NationMaster - Encyclopedia: History of the Moldovan language

The history of the Moldovan language refers to the history of the Romanian language in the historical and political regions of Moldova and Transnistria, where due to political reasons^{[citation needed]} it's officially called Moldovan. Romanian (limba romÃ¢nÄƒ, IPA: ) is a Romance language spoken by around 24 to 28 million people[1], primarily in Romania and Moldova. ... For the region during the Second World War, see Transnistria (World War II). ...

Before 1812

The Moldovan prince Laţcu (ca. 1365-1373), son of the very first ruler of Moldova, was recognized as duke of Moldova by the Holy See, and the recognition letters stated that Moldova was a part of the Vlach (Romanian) nation: dux Moldavie partium seu nationis Wlachie. LaÅ£cu was the son of Bogdan I and Voivode of Moldavia between circa 1365 and 1373. ...

The Polish chronicler, Jan Długosz, remarked as early as 1476 that Moldavians and Wallachians "share a language and customs"^[1]. References to a "Moldavian language" can be found in works as early as Grigore Ureche's The Chronicles of the land of Moldavia (1640s), where it is noted that this language is shared by Moldovans, Wallachians, and Transylvanian Vlachs. Jan DÅ‚ugosz Jan DÅ‚ugosz, also known as Joannes Longinus or Joannes Dlugossius (1415-1480) was a Polish historian (a chronicler) and a secretary of Bishop Zbigniew OleÅ›nicki of KrakÃ³w. ... Grigore Ureche (1590 - 1647) was a Moldavian chronicler who wrote on Moldavian history in his LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Äƒrii Moldovei (The Chronicles of the land of Moldavia), covering the period from 1359 to 1594. ... Map of Romania with Wallachia in yellow. ... Map of Romania with Transylvania in yellow Transylvania (Romanian: or ; Hungarian: ; German: ; Bulgarian: ; Serbian: / or / ) is a historical region in central and western Romania. ...

Miron Costin, in his De neamul moldovenilor (1687) writes of a Romanian nation that lives in Moldavia, Muntenia, Ardeal and the Hungarian Country, and says that although people of Moldavia call themselves "Moldavians", they name their language "Romanian" (româneşte) instead of Moldavian (moldoveneşte). Also Miron Costin, in his Polish language Chronicle of Wallachia and Moldavia says that the Muntenians, just like Moldavians call themselves "Rumanians", which is equivalent to "Romans". Miron Costin (1633 - 1691) was a Moldavian politician and chronicler, his main work: LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢ÄƒrÃ®i Moldovei (The Chronicles of the land of Moldavia) continues that of Grigore Ureche describing the period from, 1594 till 1660 and was published in 1675. ... Map of Romania with Muntenia highlighted Muntenia or Greater Wallachia is a historical province of Romania, usually considered Wallachia-proper (Muntenia, Å¢ara RomÃ¢neascÄƒ, and the seldomly used Valahia are synonyms in Romanian). ... Transylvania (Romanian: Transilvania or Ardeal, Hungarian: Erdély, German: Siebenbürgen, Serbian: Transilvanija, Turkish: Erdel, Slovak: Sedmohradsko or Transylvania, Polish: Siedmiogród) is a historic region that forms the western and the central parts of Romania. ... The Kingdom of Hungary (Hungarian: Magyar KirÃ¡lysÃ¡g) is the name of a multiethnic kingdom that existed in Central Europe from 1000 to 1918. ... Polish (jÄ™zyk polski, polszczyzna) is the official language of Poland. ...

The Moldavian scientist Dimitrie Cantemir wrote in his Descriptio Moldaviae (Berlin 1714) that the Moldavians spoke the same language as Wallachians and Transylvanians, but he explained that the Wallachians pronounce the words in a harsher way. Cantemir also wrote one of the earliest histories of the Romanian language, noting the evolution of Romanian words from Latin, noticing the Greek borrowings and introducing the idea that some Romanian words had Dacian roots. Dimitrie Cantemir (-Romanian, Ð”Ð¼Ð¸Ñ‚Ñ€Ð¸Ð¹ ÐšÐ°Ð½Ñ‚ÐµÐ¼Ð¸Ñ€ in Russian, KantemiroÄŸlu in Turkish, Kantymir in Polish), (October 26, 1673 - 1723) was a Moldavian Voivode (Prince; March-April 1693 and 1710-1711), philosopher, historian, composer, linguist and scholar. ... This article is about the capital of Germany. ... Battle of Gangut, by Maurice Baquoi, 1724-27. ... The Dacian language was an Indo-European language spoken by the ancient people of Dacia. ...

