 3300 BC), had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist that carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men. Later research in the same area found evidence of teeth having been drilled, dating back 9,000 years. [1] Mehrgarh was an ancient settlement in South Asia and is one of the most important sites in archaeology for the study of the earliest neolithic settlements in that region. ... Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro. ... (34th century BC - 33rd century BC - 32nd century BC - other centuries) (5th millennium BC - 4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC) Events Major climate shift possibly due to shift in solar activity. ... A Dentist and Dental Assistant perform surgery on a patient. ...

Indian physician Sushruta (c. 600 BC) taught and practiced surgery on the banks of the Ganges in the area that corresponds to the present day city of Benares in Northern India. Much of what is known about Sushruta is contained in a series of volumes he authored, which are collectively known as the Susrutha Samhita. It is the oldest known surgical text and it describes in exquisite detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments, as well as procedures on performing various forms of plastic surgery, such as cosmetic surgery and rhinoplasty.^[4] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sushruta Samhita. ... “Ganga” redirects here. ... Benares (also known as Banaras, Kashi, Kasi and Varanasi (वाराणसी)) is a Hindu holy city on the banks of the river Ganga or Ganges in the modern north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Dark green region marks the approximate extent of northern India while the regions marked as light green lies within the sphere of north Indian influence. ... “Facial reconstruction” redirects here. ... Rhinoplasty (Greek: , Nose + , to shape) is a type of plastic surgery that is used to improve the function (reconstructive surgery) or appearance (cosmetic surgery) of a persons nose. ...

In the Sushruta school, the first person to expound Āyurvedic knowledge was Dhanvantari who then taught it to Divodasa who, in turn, taught it to Sushruta, Aupadhenava, Aurabhra, Paushakalāvata, Gopurarakshita, and Bhoja. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Because of his seminal and numerous contributions to the science and art of surgery, Sushruta is also known by the title "Father of Surgery". The Samhita has some writings that date as late as the 1st century, and some scholars believe that there were contributions and additions to his teachings from generations of his students and disciples. Susrutha is also the father of Plastic Surgery and Cosmetic Surgery since his technique of forehead flap rhinoplasty (repairing the disfigured nose with a flap of skin from the forehead),that he used to reconstruct noses that were amputated as a punishment for crimes, is practiced almost unchanged in technique to this day. This knowledge of plastic surgery existed in India up to the late 18th century as can be seen from the reports published in Gentleman's Magazine (October 1794).

The Susrutha Samhita contains the first known description of several operations, including the uniting of bowel, the removal of the prostate gland, the removal of cataract lenses and the draining of abscesses. Susrutha was also the first surgeon to advocate the practice of operations on inanimate objects such as watermelons, clay plots and reeds; thus predating the modern practice of the surgical workshop by half a millennium.

Ancient Egypt

Pictures of surgery tools at Kom Ombo, Egypt

Researchers have uncovered an Ancient Egyptian mandible, dated to approximately 2650 BC, with two perforations just below the root of the first molar, indicating the draining of an abscessed tooth. Recent excavations of the construction workers of the Egyptian pyramids also led to the discovery of evidence of brain surgery on a labourer, who continued living for two years afterwards.^{[citation needed]} Kom Ombo (كوم أمبو) is an agricultural town in Egypt famous for its temple. ... Khafres Pyramid (4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c. ... The mandible (from Latin mandibÅ­la, jawbone) or inferior maxillary bone is, together with the maxilla, the largest and strongest bone of the face. ... (Redirected from 2800 BC) (29th century BC - 28th century BC - 27th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2775 - 2650 BC - Second Dynasty wars in Egypt 2750 BC - End of the Early Dynastic I Period, and the beginning of the Early Dynastic II... Molars are the rearmost and most complicated kind of tooth in most mammals. ... A smiling humans visible teeth. ... All Giza Pyramids. ... Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating the central and peripheral nervous system. ...

