The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, a major literary achievement of the Eighteenth Century, was written by the English historian, Edward Gibbon. Volume I was published in 1776, and went through five printings (a remarkable feat for its time). Volume II was printed in 1781, and the final one in 1788. The original volumes were not published together, but as quartos, a common publishing practice. (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the British Isles Languages English (de facto) Capital London de facto Largest city London Area – Total Ranked 1st UK 130,395 km² Population – Total (mid-2004) – Total (2001 Census) – Density Ranked 1st... A historian is a person who studies history. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is about the year 1776. ... 1781 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1788 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Quarto has several meanings: In bookbinding and publishing, quarto indicates the book size which results when four leaves of the book are created from a standard size sheet of paper. ...

The books cover the period of the Roman Empire after Marcus Aurelius from just before AD 180 to 1453 and beyond, concluding in 1590. They take as their material the behavior and decisions that led to the decay and eventual fall of the Roman Empire in the East and West, offering an explanation on why the Roman Empire fell. For other senses of this name, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Bust of Aurelius in the Louvre of Paris. ... For other uses, see number 180. ... Events May 29 - Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). ... Events March 14 - Battle of Ivry - Henry IV of France again defeats the forces of the Catholic League under the Duc de Mayenne. ... Romulus Augustus, the last of the Western Roman Emperors. ... Byzantine Empire (Greek: ) is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Often referred to as "the first modern historian", Gibbon was a precursor for the more advanced methodologies of 19th and 20th century historians regarding his objectivity and accuracy in the use of reference material. His pessimism and detached use of irony was common to the historical genre of that era. Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Objectivity has several meanings: Objectivity (philosophy) Objectivity (journalism) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... In general, a reference is something that refers or points to something else, or acts as a connection or a link between two things. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

Although he published other books, Gibbon devoted the greater part of his life to this one work. Even his Autobiography Memoirs of My Life and Writings is devoted for the most part to his reflections on how the writing of the book consumed his entire life.

Outline of the work

For a comprehensive outline of the work, including chapter titles, excerpts, and a discussion of the division into volumes of the various editions, see Outline of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. This is an outline of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon. ...

Gibbon's theory

The book is famous not only because it is extraordinarily well written, but also because Gibbon offers an explanation for why the Roman Empire fell. This is one of the greatest historical questions, and, because of the lack of written records from the time, one of the most difficult to undertake. Gibbon was not the first to theorise on this. In fact most of his ideas are directly taken from Roman moralists of the 4th and 5th centuries who wrote about it at the time; nor would he be the last, most famously Henri Pirenne's Pirenne Thesis of the early 20th century. The Roman Empire is not the Holy Roman Empire (843-1806). ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 4th century was that century which lasted from 301 to 400. ... // Overview Events Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor 410: Rome sacked by Visigoths 452: Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with Attila the Hun and convinces him not to sack Rome 439: Vandals conquer Carthage At some point after 440, the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain. ... Henri Pirenne (December 23, 1862, Verviers - October 25, 1935, Uccle) was a leading Belgian historian. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the...

According to Gibbon, the Roman Empire succumbed to barbarian invasions because of a loss of civic virtue among its citizens. They had become lazy and soft, outsourcing their duties to defend their Empire to barbarian mercenaries, who then became so numerous and ingrained that they were then able to easily take over the Empire. Romans, he believed, had become effeminate, unwilling to live the military lifestyle.

In addition Gibbon attacked Christianity. Christianity, he says, created a belief in another world, that is to say that a better life existed after death. This fostered indifference to this life among the Roman citizens who believed they would live a better life once they died, thus sapping their desire to maintain and sacrifice for the Empire. He also believed its comparative pacifism tended to sap the traditional Roman martial spirit.

Finally, like other Enlightenment thinkers of his time, Gibbon held nothing but contempt for the Middle Ages that followed the collapse of the Roman Empire. Priest ridden, superstitious, "dark" times, it was not until his own age of reason and rational thought, it was believed, that human history could resume its progress forward to better times. The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a larger period which includes the Age of Reason. ... The Middle Ages in history is an overview of how previous periods have portrayed the Middle Ages. ... Petrarch, who conceived the idea of a European Dark Age. From Cycle of Famous Men and Women, Andrea di Bartolo di Bargillac, c. ...