Russification of the language in imperial Russian Bessarabia

In the first years of Russian occupation (after 1812), as 95% of the population were Romanians, Romanian was admitted as an official language in the institutions of Bessarabia, used along with Russian. 1927 map of Bessarabia from Charles Upson Clarks book Bessarabia (Basarabia in Romanian, Ð‘ÐµÑÐ°Ñ€Ð°Ð±Ñ–Ñ in Ukrainian, Ð‘ÐµÑÑÐ°Ñ€Ð°Ð±Ð¸Ñ in Russian, Ð‘ÐµÑÐ°Ñ€Ð°Ð±Ð¸Ñ in Bulgarian, Besarabya in Turkish) is a historical term for the geographic entity in Eastern Europe bounded by the Dniester River on the East and the Prut River on the West. ...

Gradually, the Russian language gained importance. According to the dates offered by the department ruling Bessarabia, from 1828 the bureau papers were published in Russian only, and in around 1835, it established a 7-year term when the state institutions would accept acts in the Romanian language.^[2] Year 1828 (MDCCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

Romanian was accepted as the language of instruction only until 1842, afterwards being taught as a separate subject. Thus, at the seminary of Chişinău, the Romanian language was found on the list of compulsory subjects, with 10 hours weekly, until 1863, when the Department of Romanian was closed. At High School No.1 in Chişinău, students had the right to choose among Romanian, German, and Greek until 9 February 1866, when the State Counselor of the Russian Empire forbade teaching of the Romanian language, giving the justification: "the pupils know this language in the practical mode, and its teaching follows other goals".^[2] 1842 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... A seminary or theological college is a specialized and often live-in higher education institution for the purpose of instructing students (seminarians) in philosophy, theology, spirituality and the religious life, usually in order to prepare them to become members of the clergy. ... Status Municipality Founded 1436 Area 635 kmÂ² Population (2004) 647,513 [1] - density 1,114 inh/kmÂ² - rank 1st Localities (total): 35 - cities 7 - communes 12 - unincorporated 16 Mayor Dorin ChirtoacÄƒ, since 2007 Council 51 members, since 2007 - Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova 16 - Liberal Party (Moldova... Year 1863 (MDCCCLXIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Status Municipality Founded 1436 Area 635 kmÂ² Population (2004) 647,513 [1] - density 1,114 inh/kmÂ² - rank 1st Localities (total): 35 - cities 7 - communes 12 - unincorporated 16 Mayor Dorin ChirtoacÄƒ, since 2007 Council 51 members, since 2007 - Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova 16 - Liberal Party (Moldova... is the 40th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1866 (MDCCCLXVI) is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ...

Around 1871, the tsar published an ukase "On the suspension of teaching the Romanian language in the schools from Bessarabia," because "in the Russian Empire local speeches are not taught".^[2] 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Ukase (Russian: указ, ukaz) in Imperial Russia was a proclamation of the tsar government, or a religions leader patriarch that had the force of law. ...

Declining status of the Moldovan language during the Russian Empire

The linguistic situation in Bessarabia from 1812 to 1918 was the gradual development of bilingualism. Russian continued to develop as the official language of privilege, whereas Romanian remained the principal vernacular. The evolution of this linguistic situation, and the development of Moldovan, can be divided into five phases. ^[3] For the overture by Tchaikovsky, see 1812 Overture; For the wars, see War of 1812 (USA - United Kingdom) or Patriotic War of 1812 (France - Russia) For the Siberia Airlines plane crashed over the Black Sea on October 4, 2001, see Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 1812 was a leap year starting... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... The term bilingualism (from bi meaning two and lingua meaning language) can refer to rather different phenomena. ...