Ancient Greece

While surgeons are now considered to be specialised physicians, the profession of surgeon and that of physician had different historical roots. For example, Greek tradition was against opening the body, and the Hippocratic Oath warns physicians against the practice of surgery. Specifically, cutting persons laboring under the stone (i.e. lithotomy, an operation to relieve kidney stones) was to be left to such persons as practice [it]. Of course, most knowledge of surgery comes from dissecting bodies, a science which was repulsive to many healers.^{[citation needed]} The Doctor by Luke Fildes This article is about the term physician, one type of doctor; for other uses of the word doctor see Doctor. ... A twelfth-century Byzantine manuscript of the Oath in the form of a cross The Hippocratic Oath is an oath traditionally taken by physicians pertaining to the ethical practice of medicine. ... Lithotomy from Greek for lithos (stone) and thomos (cut), is a surgical method for removal of calculi, stones formed inside certain hollow organs, such as the bladder and kidneys (urinary calculus) and gallbladder (gallstones), that cannot exit naturally through the urethra, ureter or biliary duct. ... Kidney stones are solid accretions (crystals) of dissolved minerals in urine found inside the kidneys or ureters. ... Post-mortem, postmortem and post mortem redirect here. ...

Ancient China

Hua Tuo was a famous Chinese physician during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms era. He was the first person to perform surgery with the aid of anesthesia, some 1600 years before the practice was adopted by Europeans.^{[citation needed]} Huà Tuó was a famous Chinese physician during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms era. ... Anesthesia or anaesthesia (see spelling differences) has traditionally meant the condition of having the perception of pain and other sensations blocked. ...

The medieval world

Islamic world

Abulcasis (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi) was an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist who practised in the Zahra suburb of Cordoba. He is considered a great medieval surgeon, whose comprehensive medical texts, combining Islamic medicine and Greco-Roman teachings, shaped European surgical procedures up until the Renaissance. He is often regarded as the Father Of Surgery.^[5] Patients and students from all parts of Europe came to him for treatment and advice. According to Will Durant, Cordova was in this period the favourite resort of Europeans for surgical operations. Abu al-Qasim (936 - 1013), (Arabic: أبو القاسم) also known as Abul Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas al-Zahrawi known in the West as Abucalsis, is medieval Islams most prominent scholar of medicine. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... Córdoba most commonly means Córdoba, Spain, a famous city in Spain inhabited since the time of ancient Rome, and the seat of the Emir of Córdoba and the Caliph of Córdoba. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... In modern Olympic and amateur wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation. ... William Durant William James Durant (November 5, 1885–November 7, 1981) was an American philosopher, historian, and writer. ...

Surgery in Holland (ca. 1690)

Image File history File linksMetadata Surgeon01. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Surgeon01. ...

Western Europe

By the thirteenth century, many European towns were demanding that physicians have several years of study or training before they could practice. Montpellier, Padua and Bologna Universities were particularly interested in the academic side to Surgery, and by the fifteenth century at the latest, Surgery was a separate university subject to Physics. Surgery had a lower status than pure medicine, beginning as a craft tradition until Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, which laid the foundation for the species of the occidental surgical manuals, influencing them up to modern times. Montpellier (Occitan Montpelhièr) is a city in the south of France. ... Tronco Maestro Riviera: a pedestrian walk along a section of the inland waterway or naviglio interno of Padua. ... Bologna (IPA , from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Emiliano-Romagnolo) is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy, in the Pianura Padana, between the Po River and the Apennines, exactly between the Reno River and the Sàvena River. ... Detail from Rogerius treatise (Amiens, ca. ...