These ideas and theories have remained influential with historians to modern times, although re-examinations of the archeological and anthropological record has shed new light on the traditional interpretations (see Late antiquity). Late Antiquity is a rough periodization (c. ...

Gibbon's use of citations

Gibbon provides the reader with a glimpse of his thought process with extensive notes along the body of the text, a precursor to the modern use of footnotes. Gibbon's footnotes are famous for their idiosyncrasies. They provide an entertaining moral commentary on both Ancient Rome and Great Britain during the Eighteenth Century. However, these whimsical asides also serve as a literary device for Gibbon. This technique enabled Gibbon to play a dual role as a novelist and a historian with a voice of authority, comparing Ancient Rome to modern times. Gibbon's work advocates a rationalist and progressive view of history. It is impartial in terms of the Enlightenment concept of reason, and viewed in this perspective, it is as much a historical culture of the eighteenth century as it is of Ancient Rome. The Roman Colosseum Rome (Italian and Latin Roma) is the capital city of Italy, and of its Lazio region. ... This article is not about continental rationalism. ... The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a larger period which includes the Age of Reason. ...

Gibbon's citations provide in-depth detail regarding his use of sources for his work on Ancient Rome. What made Gibbon unique was his use of primary sources, original documents dating back to Ancient Rome. The enormous archive of detail within his asides and his obsession with noting the importance of each document is a precursor to modern day historical footnoting methodology. As a writer, Gibbon could only reconstruct his version of the past through his own translations in order to present an accurate portrayal of events.

The controversial chapters in Volume I

When Volume I was first published, it was introduced in quartos. The first two were well received and widely praised. The last quarto in Volume I, especially Chapters XV and XVI, were highly controversial, and Gibbon was declared "paganist". Paganism (from Latin paganus) and Heathenry are catch-all terms which have come to connote a broad set of spiritual/religious beliefs and practices of a natural religion, as opposed to the Abrahamic religions. ...

Gibbon debunked the myth of Christian martyrdom by deconstructing official Church history that had been perpetuated for centuries. Because the Roman Church had a virtual monopoly on its own history, its own Latin interpretations were considered sacrosanct, and as a result the Church's writings had rarely been questioned before. For Gibbon, however, the Church writings were secondary sources, and he eschewed them in favour of primary sources contemporary to the period he was chronicling. This is why Gibbon is referred to as the "first modern historian", and why The Decline and Fall was placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum. Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life, teachings, and actions of Jesus of Nazareth, known by Christians as Jesus Christ, as recounted in the New Testament. ... Historically, a martyr is a person who dies for his or her religious faith. ... The Roman Catholic Church is the largest religious denomination of Christianity with over one billion members. ... Secondary sources are texts based on primary sources, and involve generalization, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, or evaluation. ... A primary source is any piece of information that is used for constructing history as an artifact of its times. ... The Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books) is a list of publications which the Roman Catholic Church censored for being a danger to itself and its members. ...

According to Gibbon, Romans were far more tolerant of Christians than Christians were of one another, especially once Christianity gained the upper hand. Christians inflicted far greater casualties on Christians than were ever inflicted by the Roman Empire. Gibbon extrapolated that the number of Christians executed by other Christian factions far exceeded all the Christian martyrs who died during the three centuries of Christianity under Roman rule. This was in stark contrast to Orthodox Church history, which insisted that Christianity won the hearts and minds of people largely because of the inspirational example set by its martyrs. Gibbon proved that the early Church's custom of bestowing the title of martyr on all confessors of faith grossly inflated the actual numbers.