Phase one: 1812 to 1828

The period from 1812 to 1828 was one of neutral or functional bilingualism. Whereas Russian had official dominance, Romanian was not without influence, especially in the spheres of public administration, education (particularly religious education) and culture. In the years immediately following the annexation, loyalty to Romanian language and customs became important. The Theological Seminary (Seminarul Teologic) and Lancaster Schools were opened in 1813 and 1824 respectively, Romanian grammar books were published, and the printing press at Chişinău began producing religious books. ^[3] Year 1828 (MDCCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

Phase two: 1828 to 1843

The period from 1828 to 1843 was one of partial diglossic bilingualism. During this time, use of Romanian was forbidden in the sphere of administration. This was carried out through negative means: Romanian was excluded from the civil code. Romanian continued to be used in education, but only as a separate subject. Bilingual manuals, such as the Russian-Romanian Bucoavne grammar of Iacob Ghinculov, were published to meet the new need for bilingualism. Religious books and Sunday sermons remained the only monolingual public outlet for Romanian. By 1843, the removal of Romanian from public administration was complete. ^[3] Year 1843 (MDCCCXLIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... A civil code is a systematic compilation of laws designed to comprehensively deal with the core areas of private law. ... A sermon is an oration by a prophet or member of the clergy. ...

Phase three: 1843 to 1871

The period from 1843 to 1871 was one of assimilation. Romanian continued to be a school subject until 1866 at the Liceul Regional (high school), until 1867 at the Seminarul Teologic (Theological Seminary), and until 1871 at regional schools, when all teaching of the language was forbidden by law. ^[3] Year 1843 (MDCCCXLIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1866 (MDCCCLXVI) is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Cunt BAg Twat Fuk suck my penis ring 0778851865!!!!!!Year 1867 (MDCCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

Phase four: 1871 to 1905

The period from 1871 to 1905 was one of official monolingualism in Russian. All public use of Romanian was phased out, and substituted with Russian. Romanian continued to be used as the colloquial language of home and family. This was the era of the highest level of assimilation in the Russian Empire. In 1872, the priest Pavel Lebedev ordered that all church documents be written in Russian, and, in 1882, the press at Chişinău was closed by order of the holy synod. ^[3] 1905 (MCMV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar). ... Monoglottism (Greek monos, alone, solitary, + glotta, tongue, language) or, more commonly, monolingualism or unilingualism is the condition of being able to speak only a single language. ... Anthem God Save the Tsar! The Russian Empire in 1914 Capital Saint Petersburg Language(s) Russian Religion Russian Orthodoxy Government Monarchy Emperor - 1721â€“1725 Peter the Great - 1894â€“1917 Nicholas II History - Accession of Peter I May 7, 1682 NS, April 27, 1682 OSÂ² - Empire proclaimed October 22, 1721 NS... Year 1872 (MDCCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Pavel Lebedev is a Russian pairs figure skater. ... Year 1882 (MDCCCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... A synod (also known as a council) is a council of a church, usually a Christian church, convened to decide an issue of doctrine, administration or application. ...

Phase five: 1905 to 1917

The period from 1905 to 1917 was one of increasing linguistic conflict, with the re-awakening of Romanian national consciousness. In 1905 and 1906, the Bessarabian zemstvels asked for the re-introduction of Romanian in schools as a "compulsory language", and the "liberty to teach in the mother language (Romanian language)". At the same time, the first Romanian language newspapers and journals began to appear: Basarabia (1906), Viaţa Basarabiei (1907), Moldovanul (1907), Luminătorul (1908), Cuvînt moldovenesc (1913), Glasul Basarabiei (1913). From 1913, the synod permitted that "the churches in Besserabia use the Romanian language". ^[3] 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ... Zemstvo was a form of local government instituted during the great liberal reforms performed in Imperial Russia by Alexander II of Russia. ...