Ambroise Paré pioneered the treatment of gunshot wounds. Among the first modern surgeons were battlefield doctors in the Napoleonic Wars who were primarily concerned with amputation. Naval surgeons were often barber surgeons, who combined surgery with their main jobs as barbers. Ambroise Paré. Ambroise Paré (1510 – December 20, 1590) was a French surgeon, the official royal surgeon for kings Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, is considered by some as one of the Fathers of Surgery. ... Combatants Austria[1] Portugal Prussia[1] Russia[2] Spain[3] Sweden United Kingdom[4] Ottoman Empire[5] Holy Roman Empire[6] French Empire Holland Kingdom of Italy Kingdom of Naples Duchy of Warsaw Bavaria[7] Saxony[8] Denmark [9] Commanders Archduke Charles Prince Schwarzenberg Karl Mack von Leiberich Gebhard von... Partial hand amputation For the song Amputations by Death Cab for Cutie, see You Can Play These Songs with Chords Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma (also referred to as avulsion) or surgery. ... Barbers were often recruited for the job of surgery in earlier military history. ...

In London, an operating theatre or operating room from the days before modern anaesthesia or antiseptic surgery still exists, and is open to the public. It is found in the roof space of St Thomas Church, Southwark, London and is called the Old Operating Theatre. This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... An operating theatre (gynecological hospital of Medical University of Silesia in Bytom) An operating theatre, operating room, or a surgery suite is a room within a hospital within which surgical operations are carried out. ... An operating theatre or operating room is a room within a hospital within which surgical operations are carried out. ... Anesthesia (AE), also anaesthesia (BE), is the process of blocking the perception of pain and other sensations. ... An antiseptic solution of iodine applied to a cut Antiseptics (Greek αντί, against, and σηπτικός, putrefactive) are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction. ... St Thomas, Church Southwark was built sometime in the Medieval period, date unknown. ... The Interior of the Old Operating Theatre The Old Operating Theatre Museum is one of London’s most intriguing historic interiors. ...

Foundations of modern surgery

To make its transition to the modern era the art of surgery had to solve three major problems that effectively prevented surgery from progressing into the modern science. These were:

• Bleeding
• Infection
• Pain

Blood from a finger Bleeding is the loss of blood from the body. ... An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. ... Look up Pain in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Bleeding

Before modern surgical developments, there was a very real threat that a patient would bleed to death on the table during an operation or while being attended after an accident or wound. The first real progress in combating bleeding had come when early cultures realized they could close wounds using extremes of heat, a procedure called cauterizing. The early cauterization was successful, but only usable in a limited fashion, highly destructive, and painful, with very poor long term outcomes.^{[verification needed]} Cauterization is a medical term describing the burning of the body to remove or close a part of it. ...

The next real breakthrough to come was the invention of ligatures, widely believed to have originated with Ambrose Pare during the 16th century. A ligature is a piece of material used to tie closed the end of a severed blood vessel to prevent further bleeding. Ligatures form the basis of modern bleeding control, but at the time, they were more of a hazard than a help because the surgeons using them had no concept of infection control. The word ligature can mean more than one thing. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... f you all The blood vessels are part of the circulatory system and function to transport blood throughout the body. ...

A final barrier to be overcome was the problem of replacing blood lost. Limiting bleeding is important, but ultimately, a surgeon is fighting a losing battle if blood cannot be replaced, and this final barrier was only conquered when early 20th century research into blood groups allowed the first effective blood transfusions. A blood type is a description an individuals characteristics of red blood cells due to substances (carbohydrates and proteins) on the cell membrane. ... Donating blood Blood transfusion is the process of transferring blood or blood-based products from one person into the circulatory system of another. ...

Infection

Big holes into sealed internal environments lead to infections, especially if the surgeon is using dirty tools, covered in blood and wearing his normal clothes. The first progress in combating infection was made in 1847 by the Hungarian doctor Ignaz Semmelweis who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths, however the Royal Society in the UK still dismissed his advice. 1847 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Ignaz Semmelweis (1860 portrait): advised handwashing with a chlorinated-lime solution in 1847. ... // Midwifery is the term traditionally used to describe the art of assisting a woman through childbirth. ... The premises of The Royal Society in London (first four properties only). ...