Gibbon compares how insubstantial that number was, by comparing it to more modern terms. He compared both the reigns of Diocletian (284-305), and Charles V (1519-1556) and the electorate of the Holy Roman Empire, making the argument that both were remarkably similar. Both emperors were plagued by continuous war and compelled to excessive taxation; both chose to abdicate as Emperors at roughly the same age; and both chose to lead a quiet life upon their retirement. Emperor Diocletian. ... Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. ... This page is about the Germanic empire. ...

Gibbon's critics were scathing in their attack on this particular line of argument. Numerous tracts were published criticising his work, and Gibbon was forced to defend his work in reply. He left London to finish the following volumes in Lausanne, where he could work in solitude. For other uses, see London (disambiguation) and Defining London (below). ... Lausanne (, ) is a city in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (French: Lac Léman), and facing Évian-les-Bains (France). ...

Gibbon's legacy

Gibbon’s methodology was so accurate that, to this day, little can be found to controvert his use of primary sources for evidence. While modern historical methodology has changed dramatically, his skill in translation of his sources is considered impeccable. Contemporary historians still rely on Gibbon as a reliable secondary source to substantiate references and for citations. His literary tone in the History is out of date to modern readers, and is always described as skeptical and pessimistic. However, it mirrors both the man and more importantly, the topic of his great work: the gradual decay of a mighty empire. Since its first publication, the title has been shortened from The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire to The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

References

Note: Gibbon continued to revise and change his work even after publication; the complexities of the problem are addressed in the foreword of the Womersley edition.

• In-print complete editions
  • J.B. Bury, editor, 7 volumes (London:Methuen, 1909-1914), currently reprinted by AMS Press. Until the Womersley edition, this was the essential version, but now almost one hundred years old, the historical analysis commentary is not the latest. ISBN 0809592355 (v.1) ISBN 0809592363 (v.2) ISBN 0809592371 (v.3) ISBN 080959238X (v.4) ISBN 0809592398 (v.5) ISBN 0809592401 (v.6) ISBN 080959241X (v.7)
  • Everyman's Library, 6 volumes. Edited and introduced by Hugh Trevor-Roper from the Bury text, but without Bury's notes, many of which are superseded by more recent research, and with Gibbon's own notes. ISBN 1857150953 (vols 1–3) and ISBN 1857151925 (vols 4–6)
  • D. Womersley, editor, 3 volumes (London:Penguin Books, 1994). The current essential version, it is the most faithful to Gibbon's original words; alas, the ancient Greek quotations are not as good as in Bury, a minor quibble for an otherwise excellent work with complete footnotes, and bibliographical information for Gibbon's cryptic footnote notations, plus an index, and a copy of Vindication (1779) which Gibbon wrote in response to his description of the rise of Christianity. ISBN 0713991240
• In-print abridgements
  • D. Womersley, editor, 1 volume (London:Penguin Books, 2000). Includes in complete entirety, including all footnotes, eleven of the original seventy-one chapters. ISBN 0140437649
  • Hans-Friedrich Mueller, editor, 1 volume (Random House, 2003). Includes excerpts from all seventy-one chapters, it eliminates footnotes, geographic surveys, details of battle formations, long narratives of military campaigns, ethnographies and genealogies, but keeps the narrative start to finish. Based on the Rev. H.H. Milman edition of 1845 (See also Gutenburg etext edition). ISBN 0375758119
• Bibliography
  • Cosgrove, Peter. Impartial Stranger: History and Intertextuality in Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 1999. Newark: Associated University Presses. ISBN 087413658X
  • Gay, Peter. Style in History (1974). New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465083048
  • Pocock, J.G.A. Barbarism and Religion (1999). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521633451 (v.1) ISBN 0521640024 (v.2)

John Bagnell Bury (16 October 1861 – 1 June 1927) was an eminent British historian, classical scholar, and philologist. ...

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

• The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire from the Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Formatted into chapters for easy web reading.
• The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire author record at Project Gutenberg. Based on the Rev. H.H. Milman edition of 1845.
• Free eBook Memoirs of My Life and Writings at Project Gutenberg
• Scanned images of the 1789 edition being progressively added to this site, higher resolutions available on request.