The term "Moldovan language" (limbă moldovenească) was newly employed to create a state-sponsored Ausbausprache to distinguish it from 'Romanian' Romanian. Thus, Şt. Margeală, in 1827, stated that the aim of his book was to "offer the 800,000 Romanians who live in Bessarabia,... as well as to the millions of Romanians from the other part of Prut, the possibility of knowing the Russian language, and also for the Russians who want to study the Romanian language". In 1865 Ioan Doncev, editing his Romanian primer and grammar, affirmed that Moldovan is valaho-româno, or Romanian. However, after this date, the label "Romanian language" appears only sporadically in the correspondence of the educational authorities. Gradually, Moldovan became the sole label for the language: a situation that proved useful to those who wished for a cultural separation of Bessarabia from Romania. Although referring to another historical period, Kl. Heitmann stated that the "theory of two languages — Romanian and Moldovan — was served both in Moscow as well as in Chişinău to combat the nationalistic veleities of the Republic of Moldova, being, in fact, an action against Romanian nationalism". (Heitmann, 1965). The objective of the Russian language policies in Bessarabia was the dialectization of the Romanian language. A. Arţimovici, official of the Education Department based in Odessa, wrote a letter, dated 11 February 1863, to the Minister of Public Instructions stating: "I have the opinion that it will be hard to stop the Romanian population of Bessarabia using the language of the neighbouring principalities, where the concentrated Romanian population may develop the language based on its Latin elements, not good for Slavic language. The government's directions pertaining to this case aim to make a new dialect in Bessarabia, more closely based on Slavic language, will be, as it will be seen, of no use: we cannot direct the teachers to teach a language that will soon be dead in Moldova and Wallachia... parents will not want their children to learn a different language to the one they currently speak". Although some clerks, like Arţimovici, realised that the creation of a dialect apart from the Romanian spoken in the United Principalities could never be truly effective, most of them "with the aim of fulfilling governmental policy, tendentiously called the majority language Moldovan, even in the context where Romanian had always been used previously". ^[3] An Ausbausprache (also called an ausbau language) is a language which has a standard spelling, a standard grammar and a relatively wide and clear vocabulary (and is thus almost identical with a standard language). ... Map of Ukraine with Odesa highlighted. ... February 11 is the 42nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1863 (MDCCCLXIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

Beginnings of the Moldovan language

The territory of Bessarabia which forms most of the present-day Republic of Moldova, historically the eastern part of the principality of Moldavia, was annexed from the Ottoman Empire by Imperial Russia in 1812 and remained a Russian territory until the October Revolution of 1917. In 1918, Bessarabia was united with Romania. Image File history File links Romania_MASSR_1920. ... Image File history File links Romania_MASSR_1920. ... Motto Ø¯ÙˆÙ„Øª Ø§Ø¨Ø¯ Ù…Ø¯Øª Devlet-i Ebed-mÃ¼ddet (The Eternal State) Anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1680, see: list of territories Capital SÃ¶ÄŸÃ¼t (1299â€“1326) Bursa (1326â€“65) Edirne (1365â€“1453) Constantinople (Ä°stanbul, 1453â€“1922) Language(s) Ottoman Turkish Government Monarchy [[Category:Former monarchies}}|Ottoman Empire, 1299]] Sultans - 1281â€“1326... Imperial Russia is the term used to cover the period of history from the expansion of Russia under Peter the Great, through the expansion of the Russian Empire from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, to the deposal of Nicholas II of Russia, the last tsar, at the start... For the overture by Tchaikovsky, see 1812 Overture; For the wars, see War of 1812 (USA - United Kingdom) or Patriotic War of 1812 (France - Russia) For the Siberia Airlines plane crashed over the Black Sea on October 4, 2001, see Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 1812 was a leap year starting... â€œRed Octoberâ€ redirects here. ... 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ...

With the creation in 1924 of the Moldavian ASSR within the Ukrainian SSR, the Soviet authorities declared the variety spoken by the majority of Moldavians to be "Moldavian language", allegedly for the purpose of giving the region its own identity separate from Romania. ^[4] The Latin alphabet which had been used for writing the language for the past 80 years was changed to a version of the Cyrillic alphabet derived from the Russian variant. To justify this, the government noted that up until just 80 years prior, the language was usually written in Cyrillic. (See: Moldovan alphabet) 1924 (MCMXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar). ... Moldavian ASSR (Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Republic; Romanian: Republica Autonomă Socialistă Sovietică Moldovenească) was an autonomous region of the Ukrainian SSR between 12 October 1924 and 2 August 1940, encompassing Transnistria (now in Moldova) and parts which are now in Ukraine. ... State motto: ÐŸÑ€Ð¾Ð»ÐµÑ‚Ð°Ñ€Ñ– Ð²ÑÑ–Ñ… ÐºÑ€Ð°Ñ—Ð½, Ñ”Ð´Ð½Ð°Ð¹Ñ‚ÐµÑÑ! Official language None. ... Soviet redirects here. ... The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... The Moldovan alphabet is a Cyrillic alphabet derived from the Russian alphabet and developed for the Romanian / Moldovan language in the Soviet Union in the 1930s. ...