The next true progress came when, after reading a paper by Louis Pasteur, the British surgeon Joseph Lister began experimenting with using phenol during surgery to prevent infections. Lister was able to quickly reduce infection rates, a reduction that was further helped by his subsequent introduction of techniques to sterilize equipment, have rigorous hand washing and a later implementation of rubber gloves. Lister published his work as a series of articles in The Lancet (March 1867) under the title Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery. The work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern aseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years (Lister himself went on to make further strides in antisepsis and asepsis throughout his lifetime). The gradual development of germ theory has allowed the final step to be taken to create the highest quality of aseptic conditions in modern hospitals, allowing modern surgeons to perform nearly infection free surgery. Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French chemist best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in microbiology. ... Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister (April 5, 1827-February 10, 1912) was a famous British surgeon who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Infirmary. ... Phenol, also known under an older name of carbolic acid, is a colourless crystalline solid with a typical sweet tarry odor. ... Schoolchildren washing their hands before eating lunch. ... The Lancet is one of the oldest and most respected peer-reviewed medical journals in the world, published weekly by Elsevier, part of Reed Elsevier. ... Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery is a paper regarding antiseptics written by Joseph Lister in 1867. ... Asepsis is the practice to reduce or eliminate contaminants (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites) from entering the operative field in surgery or medicine to prevent infection. ... An operating theatre (gynecological hospital of Medical University of Silesia in Bytom) An operating theatre, operating room, or a surgery suite is a room within a hospital within which surgical operations are carried out. ... The germ theory of disease states that many diseases are caused by microorganisms, and that microorganisms grow by reproduction, rather than being spontaneously generated. ...

Pain

Anesthesia was discovered by two American dentists, Horace Wells (1815-1848) and William Morton. Before the advent of anesthesia, surgery was a traumatically painful procedure and surgeons were encouraged to be as swift as possible to minimize patient suffering. This also meant that operations were largely restricted to amputations and external growth removals. Horace Wells (January 21, 1815 - January 24, 1848) was an American dentist who pioneered the use of anesthesia in dentistry, specifically nitrous oxide or laughing gas. ... William Thomas Green Morton (August 9, 1819 - July 15, 1868) was responsible for the first successful public demonstration of ether as an inhalation anesthetic. ... Anesthesia or anaesthesia (see spelling differences) has traditionally meant the condition of having the perception of pain and other sensations blocked. ... Partial hand amputation For the song Amputations by Death Cab for Cutie, see You Can Play These Songs with Chords Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma (also referred to as avulsion) or surgery. ...

Beginning in the 1840s, surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anaesthetic chemicals such as ether and chloroform. In Britain, John Snow pioneered the use of these two anaesthetics. In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body. The further discovery of muscle relaxants such as curare also facilitated safer applications. // Events and Trends Technology First use of general anesthesia in an operation, by Crawford Long The first electrical telegraph sent by Samuel Morse on May 24, 1844 from Baltimore to Washington, D.C.. War, peace and politics First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi (Te Tiriti o Waitangi) on February... This article is about the chemical compound. ... R-phrases , , , S-phrases , Flash point Non-flammable U.S. Permissible exposure limit (PEL) 50 ppm (240 mg/m3) (OSHA) Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Dr. John Snow John Snow (16 March 1813 - 16 June 1858) was a British physician and a leader in the adoption of anaesthesia and medical hygiene, and is considered one of the fathers of epidemiology for his work in tracing the source of a cholera outbreak in Soho, Westminster, England... A muscle relaxant is a drug which decreases the tone of a muscle. ... Strychnos toxifera by Koehler 1887 This page is about the plant toxins. ...

Modern surgery

Timeline of surgical procedures

Notable individuals in the development of surgery

References

1. ^ (Capasso 2001)
2. ^ Restak (2000)
3. ^ Brothwell, D.R. Digging up Bones. 1963:126
4. ^ http://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=2002;volume=48;issue=1;spage=76;epage=8;aulast=Rana
5. ^ biography from Famousmuslims.com accessed 16 April 2007.

April 16 is the 106th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (107th in leap years). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ...

See also

• Surgery
• History of medicine