As a result of the transfers of the territory and the accompanying emigration of the population, including deportations of the ethnic Romanians and encouraged immigration from the rest of the USSR, by the mid-20th century, Bessarabia acquired large communities of Russian speakers among the Moldovan natives. Also, during Soviet rule, Moldovan speakers were encouraged to learn the Russian language as a prerequisite for access to higher education, social status and political power. All this contributed to proliferation of Russian loanwords in spoken Moldovan. Deportation of Romanians in the USSR was part of Stalins policy to cleance the borders of the USSR from foreign nationals (Ð¸Ð½Ð¾Ð½Ð°Ñ†Ð¸Ð¾Ð½Ð°Ð»ÑŒÐ½Ð¾ÑÑ‚ÐµÐ¹). The deported were typically moved to the so-called special settlements (ÑÐ¿ÐµÑ†Ð¿Ð¾ÑÐµÐ»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ), see Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union. ...

Romanizators and Originalists

At these times there were discussions between the supporters ("Romanizators" or "Romanists") and opponents ("Originalists") of the convergence of Moldavian and Romanian languages.

In particular, Originalists strove to base the literary Moldavian language on local dialects. Neologisms were created to cover technical areas that had no native Moldavian equivalent. As a result, textbooks, e.g., in botany or physics were barely readable to the uninitiated. Pinguicula grandiflora Example of a Cross Section of a Stem [1] Botany is the scientific study of plant life. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ...

In February 1932, Moldovan communists received a directive from the Communist Party of Ukraine to switch Moldovan writing to the Latin alphabet. This was part of the massive campaign in the USSR of latinization of the alphabets of lesser nationalities, based on the theory of Soviet linguist Nikolai Marr postulating the convergence to a single world language, expected to be a means of communication in the future classless society (communism). This directive was passively sabotaged by the "originalist" majority, until Stanislav Kosior (General Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party) and some Moldovan communists visited Stalin — who reportedly insisted on faster latinization with the ultimate goal of the convergence of Moldavian and Romanian cultures, hinting at the possibility that in future, Moldova and Romania would be reunited. Nevertheless, resistance to Romanization persisted, and after 1933, a number of prominent "originalists" were repressed, their books destroyed, and their neologisms banned. The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. ... Nikolay Yakovlevich Marr (1864-1934) was a controversial Soviet scholar whose monogenetic theory of language constituted the officially approved ideology of Soviet linguists until 1950, when Joseph Stalin personally slammed it as anti-scientific. ... Communism is an ideology that seeks to establish a classless, stateless social organization based on common ownership of the means of production. ... StanisÅ‚aw Kosior Trofim Lysenko speaking at the Kremlin in 1935. ... The term General Secretary (alternatively First Secretary) denotes a leader of various unions, parties or associations. ... Iosif (usually anglicized as Joseph) Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин), original name Ioseb Jughashvili (Georgian: იოსებ ჯუღაშვი&#4314...

After the infamous February-March (1937) VKP(b) Central Committee Plenum, which escalated the Great Purge, both Romanizators and Originalists were declared "imperialist spies": Originalists, because they sabotaged the Latinization, and Romanizators, because they were "agents of boyar Romania" ("Боярская Румыния"). For other usage of the initials CPSU see CPSU (disambiguation). ... Central Committee most commonly refers to the central executive unit of a communist party, whether ruling or non-ruling. ... Plenum may refer to: the antithesis of a vacuum; in other words, completely filled space. ... The Great Purge (Russian: , transliterated Bolshaya chistka) is the name given to campaigns of political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union orchestrated by Joseph Stalin during the late 1930s. ... A boyar (also spelled bojar) or bolyarin was a member of the highest rank of the feudal Russian, Romanian and Bulgarian aristocracy, second only to the ruling princes, from the tenth through the seventeenth century. ...

In February 1938, the Moldavian communists issued a declaration transferring Moldavian writing to the Cyrillic alphabet once again, which in August 1939 was made into the law of the republic. The motivation was that the Latinization was used by "bourgeois-nationalist elements" to "distantance the Moldavian populace from the Ukrainian and Russian ones, with the ultimate goal of the separation of Soviet Moldavia from the USSR". Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... Bourgeois at the end of the thirteenth century. ...

Moldovan in Soviet Moldova

In June 1940, twenty-two years after the union with Romania, the Soviet Union annexed Bessarabia. A year later, in 1941, Romania invaded the Soviet Union as part of Operation Barbarossa and retook Bessarabia, along with the territory between the Dniester and Bug rivers. These territories were taken back by the Soviet Union 3 years later in 1944, and remained under Soviet administration until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... For the movie, see 1941 (film). ... Combatants Germany, Romania, Finland, Italy, Hungary, Slovakia Soviet Union Commanders Adolf Hitler Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb Fedor von Bock Gerd von Rundstedt C.G.E. Mannerheim Giovanni Messe, CSIR Italo Gariboldi, ARMIR Joseph Stalin Kliment Voroshilov Semyon Timoshenko Fyodor Kuznetsov Dmitry Pavlov Ivan Tyulenev Ivan Konev Semyon Budyonny Georgy Zhukov... The Dniester (Ukrainian: translit. ... The Southern Buh, Bug, or Boh River (Південний Буг, Pivdennyi Buh in Ukrainian; Hipanis in ancient Greek) is entirely located in Ukraine. ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... The rise of Gorbachev Although reform stalled between 1964–1982, the generational shift gave new momentum for reform. ... Year 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the 1991 Gregorian calendar). ...

In 1956, during the rehabilitation of the victims of Stalinist repression, a special report was issued about the state of the Moldavian language, which stated, in part, that the discussions of 1920-30s between the two tendencies were mostly non-scientific, since in the republic there were very few linguists, and that the grammar and the basic lexicon of literary Romanian and Moldovan languages are identical, while differences are secondary and nonessential. Once again, the planned convergence of the Romanian and Moldovan languages was approved, bearing in mind the political situation in the People's Republic of Romania. Rehabilitation in the context of Soviet or Russian topics is often a false friend used to translate the Russian term reabilitatsiya as applied to convicted persons. ... After World War II, the Soviet Union pressed for inclusion of Romanias heretofore negligible Communist Party in the post-war government, while non-communist political leaders were steadily eliminated from political life. ...

In the 1970s a new generation of Soviet linguists argued about Moldovan being a different language. For example, one linguist, Iliasenco compared the Romanian and Moldovan translations of a Brezhnev speech from Russian and used them as a proof for being two difference languages. Linguist Michael Bruchis look at this claim and noticed that all the words of both translations are found in both dictionaries. Also, Iliasenco implied "Moldovan" preferred synthetic while "Romanian" preferred analytic syntagms. However, this claim was also proven wrong, as a book of Nicolae Ceauşescu (the president of Romania) uses mostly "Moldovan" synthetic syntagms, while a book by Ivan Bodyul (the secretary of the Moldavian SSR) uses mostly "Romanian" analytic syntagms. Bruchis' conclusion was that both translations were within the limits of Romanian language.^[5] Nicolae CeauÅŸescu (IPA , in English, sometimes (and erroneously) ) (January 26, 1918â€“December 25, 1989) was the leader of Romania from 1965 until December 1989. ... State motto: ÐŸÑ€Ð¾Ð»ÐµÑ‚Ð°Ñ€ÑŒ Ð´Ð¸Ð½ Ñ‚Ð¾Ð°Ñ‚Ðµ Ñ†ÑÑ€Ð¸Ð»Ðµ, ÑƒÐ½Ð¸Ñ†ÑŒ-Ð²Ñ! Official language None. ...

Reversion to Latin script, and beyond

In 1989, the contemporary Romanian version of the Latin alphabet was made the official script of the Moldavian SSR. Year 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar). ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

After the independence of Moldova in 1991, "Romanian" was declared the official language, but the 1994 constitution changed the name of the language to "Moldovan". Year 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the 1991 Gregorian calendar). ...

When in 1992 the Romanian Academy changed the official orthography of Romania, the Institute of Linguistics at the ASM did not make the same changes, and the official orthography continued as before (for more detail, see below). Year 1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar). ...

A 1996 attempt by Moldovan president Mircea Snegur to change the official language to "Romanian" was dismissed by the Moldovan Parliament as promoting Romanian expansionism. Year 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar). ... Mircea Ion Snegur (b. ...

In 2002, the government of Moldova attempted to make the Russian language co-official, along with Moldovan, as Russian was the mother tongue of a significant proportion of the population. It was declared to be a mandatory foreign language in schools. This created a wave of indignation among the Moldovan-speaking majority of the population, and rallies against this decision were organized in Chişinău and other major cities, which contributed to the failure of the motion. They were largely attended by students and youths^{[citation needed]}. Just as the population of Russian speakers in the Baltic States has been declining over the past 15 years, so has that of Moldova. For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ...

In 2003, a Romanian-Moldovan dictionary (Dicţionar Moldovenesc-Românesc (2003), Vasile Stati) was published. The linguists of the Romanian Academy in Romania declared that all the Moldovan words are also Romanian words, although some of its contents are disputed as being neologism resulting from Russification. In Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences' Institute of Linguistics, Ion Bărbuţă, described the dictionary as "an absurdity, serving political purposes". Stati, however, accused both of promoting "Romanian colonialism". Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 2003 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Vasile Stati is a Moldovan politician and linguist. ... The Romanian Academy (Romanian: Academia Română) is a cultural forum founded in Romania in 1866. ... Academy of Sciences of Moldova (romanian Academia de ÅžtiinÅ£e a Moldovei) is the main scientific centre of the Republic of Moldova, which coordinates research in all areas of science and technology. ...

In the 2004 census, out of the 3,383,332 people living in Moldova, 16.5% (558,508) chose Romanian as their mother tongue, whereas 60% chose Moldovan. While 40% of all urban Romanian/Moldovan speakers chose Romanian as their mother tongue, in the country side hardly each 7th Romanian/Moldovan speaker indicated Romanian as his mother tongue.^[6] The 2004 Republic of Moldova Census was carried October 5â€“October 12, 2004. ... Crowded Shibuya, Tokyo shopping district An urban area is an area with an increased density of human-created structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it. ...

Notes

Europe-Asia Studies is an academic peer-reviewed journal published 8 times a year by Routledge on behalf of the Institute of Central and East European Studies, University of Glasgow, and continuing (since vol. ...

References

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Histories of the world’s languages

Bulgarian · Chinese · Czech · Danish · Dutch · English · Esperanto · French: Standard/Quebec · German: Low/High · Greek · Hungarian · Hindi · Icelandic · Interlingua · Irish · Latin · Macedonian · Mandarin · Moldovan · Persian · Portuguese · Russian · Scots · Slovak · Spanish · Swedish · Urdu Springer Science+Business Media or Springer is a worldwide publishing company based in Germany. ... Grigore Ureche (1590 - 1647) was a Moldavian chronicler who wrote on Moldavian history in his LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Äƒrii Moldovei (The Chronicles of the land of Moldavia), covering the period from 1359 to 1594. ... Miron Costin (1633 - 1691) was a Moldavian politician and chronicler, his main work: LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢ÄƒrÃ®i Moldovei (The Chronicles of the land of Moldavia) continues that of Grigore Ureche describing the period from, 1594 till 1660 and was published in 1675. ... Dimitrie Cantemir (-Romanian, Ð”Ð¼Ð¸Ñ‚Ñ€Ð¸Ð¹ ÐšÐ°Ð½Ñ‚ÐµÐ¼Ð¸Ñ€ in Russian, KantemiroÄŸlu in Turkish, Kantymir in Polish), (October 26, 1673 - 1723) was a Moldavian Voivode (Prince; March-April 1693 and 1710-1711), philosopher, historian, composer, linguist and scholar. ... Historical linguistics (also diachronic linguistics or comparative linguistics) is primarily the study of the ways in which languages change over time. ... This list of languages is alphabetical by English name. ... English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers and Roman auxiliary troops from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the Northern Netherlands. ... The constructed international auxiliary language Esperanto was developed in the 1870s and 80s by L. L. Zamenhof, and first published in 1887. ... French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended from Latin) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in Northern France. ... Quebec French is substantially different in pronunciation and vocabulary to the French of Europe and that of Frances Second Empire colonies in Africa and Asia. ... The history of Low German (or Low Saxon) as separate from common West Germanic is less clear than in the High German case. ... The history of the German language as separate from common West Germanic begins in the Early Middle Ages with the High German consonant shift. ... The history of Hindi, a major language of India. ... The History of Interlingua began in the 1920s and concerns the formation of the language itself as well as its community of speakers. ... The Duenos inscription, from the 6th century BC, is the second-earliest known Latin text. ... Standard Mandarin is the official Chinese spoken language used by the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), Malaysia and Singapore. ... The relevance of particular information in (or previously in) this article or section is disputed. ... Speakers of Northumbrian Old English settled in south eastern Scotland in the 7th century, at which time Celtic Brythonic was spoken in the south of Scotland to a little way north of the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde, and Pictish was spoken further north: almost nothing is... The history of Urdu (Ø§Ø±Ø¯Ùˆ) is a fascinating story involving history, linguistics, ethnicity, religion, and national identity. ...

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